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61 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
62 κατά
κατά [(A)][ κᾰτᾰ], poet. καταί acc. to A.D.Synt.309.28, found in Compds., as καταιβάτης: Prep. with gen. or acc.:—A downwards.A WITH GEN.,I denoting motion from above, down from, βῆ δὲ κατ' Οὐλύμποιο καρήνων, κατ' Ἰδαίων ὀρέων, βαλέειν κ. πέτρης, Il. 22.187, 16.677, Od.14.399;κατ' οὐρανοῦ εἰλήλουθας Il.6.128
; καθ' ἵππων ἀΐξαντε ib. 232;δάκρυα.. κ. βλεφάρων Χαμάδις ῥέε 17.438
;ἵεις σαυτὸν κ. τοῦ τείχους Ar.V. 355
;ἁλόμενοι κ. τῆς πέτρας X.An.4.2.17
;κ. τῶν πετρῶν ὦσαι Pl.Phdr. 229c
;κ. κρημνῶν ῥιφέντες Id.Lg. 944a
:— for κατ' ἄκρης v. ἄκρα:Μοῖσα κ. στόματος Χέε νέκταρ Theoc.7.82
(but perh. in sense 11.1).1 down upon or over,κ. Χθονὸς ὄμματα πήξας Il.3.217
; of the dying, κατὰ.. ὀφθαλμῶν κέχυτ' ἀχλύς a cloud settled upon the eyes, 5.696, cf. 20.321;τὸν δὲ κατ' ὀφθαλμῶν.. νὺξ ἐκάλυψεν 13.580
; φᾶρος κὰκ κεφαλῆς εἴρυσσε down over.., Od.8.85; [ κόπρος]κ. σπείους κέχυτο.. πολλή 9.330
; ὕδωρ κ. Χειρός, v. Χείρ; μύρον κ. τῆς κεφαλῆς καταχέαντες Pl.R. 398a;νάρκη μου κ. τῆς Χειρὸς καταχεῖται Ar.V. 713
;κ. τῆς τραπέζης καταπάσας τέφραν Id.Nu. 177
; ξαίνειν κ. τοῦ νώτου πολλὰς [ πληγάς] D.19.197;ἐσκεδασμένοι κ. τῆς Χώρας Plb.1.17.10
;οἱ κ. νώτου πονοῦντες Id.3.19.7
;ῥόπαλον ἤλασα κὰκ κεφαλῆς Theoc.25.256
; κ. κόρρης παίειν, = ἐπὶ κόρρης, Luc.Cat.12, al.b Geom., along, upon, πίπτειν κατ' [ εὐθείας] Archim.Sph.Cyl.1 Def.2; αἱ γωνίαι κ. κύκλων περιφερειῶν ἐνεχθήσονται will move on.., ib.1.23, al., cf. Aristarch.Sam.1.2 down into,νέκταρ στάξε κ. ῥινῶν Il.19.39
; of a dart,κ. γαίης ᾤχετο 13.504
, etc.; ;ψυχὴ κ. Χθονὸς ᾤχετο 23.100
; κ. γᾶς underground, Pi.O.2.59; κατ' ὕδατος under water, Hdt.2.149; [ ποταμὸς]δὺς κ. τῆς γῆς Pl.Phd.
113c, cf. Ti. 25d;κ. γῆς σύμεναι A.Eu. 1007
(anap.); κ. Χθονὸς κρύψαι to bury. S.Ant.24; ὁ κ. γῆς one dead and buried, X.Cyr.4.6.5;οἱ κ. Χθονὸς θεοί A.Pers. 689
, etc.;θεοὶ<οἱ> κ. γᾶς Id.Ch. 475
(lyr.), etc.; so κ. θαλάσσης ἀφανίζεσθαι, καταδεδυκέναι, Hdt.7.6, 235; also βᾶτε κατ' ἀντιθύρων go down by or through.., S.El. 1433.3 later, towards a point, τοξεύειν κ. σκοποῦ to shoot at, Hdn.6.7.8;κατ' ἰχνῶν τινος ὁδεύειν Luc.Rh.Pr.9
.4 of vows or oaths, by,καθ' ἡμῶν ὀμνύναι D.29.26
, cf. 54.38;ἐπιορκήσασα κ. τῶν παίδων Lys.32.13
; esp. of the victims, etc., over which the oath is taken, ὀμνυόντων τὸν ἐπιχώριον ὅρκον καθ' ἱερῶν τελείων Foed. ap. Th.5.47, cf. Arist.Ath.29.5, Foed.Delph.Pell.1A9, etc.;κ. τῶν νικητηρίων εὐξάμενοι D.Ep.1.16
; also κατ' ἐξωλείας ὀμνύναι to imprecate destruction on oneself, Id.21.119;κατ' ἐξ. ἐπιορκεῖν Id.57.22
.b to make a vow towards, i.e. make a vow of offering..,κ. Χιλίων εὐχὴν ποιήσασθαι Χιμάρων Ar. Eq. 660
.5 in hostile sense, against, A.Ch. 221, S.Aj. 304, etc.;κ. πάντων φύεσθαι D.18.19
; esp. of judges giving sentence against a person, A.Th. 198, S.Aj. 449, etc.;ψεύδεσθαι κατά τινος Lys.22.7
;λέγειν κατά τινος κακά S.Ph.65
, cf. X.HG1.5.2, etc.; of speeches, [ λόγος] κ. Μειδίου, etc. (opp. πρὸς Λεπτίνην, in reply to L.);δῶρα εἰληφέναι κατά τινος Din.3.6
, cf. 18.6 of Time, for,μισθοῦν κ. εἴκοσι ἐτῶν IG12.94.37
; κ. βίου for life, Tab.Heracl.1.50;κὰπ παντὸς Χρόνοι IG9(2).517.20
([place name] Larissa ) (butκ. παντὸς τοῦ Χρόνου σκέψασθε D. 22.72
falls under 7);κ. παντὸς τοῦ αἰῶνος ἀείμνηστον Lycurg.7
.7 in respect of, concerning,μὴ κατ' ἀνθρώπων σκόπει μόνον τοῦτο Pl. Phd. 70d
;κ. τῶν ἄλλων τεχνῶν τοιαῦτα εὑρήσομεν Id.Sph. 253b
; οἱ κ. Δημοσθένους ἔπαινοι praises bestowed on D., Aeschin.3.50; ἐρεῖν or λέγειν κατά τινος to say of one, Pl.Ap. 37b, Prt. 323b, etc.;εἰ κ. θηλείας φαίης A.D.Synt.198.10
;εἴπερ ἕν γέ τι ζητεῖς κ. πάντων Pl.Men. 73d
, cf. 74b;ὅπερ εἴρηται καθόλου κ. πασῶν τῶν πολιτειῶν Arist.Pol. 1307b2
; freq. in the Logic of Arist., κατά τινος λέγεσθαι or κατηγορεῖσθαι to be predicated of.., Int.16b10, Cat. 1b10, etc.; καταφῆσαί (or ἀποφῆσαί) τι κατά τινος to affirm (or deny) of.., Metaph. 1007b21; soκ. τινὸς ὑπάρχειν Int. 16b13
: and in Adv. καθόλου (q.v.).B WITH Acc.,I of motion downwards, κ. ῥόον down stream, Od.14.254, Il.12.33; opp. ἀνὰ τὸν ποταμόν, Hdt.2.96; κ. τὸν ποταμόν, κ. τὸ ὑδάτιον, Id.1.194, Pl.Phdr. 229a; κατ' οὖρον ἰέναι, ῥεῖν, down (i.e. with) the wind, A.Th. 690, S.Tr. 468; κ. πνεῦμα, κατ' ἄνεμον ἵστασθαι to leeward, Arist.HA 535a19, 560b13, Dsc.4.153.2 with or without signf. of motion, on, over, throughout a space, freq. in Hom.,καθ' Ἑλλάδα καὶ μέσον Ἄργος Od.1.344
; κατ' Ἀχαΐδα, κ. Τροίην, Il.11.770, 9.329;κατ' ἠερόεντα κέλευθα Od.20.64
; κ. πόντον, κῦμα, ὕλην, Il.4.276, 6.136, 3.151;κ. πτόλιν Od.2.383
; κ. ἄστυ, οἶκον, Il.18.286, 6.56; κ. ὅμιλον, στρατόν, 3.36, 1.229; κ. κλισίας τε νέας τε ib. 487;πόλεμον κάτα δακρυόεντα 17.512
; κ. ὑσμίνην, μόθον, κλόνον, 5.84, 18.159, 16.331;τὸ ὕδωρ κ. τοὺς ταφροὺς ἐχώρει X.Cyr.7.5.16
, etc. (in later Gr.of motion to a place,κ. τὴν Ἰταλίαν Zos.3.1
);καθ' Ἑλλάδα A.Ag. 578
;κ. πτόλιν Id.Th.6
;αἱ σκηναὶ αἱ κ. τὴν ἀγοράν D.18.169
;τὰ κατ' ἀγροὺς Διονύσια Aeschin.1.157
, etc.;κ. τὸ προάστιον Hdt.3.54
;τύμβον κατ' αὐτόν A. Th. 528
, cf. Supp. 869 (lyr.): Geom., at a point, Euc.1.1,al.; τέμνειν [ σφαῖραν] κ. κύκλον in a circle, Archim.Aren.1.17; also, in the region of,οἱ κ. τὸν ἥλιον γινόμενοι ἀστέρες Gem.12.7
: freq. in Hom. in describing the place of a wound, βαλεῖν κ. στῆθος, γαστέρα, etc., Il.11.108, 16.465, al.;νύξε κ. δεξιὸν ὦμον 5.46
;οὔτασε κατ' ἰσχίον 11.339
; so βαλεῖν κατ' ἀσπίδα, κ. ζωστῆρα, 5.537, 615; βέλος κ. καίριον ἦλθεν struck upon a vital part, v.l. in 11.439: metaph.,ἄχος κ. φρένα τύψε 19.125
: generally, κ. φρένα καὶ κατὰ θυμόν in heart and soul, 4.163, al.3 opposite, over against,κ. Σινώπην πόλιν Hdt.1.76
, cf. 2.148, Th.2.30, etc.;ἀνὴρ κατ' ἄνδρα A.Th. 505
;μολὼν.. μοι κ. στόμα Id.Ch. 573
;κατ' ὀφθαλμούς τινος LXX 2 Ki.12.11
;οἱ μὲν Ἀθηναῖοι κ. Λακεδαιμονίους ἐγένοντο X.HG4.2.18
; κατ' Ἀχαιοὺς ἀντετάχθησαν ibid.;ἐν συμποσίῳ.., περίμενε, μέχρις ἂν γένηται κατὰ σέ Epict.Ench. 15
, cf. D.L.7.108.II distributively, of a whole divided into parts, κρῖν' ἄνδρας κ. φῦλα, κ. φρήτρας by tribes, by clans, Il.2.362; κ. σφέας μαχέονται by themselves, separately, ib. 366, cf. Th.4.64;ἐσκήνουν κ. τάξεις X.Cyr.2.1.25
;αὐτὴ καθ' αὑτήν A.Pr. 1013
; κ. κώμας κατοικημένοι in separate villages, Hdt.1.96; κατ' ἑωυτοὺς ἕκαστοι ἐτράποντο each to his own home, Id.5.15; κ. πόλεις ἀποπλεῦσαι, διαλυθῆναι, Th.1.89, 3.1:στρατιὰ κ. ἕνδεκα μέρη κεκοσμημένη Pl.Phdr. 247a
; laterοἱ κατ' ἄνδρα λόγοι PLond.2.259.72
(i A. D.), cf. D.Chr.32.6, etc.;ἡ κατ' οἰκίαν ἀπογραφή PLond.3.904.20
(ii A.D.), etc.; κατ' ἔπος word by word, Ar.Ra. 802; κατ' ὄνομα individually, 3 Ep.Jo.15, etc.; παῖδα κ. κρήνην at each fount a boy, Lyr.Alex.Adesp.37.13, cf. POxy 2108.9 (iii A.D.).2 of Time, καθ' ἡμέραν, κατ' ἦμαρ, day by day, daily, v. ἡμέρα 111; καθ' ἑνιαυτόν, κατ' ἔτος, Test.Epict.6.24, Ev.Luc.2.41, etc.;κ. μῆνα POxy.275.18
(i A.D.).3 of Numbers, by so many at a time, καθ' ἕνα one at a time, individually, Hdt.7.104 (later detailed list,PTeb.
47.34 (ii B.C.), etc.); κ. μίαν τε καὶ δύο by ones and twos, Hdt.4.113; ; ; κ. τὰς πέντε καὶ εἴκοσι μνᾶς πεντακοσίας δραχμὰς εἰσφέρειν to pay 500 drachmae on every 25 minae, D.27.7;κ. διακοσίας καὶ τριακοσίας ὁμοῦ τι τάλαντον διακεχρημένον
in separate sums of and 300 drachmae, Id.27.11; of ships, κ. μίαν (sc. ναῦν) in column, Th.2.90;κ. μίαν ναῦν ἐπιτάττειν Plb.1.26.12
, cf. Th.2.84: Geom., μετρεῖν, μετρεισθαι κατά.. , measure, be measured a certain number of times, Euc.7 Def.8,9,al.; μετρεῖν κ. τὰς ἐν τῷ Β μονάδας as many times as there are units in B, Id.7.16.III of direction towards an object or purpose, πλεῖν κ. πρῆξιν on a business, for or after a matter, Od. 3.72, 9.253; πλάζεσθαι κ. ληΐδα to rove in search of booty, 3.106; κ.ληΐην ἐκπλῶσαι Hdt.2.152
;ἔβη κ. δαῖτα Il.1.424
;ἐπιδημεῖν κατ' ἐμπορίαν IG22.141.32
, cf. Arist.Ath.11.1; κ. Χρέος τινὸς ἐλθεῖν come to seek his help, consult him, Od.11.479, etc.;ἵεται κ. τὴν φωνήν Hdt.2.70
; κ. θέαν ἥκειν to have come for the purpose of seeing, Th.6.31;κ. πλοῦν ἤδη ὤν Id.7.31
;καθ' ἁρπαγὴν ἐσκεδασμένοι X.An.3.5.2
; κ. τί; for what purpose? why? Ar.Nu. 239.2 of pursuit,κ. πόδας τινὸς ἐλαύνειν Hdt.9.89
; simply κ. τινά after him, Id.1.84;ἰέναι κ. τοὺς ἄλλους Id.9.53
; κατ' ἴχνος on the track, S.Aj.32, A.Ag. 695 (lyr.);ὥσπερ κατ' ἴχνη κ. τὰ νῦν εἰρημένα ζῆν Pl.Phd. 115b
.3 Geom., in adverbial phrases, κ. κάθετον in the same vertical line, Archim. Quadr.6; κατ' εὐθεῖάν τινι in the same straight line with.., Papp. 58.7.IV of fitness or conformity, in accordance with,κ. θυμόν Il.1.136
; καθ' ἡμέτερον νόον after our liking, 9.108;κ. νόον πρήξωμεν Hdt.4.97
; κ. μοῖραν as is meet and right, Il.1.286; κατ' αἶσαν, κ. κόσμον, 10.445, 472;κ. νόμον Hes.Th. 417
;κὰν νόμον Pi.O.8.78
;κ. τοὺς νόμους IG22.1227.15
; αἰτίαν καθ' ἥντινα for what cause, A.Pr. 228; κατ' ἔχθραν, κ. φθόνον, for (i.e. because of) hatred, envy, Id.Supp. 336, Eu. 686; καθ' ἡδονήν τι δρᾶν, ποιεῖν, do as one pleases, Th. 2.37,53;κ. τὸ ἔχθος τὸ Θεσσαλῶν Hdt.8.30
, cf. 9.38; κ. φιλίαν, κατ' ἔχθος, Th.1.60, 103, etc.; κατ' ἄλλο μὲν οὐδέν, ὅτι δέ.. for no other reason but that.., Pl.Phdr. 229d; κ. δύναμιν to the best of one's power, Hdt.3.142, etc. ( κὰδ δ. Hes.Op. 336); κ. τρόπον διοικεῖν arrange suitably, Isoc.2.6,al.; κατ' εὐνοίην with goodwill, Hdt.6.108;κ. τὰ παρηγγελμένα X.An.2.2.8
, etc.; in quotations, according to,κατ' Αἰσχύλον Ar.Th. 134
;κ. Πίνδαρον Pl.Phdr. 227b
, etc.2 in relation to, concerning, τὰ κατ' ἀνθρώπους = τὰ ἀνθρώπινα, A.Eu. 930, 310;τὰ κ. τὸν Τέλλον Hdt.1.31
; τὰ κ. τὴν Κύρου τελευτήν ib. 214; τὰ κ. πόλεμον military matters, Aeschin.1.181; αἱ κ. τὴν πόλιν οἰκονομίαι (opp. αἱ πολεμικαὶ πράξεις ) the management of public affairs, Din. 1.97;τὰ κ. τὰς θυσίας SIG506.7
(Delph., iii B.C.); so τὸ κατ' ὑμέας as far as concerns you, Hdt.7.158; τὸ κατ' ἐμέ as far as I am concerned, D.18.247; κ. τοῦτο in this respect, Hdt.5.3, etc.; κ. ταὐτά in the same way, Id.2.20; καθ' ὅτι so far as, Th.1.82, etc.3 in Comparisons, corresponding with, after the fashion of, κρομύοιο λοπὸν κ. like the coat of an onion, dub. in Od.19.233;μέλος κ. Φοίνισσαν ἐμπολὰν πέμπεται Pi.P.2.67
; κ. Μιθραδάτην answering to the description of him, Hdt.1.121; τὴν ἰδέαν κ. πνιγέα like an oven in appearance, Ar.Av. 1001; κηδεῦσαι καθ' ἑαυτόν to marry in one's own rank of life, A.Pr. 890;οὐ κατ' ἄνθρωπον φρονεῖν Id.Th. 425
;λέγω κατ' ἄνδρα, μὴ θεόν, σέβειν ἐμέ Id.Ag. 925
; οὐ κατὰ σέ none of your sort, Chionid.1 (but ἵνα προσείπω σε κατὰ σέ to address you in your own style, Pl.Grg. 467c);τὸ κατ' ἐμὲ καὶ οὐ κατ' ἐμέ Arr.Epict.1.28.5
;οὐ κ. τὰς Μειδίου λῃτουργίας D.21.169
;ἡ βασιλεία κ. τὴν ἀριστοκρατίαν ἐστί Arist.Pol. 1310b3
: freq. after a [comp] Comp.,μέζων ἢ κατ' ἀνθρώπων φύσιν Hdt.8.38
, cf. Pl.Ap. 20e, etc.; μείζω ἢ κ. δάκρυα too great for tears, Th.7.75; ἤθεα βαθύτερα ἢ κ. Θρήϊκας morerefined than was common among the Thracians, Hdt.4.95.V by the favour of a god, etc.,κ. δαίμονα Pi.O.9.28
, cf. P.8.68;κ. θεῖον Ar.Eq. 147
codd. (κ. θεὸν Cobet);κ. τύχην τινά D.48.24
.VI of round numbers (v. infr. v11.2), nearly, about,κ. Χίλια ἑξακόσια ἔτεα 1600
years more or less, Hdt.2.145, cf. 6.44, al.; κατ' οὐδέν next to nothing, Pl.Plt. 302b.VII of Time, during or in the course of a period,κ. τὸν πόλεμον Hdt.7.137
; καθ' ἡμέραν, κατ' ἦμαρ, by day, A. Ch. 818, Ag. 668;κατ' εὐφρόνην Id.Pers. 221
; κ. Χειμῶνα, κ. θερείαν, PLille 1r14 (iii B.C.), PTeb.27.60 (ii B.C.).2 about,κ. τὸν αὐτὸν τοῦτον Χρόνον Hdt.3.131
, etc.;κ. τοὺς θανάτους τῶν βασιλέων Id.6.58
; esp. with names of persons, κ. Ἄμασιν βασιλεύοντα about the time of Amasis, Id.2.134;κ. τὸν κ. Κροῖσον Χρόνον Id.1.67
; οἱ κατ' ἐκεῖνον (sc. τὸν Ἀλκιβιάδην)ὑμέτεροι πρόγονοι D.21.146
(v.l. κατ' ἐκ. τὸν Χρόνον); κ. τοὺς Ἡρακλείδας X.Lac.10.8
; οἱ καθ' ἑαυτοὺς ἄνθρωποι their contemporaries, Id.Mem.3.5.10.3 καθ' ἕτος this year, SIG 284.24 (Erythrae, iv B.C.), OGI458.64 (i B.C./iA.D.), CIG3641b5,38 ([place name] Lampsacus).VIII periphrastically with abstract Subst., κατ' ἡσυχίην, κ. τάχος, = ἡσύχως, ταχέως, Hdt.1.9,7.178; κ. κράτος by force, X.HG2.1.19, etc.; κ. μέρος partially, Arist.Po. 1456a16; individually, severally, Pl.Tht. 157b, Lg. 835a; κ. φύσιν naturally, Hdt. 2.38, Pl.R. 428e; κ. τὴν τέχνην skilfully, Luc.DDeor.20.7; οὔτ' ἐμοὶ λέγειν καθ' ἡδονήν [ ἐστι] it is not pleasant for me to tell you, A.Pr. 263.C Position: κατά may follow both its cases, and is then written with anastr. κάτα, as Il.20.221, etc.; so also in tmesi, when it follows its Verb, 17.91.D abs. as ADV. in all the above senses, esp. like κάτω, downwards, from above, down, freq. in Hom.I downwards, down, as inκαταβαίνω, καταβάλλω, κατάκειμαι, καταπέμπω, καταπίπτω, καταπλέω 1
.III against, in hostile sense (cf. A.11.5), as in καταγιγνώσκω, κατακρίνω, καταψηφίζομαι: more rarely with a Subst., as καταδίκη.IV back, back again, as inκάτειμι, καταπορεύομαι, καταπλέω 11
.V freq. only to strengthen the notion of the simple word, as in κατακόπτω, κατακτείνω, καταφαγεῖν, etc.; also with Substs. and Adjs., as in κατάδηλος, κάτοξος.VI sts. to give a trans. force to an intr. Verb, our be-, as in καταθρηνέω bewail.VII implying waste or consumption, as in καταλειτουργέω, καθιπποτροφέω, καταζευγοτροφέω: and generally in a disparaging sense, as in .F κατά as a Prep. was shortd. in some dialects, esp. in [dialect] Ep., into κάγ, κάδ, κάκ, κάμ, κάν, κάπ, κάρ, κάτ, before γ, δ, κ, μ, ν, π (or φ) , ῥ, τ (or θ), respectively; see these forms in their own places. Mss. and the older Edd. join the Prep. with the following word, as καγγόνυ, καδδέ, κακκεφαλῆς, καππεδίον, καπφάλαρα, καρρόον, καττάδε, καττόν, etc. In compd. Verbs, κατά sts. changes into καβ, καλ, καρ, κατ, before β, λ, ρ, θ, respectively, as κάββαλε, κάλλιπε, καρρέζουσα, κάτθανε; and before στ, σχ, the second syll. sts. disappears, as in καστορνῦσα, κάσχεθε, as also in the [dialect] Dor. forms καβαίνων, κάπετον.------------------------------------κατά [(B)], -
63 carry
ˈkærɪ
1. гл.
1) а) везти, перевозить The ship could carry 70 passengers. ≈ Судно могло перевезти 70 пассажиров. б) нести;
носить;
относить;
переносить He was carrying a briefcase. ≈ Он нес портфель. The bellhops carried the luggage upstairs. ≈ Коридорный отнес вещи наверх. Insects carry the pollen from plant to plant. ≈ Насекомые переносят пыльцу с одного цветка на другой. ∙ Syn: bear, bring, tote, fetch, haul, lug;
move, transport, transmit, convey, transfer, conduct
2) иметь при себе, носить с собой You have to carry a mobile so that they can call you in at any time. ≈ Вы должны всегда иметь при себе сотовый телефон, чтобы они могли дозвониться до вас в любое время.
3) носить, разносить( о болезни) The official number of people carrying the AIDS virus is low. ≈ Официальное число людей, зараженных вирусом спида, невелико. Frogs eat pests which destroy crops and carry diseases. ≈ Лягушки едят насекомых-вредителей, которые уничтожают урожай и разносят болезни.
4) нести на себе тяжесть, подпирать;
поддерживать, подкреплять The walls carry the weight of the roof. ≈ Стены несут на себе тяжесть крыши. The money will carry me through the week. ≈ Это деньги позволят мне продержаться неделю. Syn: support, sustain, maintain, bear, uphold, hold up, prop
5) приносить (доход, процент)
6) сообщать, передавать, распространять All the newspapers carried the story. ≈ Все газеты сообщили об этой истории. Syn: communicate, transmit, disseminate, publish, run
7) доводить( до какого-л. состояния, положения)
8) а) увлекать за собой, вести, руководить б) возвр. держаться;
вести себя
9) а) достигать;
доходить, доноситься;
долетать( о снаряде, звуке) ;
попадать в цель;
брать приступом (крепость и т. п.) б) добиваться, достигать цели The army carried everything before them and gained control of all the important towns in a few weeks. ≈ Армия исполнила все поставленные перед ней задачи и захватила все важнейшие города за одну неделю.
10) проводить;
принимать The bill was carried. ≈ Законопроект был принят.
11) влечь за собой to carry penalty ≈ влечь за собой наказание
12) продолжать, удлинять
13) торговать, продавать, поставлять;
иметь в наличии The shop carries only name brands. ≈ Магазин торгует только фирменными товарами. Syn: supply, stock, keep on hand, display, offer
14) содержать;
заключать The book carries many tables. ≈ В книге много таблиц. ∙ carry about carry along carry around carry away carry back carry before carry down carry forward carry off carry on carry on with carry out carry over carry through to carry smb. off his feet ≈ впечатлять to carry weight ≈ иметь вес, влияние to carry one ≈ (держать) один в уме - carry the day carry all before one carry everything before one
2. сущ.
1) а) переноска;
перевозка, транспортирование, транспортировка б) транспортное средство, средство для перевозки Syn: transport, conveyance
2) воен. положение 'на плечо'
3) дальнобойность( орудия) ;
дальность полета( снаряда;
мяча в гольфе)
4) амер., канад. волок( лодки) переноска;
перевозка дальнобойность (орудия) ;
дальность полета (снаряда) (спортивное) проводка( при гребле) (спортивное) поддержка( в фигурном катании) (военное) положение "на плечо" (шотландское) движение облаков (американизм) волок (математика) перенос (информатика) перенос разряд переноса нести, носить;
- to * a box on one's shoulder нести коробку на плече;
- to * a bag to the house принести сумку в дом;
- ahe was *ing a baby in her arms она несла ребенка на руках;
- a lift is licensed to * a certain number of persons в лифте разрешается подниматься только определенному числу людей;
- he went as fast as his legs could * him он удирал со всех ног;
- to * the war into the enemy's country переносить войну на территорию противника;
- to * back относить обратно, возвращать;
переноситься в прошлое;
- to * smth back to a remote past относить что-л далекому прошлому;
- let me * you back to the day when we first met разрешите напомнить вам день нашей первой встречи;
- that carries me back to my youth это переносит меня в дни моей молодости;
- to * down сносить (вниз) ;
- the body was carried down by the stream тело унесло вниз по течению;
- to * off увести, унести;
похитить;
- to * of a child похитить и унести ребенка;
- to * off a sentry( военное) снять часового вести, возить, перевозить;
- to * by rail перевозить по железной дороге;
- railways and ships * goods железные дороги и пароходы перевозят товары;
- this bicycle has carried me 500 miles на этом велосипеде я проехал 500 миль вести, привести;
- to * a ship to London привести корабль в Лондон;
- to * a horse to water повести лошадь на водопой;
- to * smb. before justice привлечь кого-л к суду, отдать кого-л в руки правосудия выдерживать транспортировку;
- this wine does not * well это вино портится от перевозки иметь при себе, носить;
- to * a watch носить часы;
- to * arms быть вооруженным, носить оружие;
- I never * a walking-stick я никогда не хожу с палкой;
- I never * much money about with me у меня никогда не бывает при себе много денег содержать, заключать;
- this book carries many tables в книге много таблиц;
- this article carries no information в этой статье не содержится никакой информации;
- to * an analogy быть аналогичным;
иметь - to * a wound иметь равнение - to * insurance быть застрахованным;
иметь страховой полис;
- to * a price стоить, иметь цену;
быть в цене;
- to * one (математика) (держать) один в уме;
- the hospital carries a good staff в госпитале хороший персонал;
- how many subjects did you * this term? сколько предметов у тебя было в этом семестре? нести на себе тяжесть, нагрузку;
поддерживать (о колоннах и т. п.) - to * the traffic выдерживать движение (о дороге) выдерживать, выносить;
- he khows how to * his liquor он умеет пить, не пьянея продолжать, удлинять;
доводить;
подводить;
- to * a wall right round a field обнести забором все поле поддерживать материально, оказывать финансовую помощь вести;
- to * the puck вести шайбу;
- to * the melody( американизм) вести мелодию влечь за собой;
- to * a penalty влечь за собой наказание;
- a dicision that carries another решение, влекущее за собой новое решение (американизм) торговать;
иметь в продаже, продавать, держать;
- this shop does not * fruit фрукты в этом магазине не продаются убирать (сено) ;
вывозить (с поля) передавать, проводить (звуки) ;
- pipes * water вода подается по трубам;
- wires * sound звук передается по проводам передавать;
разносить (новости) ;
- he carried the news to everyone in the village он разнес эту новость по всей деревне проводить (электричество) прокладывать (трубы) достигать;
долетать;
- our guns wouldn't * as far as the enemy ships наши снаряды не долетали до кораблей противника доноситься (о звуке) ;
- the sound of the firing carried many miles выстрелы были слышны за много миль;
- his voice did not * beyond the first rows его было слышно только в первых рядах овладеть, захватить, взять;
- to * a position захватить позицию;
- to * by storm брать штурмом;
- to * a fortress взять крепость одержать победу, выиграть;
- to * an election победить на выборах;
- to * case (юридическое) выиграть дело добиться;
отстоять (свои убеждения) ;
- to * one's point отстоять свою позицию;
- I've carried my point я доказал свою правоту принимать (решение) ;
- the bill was carried законопроект был принят;
- to * a motion by a large majority принять предложение большинством голосов проводить (кандидата) носить (ребенка) ;
быть беременной;
- to * a boy быть беременной мальчиком - carried to full time доношенный( о плоде) приносить (доход) (бухгалтерское) переносить;
- to * to the next column перенести в соседнюю графу (американизм) помещать( в газете) ;
- to * a lagre amount of advertising помещать много объявлений;
- newspaper * weather reports в газетах помещаются сообщения о погоде (американизм) (полиграфия) выпускать( военное) брать на плечо - to carry smth. to a certain condition доводить что-л. до какого-л. состояния;
- to * the work to completion завершить работу;
довести работу до конца;
- to * to extremes доводить до крайности - to smth to excess заходить в чем-л слишком далеко, впадать в крайность - to carry smth. with oneself увлечь, завоевать, овладеть;
помнить, хранить в памяти - to * one's audience with one увлечь аудиторию - I always * with me the memory of that child's face у меня всегда перед глазами лицо этого ребенка - to carry oneself in a certain way держаться, иметь какую-л осанку;
вести себя, держать, поступать - * yourself better, don't slouch! держись прямо, не горбись!;
- she carries herself well у нее хорошая осанка;
- he carries himself like a soldier у него военная выправка - to * oneself well держаться хорошо;
- he carried himself bravely он мужественно вел себя > to * all before one преодолеть все препятствия;
сметать все на своем пути;
иметь большой успех, преуспевать;
завоевать сердца;
> to * into effect осуществлять, приводить в исполнение;
проводить в жизнь;
> to * it превозмочь, взять верх;
> to * it away одолеть, победить;
> to * the day одержать победу;
> to * too far заходить или заводить слишком далеко;
> to fetch and * быть на побегушках;
> to * too many guns for smb. оказаться не по силам кому-л;
> to * conviction убеждать, быть убедительным;
> to * weight иметь вес, влияние;
(спортивное) нести дополнительный груз;
> to * smb. high (американизм) дразнить кого-л;
> * me out! сил моих нет!;
больше не могу!;
> to * the can нести ответственность, часто связанную с риском и опасностью ~ проводить;
принимать;
the bill was carried законопроект был принят ~ содержать;
заключать;
the book carries many tables в книге много таблиц;
the hospital carries a good staff в больнице хороший персонал carry брать приступом (крепость и т. п.) ~ везти, перевозить;
to carry hay (corn) убирать сено (хлеб) ;
the wine will not carry well это вино портится от перевозки ~ везти ~ влечь за собой;
to carry penalty влечь за собой наказание ~ волок (лодки) ~ выигрывать ~ дальнобойность (орудия) ;
дальность полета (снаряда;
мяча в гольфе) ~ refl. держаться;
вести себя;
to carry oneself with dignity держаться с достоинством ~ добиться;
to carry one's point отстоять свою позицию;
добиться своего ~ доводить;
to carry to extremes доводить до крайности;
to carry into effect приводить в исполнение, осуществлять ~ достигать;
доходить, доноситься;
долетать (о снаряде, звуке) ;
попадать в цель ~ иметь в продаже ~ вчт. импульс переноса ~ нести, носить, переносить ~ нести на себе тяжесть, поддерживать (о колоннах и т. п.) ~ одерживать победу ~ перевозить ~ перевозка ~ передавать ~ вчт. перенос ~ вчт. переносить ~ переноска;
перевозка ~ поддерживать ~ подтверждать ~ воен. положение "на плечо" ~ приносить (доход, процент) ~ приносить доход ~ проводить;
принимать;
the bill was carried законопроект был принят ~ продолжать, удлинять ~ вчт. сигнал переноса ~ содержать;
заключать;
the book carries many tables в книге много таблиц;
the hospital carries a good staff в больнице хороший персонал ~ торговать, продавать;
держать;
the store also carries hardware магазин торгует также скобяными изделиями ~ увлекать за собой;
he carried his audience with him он увлек слушателей ~ удерживать товар до уплаты покупателем его стоимости ~ утверждать ~ хранить ~ вчт. цифра переноса to ~ all (или everything) before one иметь большой успех;
преуспевать;
выйти победителем;
взять верх to ~ all (или everything) before one преодолевать все препятствия ~ away увлекать ~ away уносить to ~ conviction убеждать, быть убедительным conviction: ~ убеждение;
to carry conviction убеждать, быть убедительным ~ forward = carry over ~ forward продвигать( дело) forward: carry ~ бухг. делать перенос на будущий период carry ~ бухг. делать перенос на другую строку carry ~ бухг. делать перенос сальдо на другой счет carry ~ бухг. переносить на другую страницу carry ~ пролонгировать ~ везти, перевозить;
to carry hay (corn) убирать сено (хлеб) ;
the wine will not carry well это вино портится от перевозки ~ доводить;
to carry to extremes доводить до крайности;
to carry into effect приводить в исполнение, осуществлять effect: to bring to ~, to give ~ to, to carry (или to put) into ~ осуществлять, приводить в исполнение, проводить в жизнь carry into ~ приводить в действие ~ off выдерживать;
though frightened he carried it off very well хотя он и испугался, но не показал вида ~ off выдерживать ~ off выигрывать (приз) ~ off скрашивать ~ off уносить, уводить;
похищать;
захватывать;
to carry off a sentry воен. "снять", захватить часового ~ off уносить ~ off уносить, уводить;
похищать;
захватывать;
to carry off a sentry воен. "снять", захватить часового ~ on вести себя запальчиво;
don't carry on so! веди себя спокойно!, не злись так! ~ on продолжать;
вести (дело) ;
carry on! так держать!, продолжайте в том же духе!;
to carry on hostile acts совершать враждебные действия ~ on продолжать;
вести (дело) ;
carry on! так держать!, продолжайте в том же духе!;
to carry on hostile acts совершать враждебные действия ~ on разг. флиртовать( with) on: carry ~ заниматься carry ~ продолжать ~ on business вести дело ~ on business заниматься предпринимательской деятельностью ~ on business under firm of заключать сделки от имени фирмы ~ on продолжать;
вести (дело) ;
carry on! так держать!, продолжайте в том же духе!;
to carry on hostile acts совершать враждебные действия ~ on trade заниматься торговлей to ~ one мат. (держать) один в уме;
to carry too many guns for one оказаться не по силам (кому-л.) ~ добиться;
to carry one's point отстоять свою позицию;
добиться своего point: to carry one's ~ отстоять свои позиции;
добиться своего;
to gain one's point достичь цели;
off the point некстати ~ refl. держаться;
вести себя;
to carry oneself with dignity держаться с достоинством ~ out выносить (покойника) ~ out выполнять ~ out доводить до конца;
выполнять, проводить;
to carry out in(to) practice осуществлять, проводить в жизнь ~ out доводить до конца ~ out завершать ~ out banking activities выполнять банковские операции ~ out business for purposes of profit вести дело с целью получения прибыли ~ out доводить до конца;
выполнять, проводить;
to carry out in(to) practice осуществлять, проводить в жизнь ~ out instruction выполнять инструкцию ~ out plan выполнять план ~ out research проводить научные исследования ~ out sentence приводить приговор в исполнение ~ out task выполнять задание ~ forward = carry over ~ over делать перенос сальдо на другой счет ~ over отсрочивать ~ over перевозить ~ over бухг. переносить в другую графу, на другую страницу, в другую книгу ~ over переносить в качестве запаса ~ over переносить на будущий период ~ over переносить на другую страницу ~ over пролонгировать ~ влечь за собой;
to carry penalty влечь за собой наказание to ~ the day одержать победу day: ~ победа;
to carry (или to win) the day одержать победу;
the day is ours мы одержали победу, мы выиграли сражение;
to lose the day проиграть сражение to ~ the war into the enemy's country переносить войну на территорию противника to ~ the war into the enemy's country предъявлять встречное обвинение war: to carry the ~ into the enemy's country (или camp) переносить войну на территорию противника;
перен. предъявлять встречное обвинение;
отвечать обвинением на обвинение ~ through доводить до конца ~ through осуществлять ~ through поддерживать ~ through помогать, поддерживать ~ through помогать through: he slept the whole night ~ он проспал всю ночь;
to carry through довести до конца ~ доводить;
to carry to extremes доводить до крайности;
to carry into effect приводить в исполнение, осуществлять to ~ one мат. (держать) один в уме;
to carry too many guns for one оказаться не по силам (кому-л.) to ~ weight иметь вес, влияние complete ~ вчт. полный перенос delayed ~ вчт. задержанный перенос ~ on вести себя запальчиво;
don't carry on so! веди себя спокойно!, не злись так! dot and ~ one перенос в следующий разряд( при сложении) dot and ~ one шутл. учитель арифметики dot: ~ усеивать;
to dot the i's and cross the t's ставить точки над i, уточнять все детали;
to dot and carry one переносить в следующий разряд( при сложении) end-around ~ вчт. циклический перенос ~ увлекать за собой;
he carried his audience with him он увлек слушателей high-speed ~ вчт. быстрый перенос high-speed ~ вчт. ускоренный перенос ~ содержать;
заключать;
the book carries many tables в книге много таблиц;
the hospital carries a good staff в больнице хороший персонал input ~ вчт. входной сигнал переноса look-ahead ~ вчт. ускоренный перенос negative ~ перенос на пассивную сторону баланса output ~ вчт. выходной сигнал переноса positive ~ перенос на активную сторону баланса ripple ~ вчт. сквозной перенос ~ торговать, продавать;
держать;
the store also carries hardware магазин торгует также скобяными изделиями stored ~ вчт. запоминаемый перенос ~ off выдерживать;
though frightened he carried it off very well хотя он и испугался, но не показал вида ~ back: to ~ (smb.) back напоминать( кому-л.) прошлое ~ везти, перевозить;
to carry hay (corn) убирать сено (хлеб) ;
the wine will not carry well это вино портится от перевозки -
64 strike
̈ɪstraɪk I
1. гл.
1) ударять(ся), наносить удар, бить (физически: рукой, оружием, инструментом и т.п.) He struck me on the chin. ≈ Он ударил меня в подбородок. He struck the wall with a heavy blow. ≈ Он сильно ударил по стене. to strike him a blow ≈ нанести ему удар He struck his knee with his hand. ≈ Он ударил рукой по колену. He seized a stick and struck at me. ≈ Он схватил палку и ударил по мне. (см. strike at) He struck his hand on the table. ≈ Он трахнул рукой по столу. He struck his hand against/at the wall. ≈ Он ударил(ся) рукой о стену. I struck sharply upon the glass. ≈ Я резко ударил по стеклу. to struck a gun from someone's hand ≈ выбить пистолет из чьей-л. руки The ship struck a rock. ≈ Судно наскочило на скалу/ударилось о скалу. Two ships struck in the channel. ≈ Два корабля столкнулись в канале. Syn: hit, deliver a blow/stroke to
2) пробивать, проникать сквозь что-л. а) уст. заколоть, зарубить, проткнуть( букв. и перен.) Every proof of the treachery struck like a knife into his heart. ≈ Каждое доказательство измены как нож вонзалось в его сердце. б) проникать сквозь, прорастать Trees struck roots deep into the soil. ≈ Деревни пускают корни глубоко в почву. The light strikes through the darkness. ≈ Свет пробивается сквозь темноту. в) перен. ловить на крючок, удить. the fish are striking well today ≈ рыба сегодня хорошо ловится/клюет
3) атаковать( о людях, зверях, болезнях, стихиях и т. п.;
см. также strike out) The beasts struck with their claws. ≈ Звери использовали при нападении клыки. The house had been struck with/by lightning. ≈ В дом ударила молния. Hurricane killed 275 people as it struck the island. ≈ Ураган унес 275 жизней, обрушившись на остров. The army struck at dawn. ≈ Армия атаковала на рассвете. He divided his forces, struck where there was no use in striking. ≈ Он разделил свои силы, атаковал там, где в этом не было нужды. The Duke had been stricken by paralysis. ≈ Герцога разбил паралич. to strike back ≈ нанести ответный удар, дать сдачи( at smb.) to strike the first blow ≈ быть зачинщиком to strike a blow for ≈ заступиться за within striking distance ≈ в пределах достижимости
4) поражать, производить впечатление He struck me by his knowledge. ≈ Он поразил меня своими знаниями. He always strikes students that way. ≈ Он всегда так действует на студентов. He doesn't strike me as (being) genius. ≈ Он не производит впечатления гения. The story stuck me as ridiculous. ≈ Рассказ поразил меня своей нелепостью. How does it strike you? ≈ Что вы об этом думаете? An idea suddenly struck me. ≈ Меня внезапно осенила мысль. It never struck me before. ≈ Мне это никогда еще не приходило в голову. {to }strike the eye ≈ бросаться в глаза {to }strike dumb ≈ ошарашить( кого-л.) Syn: affect, impress, touch
5) доводить (доходить) до некоторого состояния( связанного с физическим ущербом) to strike smb dead ≈ убить A great cold had struck him deaf. ≈ Сильнейшая простуда сделала его глухим. He looked stricken into stone. ≈ Он словно обратился в камень. разг.Strike me dumb! ≈ Убей меня бог! разг.And strike me Blind, but I've met him before! ≈ Чтоб я ослеп, если я его раньше не встречал! разг. Strike! Who the hell was responsible? ≈ Черт побери! Кто это сделал?
6) (связано с 5 и отчасти с
6) вселять (страх и т.п.) His appearance will strike terror into his enemies. ≈ Его появление вселяло ужас во врагов. His appearance struck her with terror. ≈ Его появление наполнило ее страхом.
7) производить действия, связанные с ударами, касаниями и т.п. а) высекать, зажигать(ся) (об огне - с помощью кремня или спички) to strike a match ≈ чиркнуть спичкой, зажечь спичку These matches are too wet to strike. ≈ Эти спички слишком сырые, чтобы зажечься. to strike a light ≈ зажечь свет( с помощью спички и т.п.) б) чеканить( монету), штамповать, печатать This medal appears to have been chased by hand and not to have been struck from a die. ≈ Эта медаль выглядит как гравированная вручную, а не штампованная. How long will it take to strike a film? ≈ Сколько времени уйдет на то, чтобы отпечатать фильм? в) извлекать звук, звучать, стучать( о сердце, пульсе), бить (о часах) to strike a chord on the piano ≈ брать аккорды на пианино His heart struck heavily when the house was visible. ≈ При виде дома сердце его забилось. It has just struck four. ≈ Только что пробило четыре. перен. Your hour has struck. ≈ Твой час пробил. перен. to strike a sour note ≈ прозвучать печальной нотой перен. to strike an incongruous note ≈ портить впечатление перен. She had now struck sixty. ≈ Ей бы сейчас стукнуло
60. Syn: (cause to) sound г) нажимать( клавиши) With one hand we strike three or four notes simultaneously. ≈ Одной рукой мы способны взять три или четыре ноты одновременно.
8) направляться, сворачивать (как правило с указанием направления: across, aside, down, forth, forward, into, over, off, to и т.п.) Instead of going by town, we had struck away northward. ≈ Вместо того, чтобы идти мимо города, мы свернули на север. Leaving the town, we now strike off towards the river. ≈ Оставив город, мы движемся к реке. The road strikes into the forest. ≈ Дорога сворачивает в лес. Road strikes away to the left. ≈ Дорога уходит влево. strike to the left ≈ поверните налево to strike a line, to strike a path ≈ двигаться в направлении( букв. и перен.)
9) а) спускать, убирать( о чем-то натянутом или поднятом: парусах, палатке и т.п.) to strike the flag, to strike one's colours ≈ опускать флаг( как знак уважения или при сдаче) б) перен. сдаваться( от to strike the flag) Captain reported that the fort had struck. ≈ Капитан доложил, что форт сдался. He would have clearly liked to stick out;
but there was something about the lot of us that meant mischief, and at last he struck (Stevenson). ≈ Он очевидно хотел бы отказаться, но было нечто столь угрожающее в большинстве из нас, что он в конце концов уступил.
10) проводить линию, чертить Strike a line from A to B. ≈ Проведи линию из A в B.
11) вычеркивать, исключать (см. также strike off, strike out) Over strong objections from the prosecutor, the judge ordered the question stricken. ≈ В связи с решительным протестом прокурора судья приказал исключить вопрос. Do you believe that the crash was an accident? Strike that. ≈ И ты веришь, что катастрофа была случайной? Это исключено!
12) сглаживать выравнивать (поверхность зерна, песка и т.п.)
13) приходить к соглашению, договариваться {to }strike a bargain ≈ договориться (о цене) {to }strike a happy medium ≈ находить компромисс
14) открыть, обнаружить, достичь желаемого (внезапно - сравни с
4) strike oil strike it rich ∙ strike aside strike at strike down strike from strike home strike in strike into strike off strike on strike out strike through strike together strike up
2. сущ.
1) удар preemptive strike ≈ упреждающий удар (ядерное нападение, опережающее удар противника)
2) открытие месторождения( нефти, руды и т. п.)
3) неожиданная удача Syn: lucky strike II
1. сущ.
1) забастовка, стачка to avert a strike ≈ предотвращать забастовку to break (up) a strike ≈ подавлять забастовку to call, organize a strike ≈ организовывать забастовку to conduct, stage a strike ≈ проводить забастовку to settle a strike ≈ урегулировать забастовку (разрешить конфликт, удовлетворить требования бастующих) strike action ≈ стачечная борьба to be on strike ≈ бастовать to go on strike ≈ объявлять забастовку general strike hunger strike quickie strike rent strike sit-down strike sympathy strike sympathetic strike token strike unofficial strike wildcat strike Syn: walkout
2) коллективный отказ( от чего-л.), бойкот buyers' strike ≈ бойкотирование покупателями определенных товаров или магазинов
2. гл. бастовать;
объявлять забастовку (for, against) The women have threatened to strike against unequal pay. ≈ Женщины выдвинули угрозу объявления забастовки по поводу нарушений, касающихся выплаты жалования. удар - * attack (авиация) удар по наземной цели - * weapon наступательное оружие - to make a * at smb. замахнуться на кого-л. (кулаком, оружием) ;
нанести удар кому-л.;
укусить /ужалить/ кого-л. (о змее) - to counter a * (военное) отражать удар - to exploit a * (военное) развивать успех (достигнутый в результате удара) (разговорное) воздушный налет удар, бой (часов) (американизм) плохой удар;
пропущенный мяч( в бейсболе) открытие месторождения( особ. золота) неожиданная удача (тж. lucky *) - a lucky * in politics политическая победа( на выборах и т. п.) (американизм) недостаток;
помеха - his racial background was a * against him его расовая принадлежность была препятствием на его пути клев - I've just got a * у меня только что клюнуло подсечка( лесы) большой улов гребок (для сгребания лишнего зерна с меры) (геология) простирание( жилы или пласта) > to have two *s against one быть в невыгодном положении ударять, бить - to * (on /upon/) the table стукнуть по столу - to * smb. ударить кого-л. - to * smb. in the face ударить кого-л. по лицу - he struck his enemy on the head он ударил своего врага по голове - to * a blow нанести удар - to * a voilent blow at smb., to * smb. a violent blow нанести кому-л. сильный удар, сильно ударить кого-л. - to * a blow aside отбить /парировать/ удар - to * back нанести ответный удар, дать сдачи - to * the first blow быть зачинщиком (в ссоре, драке) - who struck the first blow? кто начал( ссору, драку) ?, кто первый ударил? - to * a blow for smb., smth. выступить в защиту кого-л., чего-л. - we have struck a blow for freedom мы выступили в защиту свободы - to * a weapon from smb.'s hand выбить оружие из чьих-л. /у кого-л. из/ рук - to * with smth. ударить /бить/ чем-л. - he struck the nail with a hammer он ударил по гвоздю молотком - to * the hands together хлопнуть в ладоши ударяться, стукаться;
попадать - to * smth., to * on /upon, against/ smth. ударяться обо что-л., наскакивать на что-л.;
попадать во что-л. - to * the floor удариться об пол - to * a mine наскочить на мину - to * (the) bottom сесть на мель - two ships struck in midchannel два судна столкнулись в фарватере - his head struck (against) the pavement он ударился /стукнулся/ головой о тротуар - she struck her elbow against the door она ударилась локтем о дверь - the lightning struck the tree молния ударила в дерево - the light struck the windows свет упал на окна ударять (по клавишам, струнам) - to * a harp играть на арфе - to * a note взять ноту нападать - the enemy struck at dawn враг ударил на рассвете - they struck the retreating enemy они атаковали отступающего противника поражать;
сражать - to * smb. dead поразить кого-л. насмерть - to * smb. blind ослепить кого-л. - to be struck blind ослепнуть;
быть ослепленным - to * smb. dumb лишить кого-л. дара речи;
ошарашить кого-л. - I was struck dumb with amazement я онемел от удивления - the epidemic struck the country страну поразила эпидемия - to * with /by/ smth. поражать чем-л. - to be stricken by paralysis быть разбитым параличом - to * smb. to the heart поразить кого-л. в самое сердце (тж. on, upon) находить, наталкиваться, случайно встречать - to * ore открыть месторождение руды - to * water найти воду - to * oil открыть /найти/ нефтяной источник;
сделать выгодную сделку, добиться успеха;
преуспеть - to * upon an idea (случайно) напасть на мысль - to * (up) on a plan придумать план - the answer struck him suddenly внезапно он понял, в чем дело;
его осенило направляться;
поворачивать - to * across an island пересекать остров - to * into the woods направляться /сворачивать/ в лес;
углубляться в лес - to * northward направиться /повернуть/ на север - the range of hills *s southerly цепь холмов тянется к югу /в южном направлении/ - to * to the right повернуть направо - the road *s away to the left дорога круто сворачивает влево углубляться (в тему и т. п.) - to * into one's subject углубляться в свой предмет /в свою тему/ - to * out of one's subject отходить от своего предмета /от своей темы/ проникать;
пробиваться - to * through clouds пробиваться сквозь облака - sun rays struck through the fog лучи солнца пробивались сквозь туман - the wind struck through the cracks ветер проникал сквозь /задувал в/ щели - the cold struck through my clothes холод проникал сквозь мою одежду - to * (in) to the marrow пронизывать /пробирать/ насквозь /до мозга костей/ - the arrow struck through his armour стрела пробила /пронзила/ его латы достигать - to * the village достичь деревни - to * the right path выйти на нужную /правильную/ дорогу - we struck the main road мы вышли на главную дорогу - the sound struck (upon) his ear звук достиг /донесся до/ его слуха - to * soundings( морское) прийти на глубину, доступную измерению ручным лотом исключать;
отменять;
вычеркивать - * the last paragraph вычеркните последний абзац - to * smth. on the ground that there was no corroboration отменить что-л. на том основании, что это не получило подтверждения - to * a communication from the record изъять сообщение из протокола - they demanded that the book be struck off the list они потребовали исключить книгу из списка - if you disagree with anything I have written, * it through если вы не согласны с чем-л. из написанного мною, просто вычеркните это - their names have been struck through and are almost illegible их фамилии были зачеркнуты, и теперь их почти невозможно прочесть поражать, производить впечатление;
привлекать внимание - to * smb. as (being) clever производить на кого-л. впечатление умного человека;
казаться кому-л. умным - as it *s me как мне кажется - that *s me as rather silly это кажется мне довольно глупым;
это поражает меня своей глупостью - it struck me that he was not telling the truth мне показалось, что он не говорит правды - we were struck favourably with the plan план произвел на нас положительное впечатление - the room struck cold and damp комната показалась /выглядела/ холодной и сырой - his attention was struck by the unusual change его внимание было привлечено необычной переменой - she always *s strangers that way она всегда производит такое впечатление на чужих - how does it * you? что вы об этом думаете?;
как вам это нравится? - how does his playing * you? как вам нравится его игра? - to * the /one's/ eye бросаться в глаза, привлекать внимание - what a sight struck my eyes! какое зрелище открылось моим глазам! приходить в голову - a thought has struck me мне пришла( в голову) мысль;
меня осенила мысль - it struck me immediately that I had made a blunder я сразу понял, что сделал /допустил/ ошибку (американизм) (военное) служить денщиком (разговорное) неожиданно встретить - to * the name of a friend in a newspaper натолкнуться в газете на фамилию приятеля вызывать( какие-л. чувства) - to * a deep chord in smb.'s heart вызвать глубокий отклик в душе - to * a chord of memory вызвать воспоминания - to * the right note взять верный тон;
попасть в тон - to * a false note взять неправильный тон;
звучать фальшиво - to * a warning note насторожить, предупредить вселять (ужас и т. п.) - to * with awe внушать благоговейный страх - to be struck with panic быть охваченным паникой - the scream struck terror in me этот крик вселил в меня ужас - he was struck with shame ему вдруг /невольно/ стало стыдно высекать (огонь) ;
зажигать - to * a match зажечь спичку, чиркнуть спичкой - to * sparks out of flint высекать искры из кремня - to * a spark out of smb. зажечь кого-л., вызвать в ком-л. энтузиазм (электротехника) зажигать дугу зажигаться - that * only on the box спички, которые зажигаются только о коробок - the matches were too wet to * спички намокли и не зажигались бить (о часах) - this clock *s (the hours etc.) эти часы отбивают время;
это часы с боем - the clock is striking часы бьют - it has just struck four только что пробило четыре (часа) - the hour has struck пробил час, настало время - his hour has struck его час пробил - to * the bell (морское) бить склянки биться( о сердце) - his heart struck heavily when he saw his house его сердце сильно забилось, когда он увидел родной дом чеканить (монету, медаль) сделать, выбить ( бирку, ярлык) спускать( флаг) - to * the flag (морское) спускать флаг;
сдавать командование соединением;
сдаваться, покоряться убирать (паруса) - to * hull (морское) убрать все паруса и закрепить румпель в подветренном положении (в шторм) - to * a mast (морское) срубить мачту свернуть( палатки) - to * camp сниматься с бивака;
свертывать лагерь (строительство) снимать (леса) (театроведение) убирать, разбирать( декорации) ;
демонтировать( сцену) (театроведение) гасить, тушить, убавлять( свет) подводить (баланс) - to * an average выводить среднее число добиваться( равновесия) заключать( сделку) - to * a bargain заключить сделку;
прийти к соглашению, договориться - to * hands ударить по рукам, заключить сделку составлять (список и т. п.) - to * a jury составить список присяжных (давать сторонам возможность вычеркнуть одинковое количество кандидатов) - to * a committee образовать комитет подсекать( рыбу) загарпунить (кита) клевать, брать приманку ( о рыбе) кусать, жалить ( о змее) - struck by a snake укушенный змеей пускать (корни) ;
приниматься - the tree struck its roots deep дерево пустило глубокие корни укореняться, прививаться, приживаться сажать, культивировать( растения) прокрашивать (ткань, дерево) впитываться, растекаться( о краске) просаливать, пропитывать солью (мясо, рыбу) разгружать (корабль) разгружаться( морское) спускать (в трюм;
тж. * down) ровнять гребком (меру зерна) мездрить( кожу) сдирать( мездру) (специальное) отбивать черту (намеленной веревкой) - to strike at smb., smth. набрасываться /нападать/ на кого-л., что-л.;
наносить удар кому-л., чему-л.;
направлять удар на кого-л., что-л.;
(военное) наступать на кого-л., что-л. - to * at smb. with a sword нанести кому-л. удар шпагой /саблей/ - to * at the dog with a stick замахнуться на собаку палкой - I struck at the ball but missed я ударил по мячу, но промахнулся - to strike into smth. начинать что-л.;
вмешиваться во что-л. - to * into a song начинать петь, заводить песню - he struck into another song он запел /завел/ другую /новую/ песню - the orchestra struck into another waltz оркестр заиграл еще один вальс - to * into a gallop пускаться в галоп (конный спорт) - to * into a quarrel вмешаться в ссору - to * into conversation вступить в разговор - to strike smth. into smth. заставлять что-л. проникать во что-л.;
втыкать, вонзать, вколачивать что-л. во что-л. - to * the nail into the board загнать гвоздь в доску - to strike smth. into smb. вонзать что-л. в кого-л.;
давать, придавать что-л. кому-л. - to * life into smb. вдохнуть жизнь в кого-л. - to strike for smth. стремиться к чему-л., делать усилие, чтобы добиться чего-л.;
бороться, сражаться за что-л. - the futility of striking for what seems unattainable тщетность стремлений к тому, что недостижимо - to * for freedom бороться за свободу - to * vigorously for success настойчиво добиваться успеха - to strike smb. for smth. (американизм) (сленг) вымогать, выпрашивать что-л. у кого-л.;
просить, искать протекции у кого-л. - to * smb. for a loan просить кого-л. одолжить денег - he struck his friend for a job он попросил приятеля подыскать ему работу > to * an attitude принять( театральную) позу > to * at the root /at the foundation/ of smth. стремиться искоренить основу чего-л.;
вырвать что-л. с корнем;
подрывать самую основу чего-л. > to * on truth попасть в цель, найти истину, правильно угадать > to * home попасть в цель;
попасть в самую точку;
дойти до самого сердца;
брать за душу;
задевать за живое, больно задевать > to * it rich напасть на жилу;
неожиданно разбогатеть;
преуспеть > to be struck on smb. быть влюбленным в кого-л. > to * smb. all of a heap ошеломить кого-л. > to * smb. to the quick задеть кого-л. за живое > * me dead! (просторечие) разрази меня господь /гром/!;
умереть мне на этом месте! > * while the iron is hot, * the iron while it is hot (пословица) куй железо, пока горячо забастовка, стачка - all-out * всеобщая забастовка - to be on * бастовать - to go on * объявить забастовку, забастовать - sympathetic * забастовка солидарности - * movement стачечное движение - the General S. (историческое) Всеобщая стачка (в Англии в 1926 г.) - hunger * голодная забастовка;
отказ принимать пищу - the * has been called off забастовка была отменена /прекращена/ коллективный отказ (от чего-л.) ;
бойкот - buyers' * бойкотирование покупателями определенных товаров или магазинов бастовать;
объявлять забастовку - to * against long hours бастовать, добиваясь сокращения рабочего дня - to * for higher pay забастовать, чтобы добиться повышения зарплаты прекращать работу ~ приходить в голову;
an idea suddenly struck me меня внезапно осенила мысль to ~ up an acquaintance завязать знакомство;
the band struck up оркестр заиграл ~ забастовка, стачка;
to be on strike бастовать;
to go on strike объявлять забастовку, забастовать ~ коллективный отказ (от чего-л.), бойкот;
buyers' strike бойкотирование покупателями определенных товаров или магазинов call a ~ объявлять забастовку go-slow ~ забастовка, при которой снижают темп работы go-slow ~ забастовка, при которой преднамеренно замедляется темп работы ~ sl. просить, искать протекции;
he struck his friend for a job он попросил приятеля подыскать ему работу ~ бить (о часах) ;
it has just struck four только что пробило четыре;
the hour has struck пробил час, настало время;
his hour has struck его (смертный) час пробил ~ бить (о часах) ;
it has just struck four только что пробило четыре;
the hour has struck пробил час, настало время;
his hour has struck его (смертный) час пробил how does it ~ you? что вы об этом думаете?;
how does his suggestion strike you? как вам нравится его предложение? how does it ~ you? что вы об этом думаете?;
how does his suggestion strike you? как вам нравится его предложение? hunger ~ голодная забастовка illegal ~ незаконная забастовка illegal ~ неофициальная забастовка ~ бить (о часах) ;
it has just struck four только что пробило четыре;
the hour has struck пробил час, настало время;
his hour has struck его (смертный) час пробил lawful ~ правомерная забастовка ~ проникать;
пронизывать;
the light strikes through the darkness свет пробивается сквозь темноту lightning ~ спонтанная забастовка local ~ местная забастовка ~ высекать (огонь) ;
зажигать(ся) ;
to strike a match чиркнуть спичкой, зажечь спичку;
the match won't strike спичка не зажигается national one-day ~ общенациональная однодневная забастовка political ~ политическая забастовка protest ~ забастовка протеста secondary ~ забастовка во второстепенной отрасли secondary ~ забастовка на второстепенном предприятии selective ~ забастовка на ключевых участках производства to ~ the first blow быть зачинщиком;
the ship struck a rock судно наскочило на скалу sit-down ~ сидячая забастовка sit-in ~ сидячая (или итальянская) забастовка spontaneous ~ стихийная забастовка staggered ~ забастовка по скользящему графику ~ производить впечатление;
the story strikes me as ridiculous рассказ поражает меня своей нелепостью strike бастовать;
объявлять забастовку (for, against) ~ бастовать ~ бить (о часах) ;
it has just struck four только что пробило четыре;
the hour has struck пробил час, настало время;
his hour has struck его (смертный) час пробил ~ бойкот ~ вселять (ужас и т. п.) ~ высекать (огонь) ;
зажигать(ся) ;
to strike a match чиркнуть спичкой, зажечь спичку;
the match won't strike спичка не зажигается ~ добираться, достигать ~ забастовка, стачка;
to be on strike бастовать;
to go on strike объявлять забастовку, забастовать ~ забастовка ~ коллективный отказ (от чего-л.), бойкот;
buyers' strike бойкотирование покупателями определенных товаров или магазинов ~ коллективный отказ ~ мера емкости( разная в разных районах Англии) ~ вчт. нажать ~ вчт. нажимать ~ найти;
наткнуться на, случайно встретить;
to strike the eye бросаться в глаза;
to strike oil открыть нефтяной источник;
перен. достичь успеха;
преуспевать ~ направляться (тж. strike out) ;
strike to the left поверните налево ~ неожиданная удача (тж. lucky strike) ~ объявлять забастовку ~ открытие месторождения (нефти, руды и т. п.) ~ открытие месторождения ~ подводить (баланс), заключать (сделку) ~ подводить (баланс) ;
заключать (сделку) ;
to strike an average выводить среднее число ~ подсекать (рыбу) ;
strike at наносить удар, нападать;
strike down свалить с ног, сразить;
strike in вмешиваться( в разговор) ~ поражать, сражать;
to strike dumb лишить дара слова;
ошарашить (кого-л.) ~ приходить в голову;
an idea suddenly struck me меня внезапно осенила мысль ~ производить впечатление;
the story strikes me as ridiculous рассказ поражает меня своей нелепостью ~ проникать;
пронизывать;
the light strikes through the darkness свет пробивается сквозь темноту ~ sl. просить, искать протекции;
he struck his friend for a job он попросил приятеля подыскать ему работу ~ геол. простирание жилы или пласта ~ пускать (корни) ~ ровнять гребком (меру зерна) ~ сажать ~ спускать (флаг) ;
убирать (паруса и т. п.) ;
to strike camp, to strike one's tent сняться с лагеря ~ стачка, забастовка ~ стачка ~ удар ~ ударять (по клавишам, струнам) ~ (struck;
struck, уст. stricken) ударять(ся) ;
бить;
to strike a blow нанести удар;
to strike back нанести ответный удар, дать сдачи ~ ударять(ся), бить ~ чеканить, выбивать ~ амер. sl. шантажировать, вымогать ~ (struck;
struck, уст. stricken) ударять(ся) ;
бить;
to strike a blow нанести удар;
to strike back нанести ответный удар, дать сдачи to ~ a blow (for smb., smth.) выступить в защиту (кого-л., чего-л.) ~ upon напасть на (мысль) ;
to strike a note вызвать определенное впечатление ~ attr. забастовочный, стачечный;
strike action стачечная борьба to ~ (smb.) all of a heap ошеломлять( кого-л.) to ~ home больно задеть, задеть за живое;
to strike hands ударить по рукам;
to strike an attitude принять (театральную) позу ~ any key вчт. нажмите любую клавишу ~ подсекать (рыбу) ;
strike at наносить удар, нападать;
strike down свалить с ног, сразить;
strike in вмешиваться (в разговор) ~ attr. забастовочный, стачечный;
strike action стачечная борьба ~ (struck;
struck, уст. stricken) ударять(ся) ;
бить;
to strike a blow нанести удар;
to strike back нанести ответный удар, дать сдачи ~ спускать (флаг) ;
убирать (паруса и т. п.) ;
to strike camp, to strike one's tent сняться с лагеря ~ подсекать (рыбу) ;
strike at наносить удар, нападать;
strike down свалить с ног, сразить;
strike in вмешиваться (в разговор) ~ поражать, сражать;
to strike dumb лишить дара слова;
ошарашить (кого-л.) to ~ home больно задеть, задеть за живое;
to strike hands ударить по рукам;
to strike an attitude принять (театральную) позу to ~ home больно задеть, задеть за живое;
to strike hands ударить по рукам;
to strike an attitude принять (театральную) позу to ~ home попасть в цель ~ подсекать (рыбу) ;
strike at наносить удар, нападать;
strike down свалить с ног, сразить;
strike in вмешиваться (в разговор) ~ into вонзать ~ into вселять (ужас и т. п.) ~ into направляться, углубляться ~ into начинать;
to strike into a gallop пускаться в галоп ~ into начинать;
to strike into a gallop пускаться в галоп to ~ it rich напасть на жилу to ~ it rich преуспевать;
to strike out a new line for oneself выработать для себя новую линию поведения (теорию и т. п.) ~ off вычитать( из счета) ~ off вычеркивать ~ off делать( что-л.) быстро и энергично ~ off полигр. отпечатывать ~ off отрубать( ударом меча, топора) ~ найти;
наткнуться на, случайно встретить;
to strike the eye бросаться в глаза;
to strike oil открыть нефтяной источник;
перен. достичь успеха;
преуспевать ~ спускать (флаг) ;
убирать (паруса и т. п.) ;
to strike camp, to strike one's tent сняться с лагеря ~ out выбрасывать ~ out вычеркивать ~ out вычеркнуть ~ out делать рабочий чертеж ~ out изобрести, придумать;
to strike out a new idea изобрести новый план ~ out изобретать ~ out набрасывать план ~ out придумывать ~ out энергично двигать руками и ногами (при плавании) ;
to strike out for the shore быстро поплыть к берегу ~ out изобрести, придумать;
to strike out a new idea изобрести новый план to ~ it rich преуспевать;
to strike out a new line for oneself выработать для себя новую линию поведения (теорию и т. п.) ~ out энергично двигать руками и ногами (при плавании) ;
to strike out for the shore быстро поплыть к берегу ~ out pleadings признавать состязательные бумаги противной стороны, не имеющие юридического значения ~ найти;
наткнуться на, случайно встретить;
to strike the eye бросаться в глаза;
to strike oil открыть нефтяной источник;
перен. достичь успеха;
преуспевать to ~ the first blow быть зачинщиком;
the ship struck a rock судно наскочило на скалу ~ the iron while it is hot посл. куй железо, пока горячо ~ through зачеркивать;
strike up начинать ~ направляться (тж. strike out) ;
strike to the left поверните налево ~ through зачеркивать;
strike up начинать to ~ up an acquaintance завязать знакомство;
the band struck up оркестр заиграл ~ upon достигать (о звуке) ~ upon напасть на (мысль) ;
to strike a note вызвать определенное впечатление ~ upon падать на( о свете) ~ upon придумывать (план) sympathetic ~ забастовка солидарности sympathy ~ = sympathetic strike sympathetic: ~ сочувственный;
полный сочувствия;
вызванный сочувствием;
sympathetic strike забастовка солидарности sympathy ~ = sympathetic strike sympathy ~ забастовка солидарности token ~ символическая забастовка unauthorized ~ неразрешенная забастовка wildcat ~ забастовка, не санкционированная профсоюзом wildcat ~ незаконная забастовка wildcat ~ неофициальная забастовка wildcat ~ несанкционированная забастовка wildcat ~ стихийная забастовка wildcat: ~ незаконный, не соответствующий договору, несанкционированный;
wildcat strike забастовка, проведенная рабочими без разрешения профсоюза work-to-rule ~ итальянская забастовка work-to-rule ~ работа строго по правилам -
65 carry
1. [ʹkærı] n1. переноска; перевозка2. дальнобойность ( орудия); дальность полёта (снаряда, мяча в гольфе и т. п.)3. спорт.1) проводка ( при гребле)2) поддержка ( в фигурном катании)4. воен. положение «на плечо»5. шотл. движение облаков6. амер. волок7. мат. перенос ( в следующий разряд при сложении)8. информ. перенос, разряд переноса2. [ʹkærı] vI1. нести, носитьto carry a bag to the house - принести /отнести/ сумку в дом
a lift is licensed to carry a certain number of persons - в лифте разрешается подниматься (одновременно) только определённому числу людей
to carry the war into the enemy's country - а) переносить войну на территорию противника; б) предъявлять встречное обвинение
to carry back - а) относить обратно, возвращать; б) переноситься в прошлое
to carry smth. back to a remote past - относить что-л. к далёкому прошлому
let me carry you back to the day when we first met - разрешите напомнить вам день нашей первой встречи
that carries me back to my youth - это переносит меня в дни моей молодости
to carry off - увести, унести; похитить
to carry off a child [an animal] - похитить и унести ребёнка [животное]
to carry off a sentry - воен. снять /захватить/ часового
2. 1) вести, возить, перевозить (тж. carry over)rail ways and ships carry goods - железные дороги и пароходы перевозят товары /грузы/
this bicycle has carried me 500 miles - на этом велосипеде я проехал 500 миль
2) вести, привестиto carry smb. before justice - привлечь кого-л. к суду, отдать кого-л. в руки правосудия
3) выдерживать транспортировку3. иметь при себе, носить (с собой; тж. carry about)to carry arms - быть вооружённым, носить /иметь при себе/ оружие
I never carry much money about with me - у меня никогда не бывает при себе /я никогда не ношу с собой/ много денег
4. 1) содержать (в себе), заключатьthis article carries no information - в этой статье не содержится /эта статья не несёт/ никакой информации
2) иметьto carry insurance - быть застрахованным; иметь страховой полис
to carry a price /a value/ - стоить, иметь цену; быть в цене
to carry one - мат. (держать) один в уме
the hospital carries a good staff - в госпитале (имеется) хороший персонал
how many subjects did you carry this term? - сколько предметов у тебя было /ты изучал/ в этом семестре?
5. 1) нести на себе тяжесть, нагрузку; поддерживать (о колоннах и т. п.)2) выдерживать, выносить6. продолжать, удлинять; доводить (до какого-л. места); подводить (к какому-л. месту)7. поддерживать материально, оказывать финансовую помощь8. вестиto carry the melody - амер. вести мелодию ( в хоре)
9. влечь за собойa decision that carries another - решение, влекущее за собой новое решение
10. амер. торговать (чем-л.); иметь в продаже, продавать, держатьII А1. убирать (хлеб, сено); вывозить ( с поля)2. 1) передавать, проводить (звуки и т. п.)he carried the news to everyone in the village - он разнёс эту новость по всей деревне
3) проводить ( электричество)4) прокладывать ( трубы)3. 1) достигать ( определённого места); долетать ( о снаряде)our guns wouldn't carry as far as the enemy ships - наши снаряды не долетали до кораблей противника
2) доноситься ( о звуке)the sound of the firing carried many miles - выстрелы были слышны за много миль
his voice did not carry beyond the first rows - его было слышно только в первых рядах
4. 1) овладеть, захватить, взятьto carry by storm - брать /взять/ штурмом
2) одержать победу, выиграть (приз, соревнование и т. п.)to carry an election - победить /одержать победу/ на выборах
to carry a case - юр. выиграть дело /процесс/
5. добиться (чего-л.); отстоять (свои убеждения и т. п.)6. 1) принимать (решение, документ)the bill [the resolution] was carried - законопроект был принят [резолюция была принята]
to carry a motion by a large majority - принять предложение большинством голосов
2) проводить ( кандидата)7. носить ( ребёнка); быть беременнойcarried to full time - доношенный (о плоде, ребёнке)
8. приносить (доход, процент)9. бухг. переносить (на другую страницу и т. п.)10. амер. помещать ( в газете)to carry a large amount of advertising - помещать (на своих страницах) много объявлений
newspapers carry weather reports - в газетах помещаются сообщения о погоде /сводки погоды/
12. воен. брать на плечо (оружие и т. п.)II Б1. to carry smth. to á certain condition доводить что-л. до какого-л. состоянияto carry the work to completion - завершить работу; довести работу до конца
to carry smth. to excess - заходить в чём-л. слишком далеко, впадать в крайность
2. to carry smth. with oneself1) увлечь (за собой), завоевать, овладеть2) помнить, хранить в памятиI always carry with me the memory of that child's face - у меня всегда перед глазами лицо этого ребёнка
3. to carry oneself in á certain way1) держаться, иметь какую-л. осанкуcarry yourself better, don't slouch! - держись прямо, не горбись!
she carries herself well - у неё хорошая /правильная/ осанка
2) вести себя; держать себя; поступатьto carry oneself well [with dignity] - держаться хорошо [с достоинством]
♢
to carry all /everything/ before one - а) преодолеть все препятствия; сметать всё на своём пути; б) иметь большой успех, преуспевать; завоевать сердца
to carry into effect - осуществлять, приводить в исполнение; проводить в жизнь
to carry it - превозмочь, взять верх
to carry it away - одолеть ( противника), победить
to carry too far - заходить или заводить слишком далеко
to carry too many guns for smb. - оказаться не по силам кому-л.
to carry conviction - убеждать, быть убедительным
to carry weight - а) иметь вес, влияние; б) спорт. нести дополнительный груз ( в гандикапе)
to carry smb. high (and dry) - амер. дразнить /высмеивать/ кого-л.
carry me out! - сил моих нет!, больше не могу!
to carry the can - нести ответственность, часто связанную с риском и опасностью
-
66 fight
1. intransitive verb,2. transitive verb,fight shy of somebody/something — jemandem/einer Sache aus dem Weg gehen
1) (in battle)fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas kämpfen; (using fists)
fight somebody — sich mit jemandem schlagen; [Boxer:] gegen jemanden boxen
fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas ankämpfen
3)be fighting a losing battle — (fig.) auf verlorenem Posten stehen od. kämpfen
4) führen [Kampagne]; kandidieren bei [Wahl]5)fight one's way — sich (Dat.) den Weg freikämpfen; (fig.) sich (Dat.) seinen Weg bahnen
3. nounfight one's way to the top — (fig.) sich an die Spitze kämpfen
make a fight of it, put up a fight — sich wehren; (fig.) sich zur Wehr setzen
give in without a fight — (fig.) klein beigeben
2) (squabble) Streit, derthey are always having fights — zwischen ihnen gibt es dauernd Streit
all the fight had gone out of him — (fig.) sein Kampfgeist war erloschen
Phrasal Verbs:- academic.ru/119957/fight_against">fight against* * *1. past tense, past participle - fought; verb1) (to act against (someone or something) with physical violence: The two boys are fighting over (= because of) some money they found.) kämpfen2) (to resist strongly; to take strong action to prevent: to fight a fire; We must fight against any attempt to deprive us of our freedom.) (be)kämpfen3) (to quarrel: His parents were always fighting.) streiten2. noun1) (an act of physical violence between people, countries etc: There was a fight going on in the street.) der Kampf2) (a struggle; action involving effort: the fight for freedom of speech; the fight against disease.) der Kampf3) (the will or strength to resist: There was no fight left in him.) der Kampfwille4) (a boxing-match.) der Boxkampf•- fighter- fight back
- fight it out
- fight off
- fight one's way
- fight shy of
- put up a good fight* * *[faɪt]I. n1. (violent combat) Kampf m (against/for gegen/um + akk); (brawl) Rauferei f; (involving fists) Schlägerei fto give up without a \fight kampflos aufgeben5. (quarrel) Streitto show some \fight (defend oneself) Widerstand leisten, sich akk zur Wehr setzen; (show appetite for fighting) Kampfgeist demonstrieren, sich akk kampflustig zeigen7.II. vi<fought, fought>1. (combat violently) kämpfenthe children were \fighting in the playground die Kinder rauften sich auf dem Spielplatzto \fight like cats and dogs wie Hund und Katze sein▪ to \fight against/for sth/sb gegen/für etw/jdn kämpfen▪ to \fight with each other miteinander kämpfen2. (wage war) kämpfento \fight to the death auf Leben und Tod kämpfento \fight to the bitter end bis zum bitteren Ende kämpfento \fight to the finish bis zum Schluss [o letzten Augenblick] kämpfen▪ to \fight against/for sb/sth gegen/für jdn/etw kämpfento \fight for the winning side für die Sieger kämpfen4. (struggle) kämpfento \fight at [or in] an election bei einer Wahl kandidierento \fight to clear one's name um seinen guten Ruf kämpfen▪ to \fight against sb gegen jdn [an]kämpfento \fight for breath nach Luft ringento \fight for a cause für eine Sache kämpfento \fight for life um sein Leben kämpfen5. BOXING boxen▪ to \fight against sb gegen jdn boxenIII. vt<fought, fought>1. (wage war)▪ to \fight sb/sth gegen jdn/etw kämpfento \fight a delaying action den Feind im Kampf hinhaltento \fight a battle eine Schlacht schlagento \fight a duel ein Duell austragen, sich akk duellierento \fight ships/troops Schiffe/Truppen kommandieren3. (struggle to extinguish)to \fight a fire ein Feuer bekämpfen, gegen ein Feuer ankämpfen4. (strive to win)to \fight an action einen Prozess durchkämpfento \fight a case in [or through] the courts einen Fall vor Gericht durchfechten; (strive to beat)5. (struggle against, resist)to \fight crime das Verbrechen bekämpfento \fight a disease gegen eine Krankheit ankämpfen▪ to \fight sb gegen jdn [an]kämpfen6. (in boxing)▪ to \fight sb gegen jdn boxen7. (battle)to \fight one's way to the top sich akk an die Spitze kämpfen8.▶ to \fight fire with fire mit den gleichen Waffen kämpfen▶ to \fight a losing battle auf verlorenem Posten kämpfen▶ to \fight shy of sb/sth jdm/etw aus dem Weg gehen* * *[faɪt] vb: pret, ptp fought1. n1) (lit, fig) Kampf m; (= fist fight, scrap) Rauferei f, Prügelei f, Schlägerei f; (MIL) Gefecht nt; (= argument, row) Streit mto put up a fight (lit, fig) — sich zur Wehr setzen
to put up a good fight (lit, fig) — sich tapfer zur Wehr setzen, sich tapfer schlagen
do you want a fight? — willst du was?, du willst dich wohl mit mir anlegen?
he won't give in without a fight —
in the fight against disease — im Kampf gegen die Krankheit
he lost his fight for life —
2) (= fighting spirit) Kampfgeist m2. vikämpfen; (= have punch-up etc) raufen, sich prügeln, sich schlagen; (= argue with wife etc) sich streiten or zankento fight for sb/sth — um jdn/etw kämpfen
to fight for what one believes in — für seine Überzeugungen eintreten or streiten
to go down fighting — sich nicht kampflos ergeben
to fight shy of sth — einer Sache (dat) aus dem Weg gehen
I've always fought shy of claiming that... — ich habe immer bewusst vermieden, zu behaupten...
3. vt1) person kämpfen mit or gegen; (= have punch-up with) sich schlagen mit, sich prügeln mit; (in battle) kämpfen mit, sich (dat) ein Gefecht nt liefern mit2) fire, disease, cuts, policy, crime, inflation bekämpfen; decision ankämpfen gegen; corruption angehen gegenthere's no point in fighting it, you can't win — es hat keinen Zweck, dagegen anzukämpfen, es ist aussichtslos
she fought the urge to giggle — sie versuchte, sich das Kichern zu verkneifen
3)to fight a duel — ein Duell nt austragen, sich duellieren
to fight pitched battles — sich (dat) offene Gefechte liefern
See:→ also battle4) (MIL, NAUT: control in battle) army, ships kommandieren* * *fight [faıt]A s1. Kampf m:a) MIL Gefecht nb) Konflikt m, Streit mgive sth up without a fight etwas kampflos aufgeben;lose the fight over den Kampf verlieren um;make (a) fight (for sth) (um etwas) kämpfen;put up a (good) fight einen (guten) Kampf liefern, sich tapfer schlagen;fight against drugs Drogenbekämpfung f;the fight against unemployment der Kampf gegen die Arbeitslosigkeitfight record Kampfrekord m3. Schlägerei f, Rauferei f:have a fight (with) → C 34. Kampffähigkeit f, Kampf(es)lust f:a) sich zur Wehr setzen,b) kampflustig sein;there was no fight left in him er war kampfmüde oder umg fertig;he still had a lot of fight in him er war noch lange nicht geschlagenB v/t prät und pperf fought [fɔːt]1. jemanden, etwas bekämpfen, bekriegen, kämpfen gegen3. etwas verfechten, sich einsetzen füra) gegen eine Erkältung ankämpfen,5. raufen oder sich prügeln mit6. erkämpfen:fight one’s wayb) fig seinen Weg machen, sich durchschlagen;fight one’s way to sth sich etwas erkämpfen8. Truppen, Geschütze etc kommandieren, (im Kampf) führenC v/ifight against sth gegen etwas ankämpfen;2. SPORT boxen* * *1. intransitive verb,1) (lit. or fig.) kämpfen; (with fists) sich schlagenfight shy of somebody/something — jemandem/einer Sache aus dem Weg gehen
2) (squabble) [sich] streiten, [sich] zanken ( about wegen)2. transitive verb,1) (in battle)fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas kämpfen; (using fists)
fight somebody — sich mit jemandem schlagen; [Boxer:] gegen jemanden boxen
2) (seek to overcome) bekämpfen; (resist)fight somebody/something — gegen jemanden/etwas ankämpfen
3)be fighting a losing battle — (fig.) auf verlorenem Posten stehen od. kämpfen
4) führen [Kampagne]; kandidieren bei [Wahl]5)fight one's way — sich (Dat.) den Weg freikämpfen; (fig.) sich (Dat.) seinen Weg bahnen
3. nounfight one's way to the top — (fig.) sich an die Spitze kämpfen
make a fight of it, put up a fight — sich wehren; (fig.) sich zur Wehr setzen
give in without a fight — (fig.) klein beigeben
2) (squabble) Streit, derall the fight had gone out of him — (fig.) sein Kampfgeist war erloschen
Phrasal Verbs:* * *n.Kampf ¨-e m.Schlacht -en f.Streit -e m. (battle) one's way through expr.sich durchboxen v. v.(§ p.,p.p.: fought)= kämpfen v.sich streiten v. -
67 abastecer
v.to supply.abastecer de agua a la ciudad to supply the city with wateresa región nos abastece de materias primas that region supplies o provides us with raw materialsLa tienda abastece los lácteos The store supplies the milk products.Ricardo abastece a María Richard gives supplies to Mary.* * *1 to supply, provide1 (uso reflexivo) to stock up (de/con, with), lay in supplies (de/con, of)* * *verb1) to supply2) provide3) stock* * *1.VT to supply, provide (de with)2.See:* * *1.verbo transitivo to supply2.abastecerse v pronabastecerse de algo — ( obtener) to obtain something; ( almacenar) to stock up with something
* * *= purvey, victual, supply, provision.Ex. In the sixteenth century the English book trade was centred in London, and consisted chiefly of retail stationers who would be likely to purvey both new and second-hand books and a variety of other goods.Ex. Many large ships used to anchor there in sheltered waters and were victualled.Ex. Here an attempt is made to choose one form and supply references from the other forms.Ex. Previous studies in which squirrels were provisioned with an abundant supply of food found a reduction in the rate of caching.----* abastecerse = stock up.* * *1.verbo transitivo to supply2.abastecerse v pronabastecerse de algo — ( obtener) to obtain something; ( almacenar) to stock up with something
* * *= purvey, victual, supply, provision.Ex: In the sixteenth century the English book trade was centred in London, and consisted chiefly of retail stationers who would be likely to purvey both new and second-hand books and a variety of other goods.
Ex: Many large ships used to anchor there in sheltered waters and were victualled.Ex: Here an attempt is made to choose one form and supply references from the other forms.Ex: Previous studies in which squirrels were provisioned with an abundant supply of food found a reduction in the rate of caching.* abastecerse = stock up.* * *abastecer [E3 ]vtto supplyuna zona bien abastecida de agua an area with a plentiful water supplyabastecer a algn DE algo to supply sb WITH sth, to supply sth TO sbesta región abastece de cereales a todo el país this region supplies o provides the whole country with cereals* * *
abastecer ( conjugate abastecer) verbo transitivo
to supply;
abastecer a algn de algo to supply sb with sth
abastecerse verbo pronominal abastecerse de algo ( obtener) to obtain sth;
( almacenar) to stock up with sth
abastecer verbo transitivo to supply [de, with]
' abastecer' also found in these entries:
English:
purvey
- stock
- fuel
- supply
* * *♦ vtesa región nos abastece de materias primas that region supplies o provides us with raw materials* * *v/t supply (de with)* * *abastecer {53} vt: to supply, to stock* * * -
68 BUGR
m. bend, curve; the bight (inside) of a ring (í bug hringinum); of the bent fingers (bugr fingranna); the concave side of the sails (sá af landi í bug allra seglanna); a curve, disorder, of a line of men or ships (rétta þann bug, er á var orðinn flotanum); aka em á bug, aka bug á em, to make one give way, repel.* * *m. pl. ir, a bowing, winding; so Icel. call the bight or bend of a river, brook, creek, or the like; renna í bugum, to fiow in bights, hence ár-bugr, lækjar-bugr: the bight (inside) of a ring, finger, bow-string, etc.; í bug hringinum, Eg. 306; b. fingranna, Sturl. i. 189; grípa í bug snærum, poët. to grip the bight of the bow-string, Jd. 27: the scythe has þjó-bugr, q. v.: the concave side of the sails, sá af landi í bug allra seglanna, Fms. vii. 94: a curve, disorder, of a line of men or ships (in battle), rétta þann bug, er á var orðinn flotanum, i. 174; hence the phrase, aka e-m á bug, vide aka; vinda (göra) bráða-bug að e-u, to make haste, Grett. 98 A: á bug, Scot. abeigh ( aloof), Úlf. 3. 27; mein-bugir, impediments.β. convexity; b. jarðar, Rb. 468, unusual in this sense. -
69 HEFJA
enter on/upon* * *(hef; hóf, hófum; hafiðr and hafinn), v.1) to heave, raise, lift (hefja stein);hann hóf upp augu sin, he lifted up his eyes;hefja sik á lopt, to make a leap;hefja handa, to lift the hands (for defense);hefja höfuðs, to lift the head, be undaunted;hefja graut, to lift the porridge, eat it with a spoon;2) to exalt, raise in rank;hefja e-n til ríkis, to raise one to the throne;3) to begin;hefja mál sitt, to begin one’s speech;hefja ferð, to set out on a journey, to start;hefja flokk, to raise a party;hefja ákall, to raise a claim;impers., hefr e-t = hefr upp e-t, it begins (hér hefr Kristnisögu);refl., hefjast, to begin, originate (hvaðan af hefir hafizt skáldrskarpr?);4) impers. to be carried, drifted (by storm or tide);höf skipin öll saman (all the ships were drifted) inn at landinu;þeir létu hefja skipin ofan forstreymis, they let the ships drift down the stream;5) with preps.:hefja e-t af e-u, to take it off;impers., en er af henni hóf öngvit (acc.), when she recovered from her swoon;þá hóf af mér vámur allar, all ailments left me;refl., hefjast af höndum e-m, to leave one;hefja á rás, to take to one’s feet (= hafa á rás);refl., láta hefjast fyrir, to retreat, withdraw;hefja munn sinn í sundr, to open one’s mouth;impers., Birkibeina (acc.) hefr undan, the B. drew back;hefja e-t upp, to lift up (hann hóf orminn upp á hendi sér);impers., hóf honum upp brýn (acc.), his face brightened;hefja e-t upp, to begin (= hefja 3);Egill hóf upp kvæðit, E. began his poem;impers., hér hefr upp Konunga-bók, here begins the K.;refl., hefjast upp, to begin (hér hefjast upp landnám);hefjast upp til ófriðar (með ófriði), to begin warfare;láta hefjast við, to lay to (naut.).* * *pret. hóf, pl. hófu; part. hafinn, but also hafiðr (weak); pres. indic. hef; pret. subj. hæfi, with neg. suff. hóf-at, Korm.; [Ulf. hafjan; A. S. hebban; Engl. heave, pret. hove; O. H. G. hafan; Germ. heben; Dan. hæve; Swed. häfva; cp. Lat. capere, in-cipere.]A. To heave, lift, raise; hefja stein, to lift a stone, Eg. 142; ok munu nú ekki meira hefja fjórir menn, 140; (hón) hóf hann at lopti, hove him aloft, Ýt. 9; hefja e-n til himins, Edda 61 (in a verse); hóf hann sér af herðum hver, Hym. 36; þá er hefja af hvera (mod. taka ofan pott, to take the pot off), Gm. 42; hóf sér á höfuð upp hver Sifjar verr, Hým. 34; hón hófat augu af mér, she took not her eyes off me, Korm. 16; hann hóf upp augu sín, he lifted up his eyes, 623. 20; hefja sik á lopt, to make a leap, Nj. 144.2. phrases, hefja handa, to lift the hands (for defence), Nj. 65, Ld. 262; h. höfuðs, to lift the head, stand upright, be undaunted; sá er nú hefir eigi höfuðs, Nj. 213: h. sinn munn í sundr, to open one’s mouth, Sturl. iii. 189: hefja graut, skyr, etc., to lift the porridge, curds, etc., eat food with a spoon, Fms. vi. 364; Rindill hóf (Ed. hafði wrongly) skyr ok mataðisk skjótt, Lv. 63.3. hefja út, to lift out a body, carry it from the house (út-hafning), Eg. 24; er mik út hefja, Am. 100; var konungr hafiðr dauðr ór hvílunni, Hkr. iii. 146. The ceremony of carrying the corpse out of the house is in Icel. still performed with solemnity, and followed by hymns, usually verses 9 sqq. of the 25th hymn of the Passíu-Sálmar; it is regarded as a farewell to the home in which a person has lived and worked; and is a custom lost in the remotest heathen age; cp. the Scot. to lift.β. hefja (barn) ór heiðnum dómi, to lift ( a bairn) out of heathendom, is an old eccl. term for to be sponsor (mod. halda undir skírn), Sighvat (in a verse); N. G. L. i. 350 records three kinds of sponsorship—halda barni undir primsignan, önnur at hefja barn ór heiðnum dómi, þriðja at halda á barni er biskup fermir: to baptize, skal þat barn til kirkju færa ok hefja ór heiðnum dómi, 12; barn hvert er borit verðr eptir nótt ina helgu, þá skal haft vera ( baptized) at Páskum, id.4. to exalt, Ad. 20, cp. with Yngl. S. ch. 10; hóf hann Jóseph til sæmðar, Sks. 454; hafðr til ríkis, 458; upp hafðr, 451; önd hennar var upp höfð yfir öll engla fylki, Hom. 129; hann mektaðisk mjök ok hóf sik of hátt af þeim auðæfum, Stj. 154; at hann hæfi upp ( exaltaret) Guðs orð með tungunni, Skálda 208; konungr hóf hann til mestu metorða, 625. 31: er hans ríki hóf, 28.II. impers.,1. to be heaved, hurled, drifted, by storm, tide, or the like; þá hóf upp knörr (acc.) undir Eyjafjöllum, a ship was upheaved by the gale, Bs. i. 30; hóf öll skipin (acc. the ship drifted) saman inn at landinu, Hkr. i. 206; þetta hóf ( drifted) fyrir straumi, iii. 94; þeir létu hefja ofan skipin forstreymis, let the ship drift before the stream, Fms. vii. 253; Birkibeina hefr undan, the B. went back, ix. 528.2. medic., en er af henni hóf öngvit (acc. when she awoke, of one in a swoon), Bjarn. 68; þá hóf af mér vámur allar (acc. all ailments left me), svá at ek kenni mér nú hvergi íllt, Sturl. ii. 54; ek sé at þú ert fölr mjök, ok má vera, at af þér hafi, I see thou art very pale, but may be it will pass off, Finnb. 236; hóf honum heldr upp brún (acc. his face brightened), Eg. 55.III. reflex. to raise oneself, to rise; hefjask til ófriðar, to raise war, rebel, Eg. 264.β. to be raised; hefjask til ríkis, to be raised to the throne, Fms. i. 99; hefjask hátt, to be exalted, Fs. 13; hann hafði hafisk af sjálfum sér, he had risen by himself, Eg. 23; féll Hákon en hófsk upp Magnúss konungr, Sturl. i. 114; Þórðr hófsk ( rose) af þessu, Landn. 305, Hom. 152.2. phrases, hefjask við, to lay to, a naut. term; lét þá jarl hefjask við ok beið svá sinna manna, Fms. viii. 82; hefjask undan, to retire, draw back, Sd. 144: in the phrase, hefjask af höndum e-m, to leave one; hefsk nú aldregi af höndum þeim, give them no rest, Fms. xi. 59.3. part., réttnefjaðr ok hafit upp í framanvert, Nj. 29.B. Metaph. to raise, begin, Lat. incipere:1. to raise; hefja flokk, to raise a party, a rebellion, Fms. viii. 273; h. rannsókn, to raise an enquiry, Grág. ii. 193; h. ákall, to raise a claim, Eg. 39; h. brigð, to make a reclamation, Gþl. 295.2. to begin; hefja teiti, Fms. vii. 119; h. gildi, Sturl. i. 20; h. Jóla-hald, to begin ( keep) Yule, Fms. i. 31; h. boðskap, ii. 44: of a book, þar hefjum vér sögu af hinum helga Jóni biskupi, Bs. i. 151; h. mál, to begin one’s speech, Ld. 2; h. ferð, to start, Fb. ii. 38; h. orrustu.β. with prep. upp, (hence upp-haf, beginning); hóf Helgi upp mál sitt, Boll. 350; Egill hóf upp kvæðit, E. began his poem, 427; hann heyrði messu upp hafna, Fms. v. 225; hefja upp sálm, to begin a hymn, 623. 35; Flosi hóf upp suðrgöngu sína, F. started on his pilgrimage, Nj. 281; h. upp göngu sína, to start, Rb. 116.γ. hefja á rás, to take to one’s feet; síðan hefr hann á rás ok rann til bæjarins, Eg. 237; hinir Gautsku höfðu (thus weak vide hafa C. 2) á rás undan, Fms. iv. 120.δ. absol., hann hóf svá, he began thus, Fms. i. 33; þar hef ek upp, vii. 146; þar skal hefja upp við arftöku-mann, start from the a., Grág. i. 62.II. impers. to begin; hér hefr Þingfara-bólk (acc.), Gþl. 5; hér hefr upp Kristindóms-bólk, 39, 75, 378; hér hefr Landnáma-bók, Landn. 24; hér hefr upp landnám í Vestfirðinga fjórðungi, 64, 168 (v. l.), 237 (v. l.); hér hefr Kristni-Sögu, Bs. i. 3; nú hefr þat hversu Kristni kom á Ísland, id.; hér hefr sögu af Hrafni á Hrafnsevri, 639; hér hefr upp ok segir frá þeim tíðindum, er …, Fms. viii. 5; áðr en hefi sjálfa bókina, Gþl.; hér hefr sögu Gísla Súrs-sonar, Gísl. (begin.), v. l.: with upp, ok upp hefr Skáldskapar-mál ok Kenningar, Edda (Arna-Magn.) ii. 427; hér hefr upp Konunga-bók og hefr fyrst um þriðjunga-skipti heimsins, Hkr. Cod. Fris. 3; hann kom til Túnsbergs er upp hóf Adventus Domini, Fms. ix. 338.III. reflex. to begin; þar hefsk saga Harðar, Landn. 62; hvaðan hefir hafizk sú íþrótt, whence originates that art? Edda 47; hér hefjask upp landnám, Landn. 275; hófsk ríki Haralds konungs, king H.’s reign began, Ld. 2; áðr Rómverja-ríki hófsk, Rb. 402; hófusk (höfðusk, Ed. wrongly) þá enn orrostur af nýju, Fms. xi. 184; hvernig hafizk hefir þessi úhæfa, Al. 125; nú hefsk önnur tungl-öldin, Rb. 34; þá hefsk vetr, 70–78, 436. -
70 SKJÓTA
* * *(skýt; skaut, skutum; skotinn), v.1) to shoot with a weapon, with dat. (skjóta öru, spjóti, kólfi);vera skotinn spjóti í gegnum, to be shot through with a spear;skjóta af boga, to shoot with a bow;with the object shot at in acc. (skjóta dýr, mann, sel, fugl);skjóta at e-m, til e-s, to shoot at one;skjóta til hœfis, to shoot at a mark;skjóta brú af, to draw the bridge off or away;skjóta skildi fyrir sik, to put a shield before one;skjóta loku fyrir, to shoot the bolt, lock the door;skjóta frá lokum, to unlock;skjóta e-u fyrir borð, to ‘shoot’ overboard;skjóta skipum á vatn, to launch ships;skjóta báti, to launch a boat from the shore;skjóta útan báti, to shove out a boat;skjóta hesti uridir e-n, to put a horse under one, to mount him;var mér hér skotit á land, I was put ashore here;skjóta e-u niðr, to thrust it down (hann skaut svá fast niðr skildinum, at);skjóta e-m brott or undan, to let one escape;skjóta undan peningum, to abstract, embezzle money;skjóta e-u í hug e-m to suggest to one (þá skaut guð því ráði í hug þeim);skjóta upp hvítum skildi, to hoist a white shield;skjóta upp vita, skjóta eldi í vita, to light up a beacon;skjóta land-tjaldi, to pitch a tent;skjóta á fylking, to draw up in battle array;skjóta á husþingi, to call a meeting together;skjóta á eyrendi, to make a speech;skjóta fótum undir sik, to take to one’s heels, to run;barnit skaut öndu upp, the child began to breathe;skjóta e-u of öxl, to throw off one’s shoulder;vér tólf dómendr, er málum þessum er t il skotit, to whom these suits are handed over;skýt ek því til gúðs ok góðra manna, at, I call God and all good men to witness, that;4) to pay (hann skaut einn fyrir sveitunga sína alla);5) impers., e-u skýtr upp, it shoots up, emerges, comes forth;upp skýtr jörðunni þá ór sænum, then the earth rises from the sea;skaut upp jörðu dag frá degi, the earth appeared day by day (as the snow melted);þó at þér skyti því í hug, though it shot into thy mind, occurred to thee;þeim skaut skelk í bringu, they were panic-stricken;sem kólfi skyti, swift as a dart;6) refl., skjótast.* * *skýt, pret. skaut, skauzt (skauztu rhyming with laust, Fms. vi. in a verse), skaut, pl. skutu; subj. skyti; imperat. skjót, skjóttú; part. skotinn: [A. S. sceôtan, scyttan; Engl. shoot and shut; Dan. skyde; Germ. schiessen.]A. To shoot with a weapon, the weapon being in dat.; skjóta öru (örum), spjóti, fleini, skutli, kesju, kólfi …, Fms. i. 44, x. 308, 362, Eg. 380; þeir þykkjask eigi hafa skotið betra skot, Fms. vii. 211; vera skotinn spjóti í gögnum, shot through with a spear, Nj. 274: the object shot at in acc., skjóta dýr, fugla, sela, Edda 16, Nj. 95, Ld. 56, Fms. x. 356, 362, and passim: also, s. til e-s, to shoot at; s. til fugls, Orkn. 346; s. til hæfis, to shoot at a mark, Fms. ii. 268; s. kesju at e-m, Eg. 380; allir skutu at Baldri, Edda 37.II. to shoot, to push or shove quickly; skjóta loku fyrir (or frá) hurðu (dyrum), to shoot the bolt, lock the door; s. frá lokum, to unlock, Lv. 60; hann lagðisk niðr ok skaut fyrir loku, Eg. 601; skaut hann þá frá lokum, Fms. vi. 189; þeir lögðu hann í kistu ok skutu síðan fyrir borð, and shot the chest overboard, Eg. 127; skaut Egill yfir brúnni, E. shot the bridge over the ditch, 531; s. brú af, to draw the bridge off or away, Fms. xi. 370; s. skipum á vatn, to launch the ships into water, ix. 501; s. báti, to launch a boat from the shore, Nj. 133; s. útan báti, to shove out a boat, 272; brauð þat er hón hafði í ofninn skotið, Hom. 114; menn er í ofn vóru skotnir, 117; var þeim skotið í eld brennanda, Eg. 232; then in all kinds of relations, s. hesti uudir e-n, to put a horse under one, mount him, Eg. 397, 602, Fms. vii. 21; var mér hér skotið á land, I was put ashore here, Nj. 45; s. e-m upp á land, id., Fms. i. 131; s. barni heim af fóstri, to send back a bairn from the fóstr, Grág. i. 276; s. e-m brott, to let one escape, Fms. ix. 420; s. e-m undan, id., vi. 116, vii. 250; s. niðr úmaga, to leave a pauper behind, place him there, Grág. i. 296, 297; s. fé á brott (undan), to abstract, embezzle money, 334; þetta líkar Þórdísi ílla ok skýtr undan peningunum, Korm. 150; skjóttú diametro sólarinnar í tvá staði, divide it into two, Rb. 462; þá skaut Guð því ráði í hug þeim, put this rede into their mind, 655. 3; s. upp hvítum skildi, to hoist a white shield, Fms. x. 347; s. upp vita, to light up the beacon, Hkr. i. 148; þá varð engum vita upp skotið, Orkn. 266; vita-karlinn skaut eldi í vitann, lighted up the beacon, Fms. viii. 188; s. land-tjaldi, to pitch a tent, Nj. 157; var skotið um hann skjaldborg, 274; s. á skjaldborg, to draw up a s., Fms. vii. 70; s. á fylking, to draw up in battle array, Ó. H. 209; s. á húsþingi, to call a meeting together, Eg. 357; s. á eyrendi, to make a speech, Fms. i. 215; skýtr or skýtsk mjök í tvau horn um e-t, see horn B.I. 2; s. fótum undir sik, to take to one’s heels, to run, Fms. viii. 358; hann skaut sér út hjá þeim, shot out, escaped, vi. 189; harm hljóp upp á altarit, ok skaut á knjám sínum, ix. 462; barnit skaut öndu upp, the bairn began to breathe, Hkr. ii. 199; s. skildi fyrir sik, to put a shield before one, Eg. 378, Nj. 156; s. skjóli yfir e-n, to protect (see skjól); Máriusúðin skaut lykkjunum, she (the ship) shivered, Fms. viii. 199; þá segisk, at hann skyti í fyrstu þessu orði, eldisk árgalinn nú, he is said to have let this word slip, to have said, vi. 251; s. e-u of öxl, to throw it off one’s shoulder, Gg. 6; s. e-u á frest, to put off, delay: skjóta augum, to look askance, Eg. (in a verse), from which the mod. gjóta augum is a corruption.III. metaph. to shift or transfer a case to another, appeal; skutu þau til ráða Ólafs, Ld. 74; s. þrætu til ór skurðar e-s, Fms. vii. 203; því skýt ek til Guðs, i. 3; s. sínu máli á Guðs vald, x. 103; s. þessu máli til Frosta-þings …, þeir skutu þangat sínu máli, i. 32; vér tólf dómendr, er málum þessum er til skotið, Nj. 188; s. máli á fylkis-þing, N. G. L. i. 21; skýt ek því til Guðs ok góðra manna, Nj. 176; menn þá er hann skaut ráðum undir, whom he took as his counsel, Fms. vii. 308.IV. [A. S. scot; Engl. shot, scot, see skot, I and II]:—to pay; rétt er at fimm búar virði gripinn, ok skal hann þá skjóta í móti slíku, er þeir virða gripinn dýrra enn hans skuld var fyrir öndverðu, Grág. i. 412; skjóta fé saman, to club money together, make a collection, Mar.; þeir skutu saman fjár-hlutum sínum hverr eptir efnum, Hom, 123 (samskot); hann skaut einn fyrir sveitunga sína alla ( he paid their scot) þá er þeir sátu í skytningum, Ld. 312 (see skytningr).V. impers., e-u skýtr upp, it shoots up, emerges, comes forth; upp skýtr jörðunni þá ór sænum, Edda 44; skaut upp jörðu dag frá degi, the earth appeared day by day (as the snow melted), Fms. ii. 228; þó at þér skyti því í hug, though it shot into thy mind, occurred to thee, Band. 37 new Ed.; þeim skaut skelk í bringu, they were panic-stricken, Ld. 78, Eg. 49, Fb. i. 418 (see skelkr); mjök skýtr mornar vakri, she is much tossed, Hallfred; sveita skaut á skjaldrim, the shield-rim was blood-shot, blood-stained, Orkn. (in a verse); sem kólfi skyti, swift as a dart, Fms. ii. 183.B. Reflex. to shoot, start, move, slip away; Skíði frá ek at skauzt á fætr, S. started to his feet, Skíða R. 52; Björn skauzk aptr síðan at baki Kára, B. shot or slipped behind Kári’s back, Nj. 262; at menn hans skytisk eigi frá honum, lest they should slip away, abscond, Fms. vii. 49; vildi ljósta Gretti, en hann skautzk undan, started away from the blow, Grett. 91 A; þeir fálmauðu af hræðslu, ok skutusk hingað ok þingat undan geislum hans, Niðr. 5; þó at fé hans skjótisk fyrir garðsenda, to slip through by the end of the fence, Grág. ii. 263; nú skýzk maðr undan tali (evades,) N. G. L. i. 97; kemr í hug, at hann mun skotisk hafa undan, ok vilja eigi fara, Ísl. ii. 334: skjótask yfir (impers.), to skip, slip over; mér hefir skotisk yfir að telja hann, þeim hafði yfir skotisk um þetta, they had made a false calculation, Ld. 100; þá skjótumk ek mjök yfir, then I am much mistaken, Skálda (Thorodd); skýzt þeim mörgum vísdómrinn sem betri ván er at, Grett. 25 new Ed.: skjótask e-m, to fail; margir skutusk honum, many forsook him, Fms. i. 22; skutusk þá margir við Þórð í trúnaðinum, many proved false to Thord, Sturl. iii. 75 C; vildi dýrið ljósta þeim hramminum seni heill var, ok skauzk á stúfinn, and stumbled, reeled on the stump of the other leg, Grett. 101 A; hann var nokkut við aldr, ok skauzk á fótum ( and tottered on his legs), ok þó hinn karlmannligsti, Háv. 45: also in the law phrase, hafa e-u fyrir skotið, to have a case forfeited, N. G. L. i. 52, 53; ef hann stefnir eigi … þá er þeim váttum fyrir skotið, then the witnesses are valueless, 54 (cp. Dan. for-skyde).2. reflex., in the mod. skjótask, to go on a short errand, pay a short visit; viltu ekki skjótast með bréfið að tarna? eg ætla að skjútast inn sem snöggvast, bíddu meðan eg skýzt inn, and the like.II. recipr., skjótask á, to exchange shots, Fms. i. 93, vii. 54.III. part., of corn, to shoot; rúgakr al-skotinn, Þiðr. 180. -
71 SÆR
I)(gen. sævar), m. sea (øxn gengu upp ór sænum), (varð sjárinn ókyrr mjök; róa út á sjá), = sjár, sjór.(-sæ, -sætt), a. seen (auðsær, einsætt).* * *m., there are three forms, sær, sjór, sjár (cp. snær, slær, etc.); in old writers sær is commonest, sjór in mod., sjár is the most rare: the v (also written f) appears in gen. sævar, sjóvar, sjávar; dat. sævi, sjóvi, sjávi; acc. sæ, sjó, sjá; the dat. sing. was then shortened into sæ, sjó, sjá, which forms prevail in prose: in mod. usage the v has also been dropped between two vowels, sjóar for sjóvar, pl. sjóir for sjóvir, dat. sjóum: a gen. sjós is only used in special phrases, and is borrowed from the Danish: [Ulf. saiws and mari-saiws = λίμνη, Luke v. 12; A. S. sæ; Engl. sea; O. H. G. seô; Germ. see; Dan. sö; Swed. sjö.]A. The sea, never used, like Germ. see, of a lake; himin, jörð ok sjá, Fms. i. 304; á sjá ok landi, 31; ef sjár kastar á land, Grág. ii. 388; þar sem sær mætisk ok græn torfa, N. G. L. i. 13; sær eða vötn, Grág. ii. 275; sær ok vindar, Eluc. 10; særinn féll á land, Fms. xi. 6 (and sjórinn, id.); upp ór sæ (dat.), 7; sænum, 6, 7 (four times); and sjónum, 6 (once); í sæinn, 6, 7 (thrice); sjóinn, id. (once); á sæinn út, Hkr. i. 229; út til sævar, ii. 106, Ó. H. 69; þar er vatni náir, eða sjá ( sea-water) ef eigi nær vatni, K. Þ. K. 5 new Ed.; sjár kolblár, Nj. 42; sjór kolblár, 19; á hverngi veg er sjór blendr saman fé manna, Grág. ii. 389; sá þeir skína ljós á sjóinn, Fms. i. 228; vestr með sjó, Landn. 36; sjór í miðjum hlíðum, 25, v. l.; Danavirki var gört … um þvert landit millum sjóva, Fms. xi. 28; sjór enn rauði, the Red Sea, 655 viii. 2; hann bað þrælinn færa sér í dælu-keri þat er hann kallaði sjó …, Ekki þykki mér þetta sjór, Landn. 251; bar sjóinn í seglit (the sea, waves), Fms. ix. 320; hón hjó fram öxinni á sjóinn …, varð af brestr mikill ok blóðugr allr sjórinn, Lv. 68, 69: the phrase, kasta á sæ, to cast into the sea, throw away, Ó. H. 38 (see glær); því kalla menn á sæ kastað er maðr lætr eigu sína, ok tekr ekki í mót, Ld. 128: storm mikinn ok stóran sjá, a high sea, Fms. vii. 51: sigla suðr um sjá (= sail through the Straits of Dover southward), Nj. 281.COMPDS:α. sævar-: sævar-bakki, a, m. the sea-beach, Sturl. ii. 31 C. sævar-borg, f. a castle on the sea-side, = sæborg, Fms. xi. 74. sævar-djúp, n. the depth of the sea, the deep sea, Mar. sævar-fall, n. tides, Rb. 6, 90. sævar-floti, a, m. a float, raft of timber, N. G. L. i. 423. sævar-gangr, m. the swell of the sea, the sea running high, Edda 41. sævar-hamrar, m. pl. sea-crags, Orkn. 310 (sjávar-hamrar, Fbr. 155). sævar-strönd, f. the sea-strand, 655 xii. 3. sævar-urð, f. piles of rocks on the sea-shore, Orkn. 114.β. sjávar-: sjávar-brekka, u, f. a shelving shore, Bs. i. 669. sjávar-djúp = sævar-djúp, Nj. 279. sjávar-gata, u, f. the way from the sea to a bouse; eigi er löng s. til Borgar, B. is not far from the coast, Band. 28 new Ed. sjávar-hamrar = sævarhamrar, Nj. 182, Fbr. 155. sjávar-háski, a, m. danger, distress at sea, Fms. x. 135. sjávar-hella, u, f. a flat rock projecting into the sea, Landn. 326 (Append.) sjávar-höll, f. a king’s hall on the sea-side, Fms. x. 20. sjávar-lopt, n. a house built aloft in the sea, Fms. vi. 162. sjávar-ríki, n. the kingdom of the sea, Bret. 6, Edda (pref.) sjávar-stjarna, u, f. the star of the sea, i. e. the Virgin Mary, ‘stella maris’, Mar. sjávar-stormr, m. a sea-storm, MS. 415. 9. sjávar-strönd, f. = sævarströnd, Edda i. 50.γ. sjóvar-, often spelt sjófar-, mod. sjóar-: sjóvar-afli, a, m. sea-fishery, produce from the sea, Grett. 88 A; svipull sjóar afli, a saying, Hallgr. sjóvar-bakki, a, m. = sævarbakki, Fms. vii. 145. sjóvar-bryggja, u, f. a landing bridge, Fms. vi. 5. sjóvar-djúp, n. = sævardjúp, Str. 288. sjóvar-fall (sjóar-fall) = sævarfall, Rb. 438, Jb. 338. sjóvar-floti = sævar-floti, K. Á. 178. sjóvar-gangr (sjóar-gangr) = sævargangr, Bær. 5, Fms. xi. 6, Edda (pref.) sjóvar-háski = sjávarháski, Fas. ii. 112, Bs. i. 326, Stj. 27. sjóvar-hringr, m. the circle of the ocean, girding the earth, Rb. 466. sjóvar-lögr, m. sea-water, Stj. 242. sjóvar-ólga, u, f. the swell of the sea, Fas. ii. 378. sjóvar-sandr, m. sea-sand, Stj. sjóvar-skafl, m. (see skafl), Fas. ii. 76. sjóvar-skrimsl, n. a sea-monster, Sks. 86. sjóvar-stormr, m. = sjávarstormr, Stj. 287, Al. 99. sjóvar-straumr, m. a sea-current, Fs. 142. sjóvar-strönd (sjóar-strönd), = sævar-strönd, N. G. L. i. 345, Fms. x. 233, Stj. 288. sjóvar-sýn, f. an outlook at sea; þvíat eins at allgóð sé s., in bright weather only, Landn. 25 (v. l.), Stj. 288. sjóvar-urð, f. = sævarurð. sjóvar-vatn, n. sea-water, Stj. 287.δ. sjóar-, passim in mod. usage.B. PROPER COMPDS:I. in pr. names, Sæ-björn, Sæ-mundr, Sæ-unn ( Sæ-uðr), Sæ-hildr; contr. in Sjólfr, qs. Sæ-úlfr, Landn.II. sæ-borg, f. a sea-side town, Clem. 24, Fms. xi. 75; a sea-castle, sæborgir Birkibeina, i. e. their ships, ix. 221. sæ-brattr, adj. ‘sea-brent,’ steep towards the sea, Ísl. ii. 73, Bret. 90. sæ-bygð, f. a coast-land, Fms. iv. 116. sæ-byggjar, m. pl. coast-dwellers, Fms. viii. 404. sæ-dauðr, adj. dead at sea, drowned, Sdm. sæ-farar, f. pl. sea-faring; á hann (Njörð) skal heita til sæfara ok veiða, Edda; kenna menn til víga eðr sæfara, id.: hann hét á Þor til sjófara ok harðræða, Landn. 206. sæ-fari, a, m. a sea-farer: as adjective = sæhafi, Landn. 129, v. l.: for the sæfa in Orkn. 406 (v. l.). Grett. 88 A, read sæfara (sæa). sæ-fiskr, m. a sea-fish, Karl. 476. sæ-færr, adj. sea-worthy, Fms. iv. 246, Landn. 107: of weather, fit for sea-faring, veðr hvasst ok eigi sæfært, Eg. 482; hvern dag er sjófært var, Gísl. 47. sæ-föng, n. pl. stores from the sea; úáran, biluðu mönnum sáð ok sæföng, Bs. i. 137. sæ-garpr, m. a great sea-champion, Fb. iii. 446, Bárð. 169. sæ-hafi or sæ-hafa, adj. sea-tossed, driven out of one’s course; in the phrase, verða s., hann var s. til Hvítramanna-lands, Landn. 129, Bs. i. 675, Orkn. 406, Grág. i. 93, 217, ii. 410; kemr á andviðri ok verða þeir sæhafa at dalnum, Fbr. 68 (new Ed. 36 l. c. line 15 has wrongly ‘sækja’), Grett. 17 new Ed. Sæ-hrimnir, m. the name of the mythical boar whose flesh the heroes in Walhalla feed on, Gm., Edda. sæ-karl, m. a sea-carle, raftsman, Skálda 163. sæ-konungr, m., q. v. sæ-kykvendi, m. a sea-beast, Ver. 2, Skálda 170, Rb. 104. sæ-kyrra, u, f. a sea-calm, smooth sea, Orkn. 164. sæ-lið, n. service at sea, Ld. 142. sæ-lægja, u, f. a mist on the sea; þoka ok sælægjur, Orkn. 358. sæ-lægr, adj. lying on the sea, an epithet of a sea-mist; s. mjörkvi, Fms. vi. 261, viii. 178 (spelt sjálægr). sæ-naut, n. a sea-cow (fabulous); þjórr, ok var sænauta litr á hornunum, Vápn. 21, see Ísl. Þjóðs. i. 134. 135. sæ-nár, m., Grág. ii. 131, see nár. sæ-sjúkr, adj. sea-sick, Fb. iii. 427. sæ-tré, n. pl., poët. sea-trees, i. e. ships; hér eru vit Sigurðr á sætrjám, Skv. 2. 17; hann lá úti á sætrjám vetr ok varmt sumar, Fas. ii. 242. ☞ For the compds in sjá- and sjó- see pp. 534, 535. -
72 carry
1. IIcarry in some manner1) the sound (the report of the guns, etc.) carried far звук и т. д. был слышен /разносился/ далеко; these guns won't carry so far эти орудия так далеко не бьют; this gun carried as far as the enemy ships снаряды из этого орудия долетали до кораблей неприятеля2) carry well хорошо переносить перевозку; delicate plants (ripe fruit, these wines, vegetables, etc.) will not carry well нежные растения и т. д. портятся при перевозке2. III1) carry smth., smb. carry one's books (a baby, a bunch of flowers, etc.) нести книги и т. д.; carry heavy loads (bags with sand, bundles of books, etc.) носить /таскать/ тяжелый груз и т. д.; carry passengers возить /перевозить/ пассажиров; the horse carries its rider лошадь несет всадника; run as fast as one's legs can carry one бежать со всех ног; the wires carry sound (current, etc.) звук и т. д. идет /передается/ по проводам; а boat (the lift, smb.'s car, etc.) carries only seven people лодка и т. д. рассчитана на /берет, вмещает/ только семь человек; railways and ships carry goods железные дороги и пароходы перевозят грузы; how much weight does the bridge -? на какую нагрузку рассчитан этот мост?2) carry smth. carry a purse (keys, a walking-stick, an umbrella, field-glasses, a camera, etc.) носить с собой кошелек и т. д., ходить с кошельком и т. д.; carry a gun (arms, a sword, a knife, a dagger, etc.) носить при себе ружье и т. д., быть вооруженным ружьем и т.д.; the ship carries guns корабль вооружен пушками; the ship carries sails корабль оснащен парусами3) carry smth. carry information (a message, new ideas, etc.) содержать сведения и т. д.',carry sense /meaning, content/ иметь смысл; the book (the article, the magazine, etc.) carries tables (diagrams, figures, etc.) в книге и т. д. приводятся таблицы и т. д., the papers carry weather reports (a large amount of advertising, etc.) газеты помещают сводки погоды и т. д; the journal carries a financial page в журнале имеется /есть/ страничка, посвященная новостям в финансовых сферах; the, papers carry reports of the attack газеты сообщают /в газетах есть сообщения/ об этом нападении4) carry smb. carry the audience (the people, the house, etc.) захватить, увлечь аудиторию / публику/ и т. д.; his speech carried the crowd толпа была воодушевлена его речью5) carry smth. carry the motion (the decision, the resolution, the bill, etc.) принимать предложение и т. д. || carry the elections одержать победу на выборах6) carry smth. carry hats (clothing for men, a nice line in stockings, etc.) иметь шляпы и т. д. в ассортименте, торговать шляпами и т. д.; do you carry men's shirts? у вас продаются мужские рубашки?7) carry smth. columns (pillars, piers, beams, etc.) carry the roof (the arch, the weight of the construction, etc.) колонны и т. д. несут крышу/служат опорой крыши/ и т. д.8) carry smth. carry authority (conviction) быть авторитетным (убедительным); his word carries great weight его слово имеет большой вес; this decision carries serious consequences это решение повлечет за собой серьезные последствия; you will carry the whole responsibility вы будете нести всю ответственность9) carry hay (corn) убирать сено (хлеб)3. IV1) carry smb., smth. somewhere carry the wounded men (the branches, the treasures, etc.) away уносить /увозить/ раненых и т. д.; carry away pleasant recollections /memories/ уносить /увозить/ с собой приятные воспоминания; carry death and destruction everywhere нести /сеять/ повсюду смерть и разрушение; the wind carried the music here ветер доносил до нас мелодию; carry smb., smth. back приносить /привозить/ кого-л., что-л. обратно; carry smb., smth. in вносить кого-л., что-л.2) carry smth. somewhere carry a joke (an argument, a dispute, a quarrel, etc.) too far заходить в шутке и т. д. слишком далеко3) carry smth. in some manner carry one's head high высоко держать голову; carry one's age (one's [eighty] etc, years) well хорошо выглядеть /держаться/ для своих [восьмидесяти] и т. д. лет id he knows how to carry his liquor он умеет пить не пьянея4) || carry smb. far хватать кому-л. надолго; а can of petrol (the money, the food you have, etc.) will not carry you far канистры бензина и т. д. вам хватит ненадолго4. V1) carry smb. smth. carry father the book he asked for (mother a glass of milk, etc.) относить книгу отцу и т. д.2) carry smb. some distance the horse (the bicycle, the car, etc.) carried me (him, etc.) 50 miles и т. д. проехал на лошади и т. д. пятьдесят миль5. XIbe carried somewhere several passengers (deckchairs, etc.) were carried away нескольких пассажиров и т. д. снесло /смыло/ (волной); be carried somewhere by smth. several houses were carried away by the swollen river разлившаяся /вышедшая из берегов/ река унесла несколько домов6. XVIcarry to (through, beyond) smth his voice carried to the back of the audience hall (through the passage, etc.) его голос был слышен в самом конце зала и т. д; his voice did not carry beyond the first rows его было слышно только в первых рядах7. XVIIIcarry oneself in some manner carry oneself with dignity (proudly, badly, defiantly, like a soldier, etc.) держаться с достоинством и т. д.; she carries herself very well у нее великолепная осанка8. XXI11) carry smb., smth. across (along, over) smth. carry a baby across the river (the girl over the threshold, etc.) перенести ребенка через реку и т. д.; carry one's eye along the line пробегать строку глазами /взглядом/: carry smth., smb. in (on) smth. carry a bag in one's hand (a bundle in one's arms, a pass in the pocket, a baby -in one's arms, a basket on one's back, a box on one's shoulder, a water jug on one's head, etc.) носить /таскать/ сумку в руке и т. д.; he carried the mark on his face all his life у него на лице остался след на всю жизнь; carry smth., smb. into smth. carry plates into the kitchen (chairs into the house, etc.) относить тарелки на кухню и т. д.; carry the war into Africa (into the enemy's country, etc.) перевести войну в Африку и т. д; the book carries us into the scenes of domestic lives книга переносит нас в домашнюю обстановку /в круг семьи/; carry smth., smb. to smth., smb. carry letters and parcels to the post office (a book to father, an apple to a child, etc.) относить письма и посылки на почту и т. д.; business carried him to London дела привели его в Лондон; the pipes carry water to the house вода идет в дом по трубам; I shall carry the memory of it with me to the grave я пронесу это воспоминание через всю жизнь; carry the case to a higher court передавать дело в высшую судебную инстанцию2) carry smth. round (through, under) smth. carry the fence right round the field обнести все поле забором; carry the chimney through the roof выводить трубу через крышу; carry pipes under a street прокладывать трубы под улицей; carry smth. to (into) smth. carry the tower to 500 feet довести высоту башни до пятисот футов; carry the road into the mountains провести дорогу в горы; carry the work to completion (modesty to excess, one's principles to extreme, the argument to its logical conclusion, etc.) доводить работу до конца /до завершения/ и т. д.3) carry smb. with smb. carry the people (the public, the audience, the crowd, the soldiers, etc.) with one увлечь /повести/ людей и т. д. за собой4) || carry smth. with it влечь за собой; this post carries a higher pay with it эта должность выше оплачивается; promotion carries higher wages with it повышение по службе предполагает увеличение зарплаты5) carry smth. by smth. carry the motion (the bill, the resolution, etc.) by a small majority (by a majority of five, etc.) проводить /принимать/ предложение и т. д. незначительным большинством [ голосов] и т. д. -
73 λύω
λύω, poet. imper.Aλῦθι Pi.Fr.85
: [tense] fut. λύσω [ῡ] Il.1.29, etc.: [tense] aor.ἔλῡσα 18.244
, etc.: [tense] pf.λέλῠκα Th.7.18
, Ar.V. 992 ( ἀπο-), etc.:— [voice] Pass., [tense] pf.λέλῠμαι Il.8.103
, etc.: [tense] plpf. ἐλελύμην [ῠ] Od.22.186, etc.: [tense] aor. ἐλύθην, [dialect] Ep. λύθην [ῠ] 8.360, E.Hel. 860, Th.2.103, etc.: [tense] fut. , Isoc.12.116, etc., also λελύσομαι [ῡ] D.14.2, X. Cyr.6.2.37 ( ἀπο-): [dialect] Ep. [tense] aor. [voice] Pass. λύμην [ῠ] Il.21.80; λύτο [ῠ] ib. 114, butλῦτο 24.1
(at beginning of line, v.l. λύτο);λύντο 7.16
: also [ per.] 3sg. opt. [tense] pf.λελῦτο Od.18.238
:—[voice] Med., [tense] fut.λύσομαι Il.1.13
, etc.: [tense] aor.ἐλυσάμην 14.214
: [tense] pf. [voice] Pass. λέλῦμαι in med. sense, D.36.45, Arist.Rh. 1400a22 (cf. δια-, κατα-λύω): [tense] fut. λύσομαι in pass. sense, ( δια-) Th.2.12, ( ἐπι-) Lys.25.33 codd. ( καταλύσεσθαι edd.), ( κατα-) X.Cyr.1.6.9.—Homer uses all tenses exc. [tense] pf. [voice] Act., [tense] pres. and [tense] fut. [voice] Pass. [In [tense] pres. and [tense] impf. [pron. full] ῡ always in [dialect] Att., [pron. full] ῠ mostly in [dialect] Ep., though Hom. has [pron. full] ῡ twice,ἔλῡεν Il.23.513
, λῡει Od.7.74; also in compds.,ἀλλῡεσκεν 2.105
, ἀλλῡουσαν ib. 109: in [tense] fut. and [tense] aor. 1 [pron. full] ῡ always: in other tenses [pron. full] ῠ always, exc. in the forms λελῦτο, λῦτο (v. supr.).] (Cf. Lat. luo (pay), re-luo, solvo (for se-luo), solūtus, etc.):— loosen:I of things, unbind, unfasten, esp. clothes and armour, λῦσε δέ οἱ ζωστῇρα, θώρηκα, Il.4.215, 16.804; λ. παρθενίην ζώνην loose the maiden-girdle, of the husband after marriage, Od. 11.245; of the wife,λύοι χαλινὸν ὑφ' ἥρωϊ παρθενίας Pi.I.8(7).48
; ; soἔλυσας.. ἅγνευμα σόν Id.Tr. 501
; freq. of the tackling of ships, λ. πρυμνήσια, ἱστία, λαῖφος, etc., Od.2.418, 15.496, 552, h.Ap. 406, etc. (never in Il.); λ. πρύμνας, νεῶν πόδα, E.Hec. 539, 1020, etc.: abs., λύειν, of ships, set sail,λῦε, κυβερνήτα APl.1.6
*.9 ([place name] Panteleus); ἀσκὸν λ. untie a skin (used as a bag), Od.10.47: freq. in Trag., λ. στολάς, πέπλον, S.OC 1597, Tr. 924; λ. ἡνίαν slacken the rein, Id.El. 743; κλῄθρων λυθέντων when the gates have been opened, A.Th. 396; λ. γράμματα, δέλτον, open a letter, E.IA38 (anap.), 307; λ. πέδας, δεσμά, A.Eu. 645 ([voice] Pass.), E.HF 1123; ; ἀρτάνας.. δέρης ἔλυσαν loosed it from my neck, ib. 876, cf. E.Hipp. 781:—[voice] Med., ἀπὸ στήθεσφιν ἐλύσατο κεστὸν ἱμάντα undid her belt, Il.14.214; but λύοντο τεύχεα they undid the armour for themselves, i.e. stripped it off (others), 17.318; later λυσαμένα πλοκαμῖδας unbinding her hair, Bion 1.20, etc.b in various phrases, στόμα λ. open the mouth, E.Hipp. 1060, Isoc.12.96;γλώσσας λ. εἰς αἰσχροὺς μύθους Critias 6.9
D.; λ. βλεφάρων ἕδραν wake up, E.Rh.8 (anap.); λ. ὀφρύν unfold the brow, Id.Hipp. 290;λ. ἄχος ἀπ' ὀμμάτων S.Aj. 706
(lyr.), etc.2 of living beings,a of horses, etc., unyoke, unharness, opp. ζεύγνυμι, Od.4.35; ἐξ ὀχέων, ὑπὲξ ὀχέων, Il.5.369,8.504;ὑφ' ἅρμασιν 18.244
;ὑπὸ ζυγοῦ Od.4.39
:ὑπὸ ζυγόφιν Il.24.576
;ὑπ' ἀπήνης Od.7.6
(also in [voice] Med., μὴ.. ὑπ' ὄχεσφι λυώμεθα μώνυχας ἵππους unyoke our horses, Il. 23.7; ); λύε μώνυχας ἵππους loosed them, Il.10.498; λ. κύνα let him loose, X.Cyn.6.13, etc.b of men, release, deliver, esp. from bonds or prison, and so, generally, from difficulty or danger, Il.15.22, Od.8.345, 12.53, D.24.206, etc.; ὁ λύσων he that shall deliver, A.Pr. 771, 785: c. gen. rei,τὸν.. θεοὶ κακότητος ἔλυσαν Od.5.397
, cf. Pi.P.3.50, etc.;λ. τινὰ δεσμῶν A.Pr. 1006
; ;τὼ.. ἐκ δεσμοῖο λύθεν Od.8.360
, cf. Pi.O.4.23, A.Pr. 873, E.Hipp. 1244, Pl.R. 360c; also λ. δόμους ἁβρότατος rob the house of.., Pi.P.11.34; λ. τινὰ τῆς ἀρχῆς depose him from.., D.S.13.92:—[voice] Med., prop. get one loosed or set free,λύσασθαί τινα δυσφροσυνάων Hes.Th. 528
;ὅσπερ Ἰὼ πημονᾶς ἐλύσατο A.Supp. 1065
(lyr.):—[voice] Pass.,λυθῆναι τὰς πέδας D.S.17.116
; λέλυται γὰρ λαὸς ἐλεύθερα βάζειν, ὡς ἐλύθη ζυγὸν ἀλκᾶς has been let loose to speak, since the yoke was loosed, A.Pers. 592 (lyr.).c of prisoners, release on receipt of ransom, admit to ransom, release, Il.1.29, 24.137, 555, etc.;λ. τινά τινι 1.20
, 24.561, Od.10.298; Σαρπηδόνος ἔντεα καλὰ λύσειαν would give them up, Il.17.163; in full,λ. τινὰ ἀποίνων 11.106
;χρημάτων μεγάλων Hdt.2.135
([voice] Pass.);ἀνὴρ ἀντ' ἀνδρὸς λυθείς Th.5.3
:—[voice] Med., release by payment of ransom, get a person released, redeem, Il.1.13, 24.118, al., Od.10.284, 385, Pl.Mx. 243c, D.19.229;λύσασθαί τινας ἐκ πολεμίων Lys.12.20
;ἵππον X.An.7.8.6
;ὅσους αὐτὸς ἐλυσάμην τῶν αἰχμαλώτων D.19.169
;λ. τινὶ τὸ χωρίον Id.50.28
; ἑαυτοὺς λ. pay their own ransom, Id.19.169; buy from a pimp, Ar.V. 1353.d λελύσθαι τῶν νόμων, = Lat. legibus solvi, D.C.53.18.II resolve a whole into its parts, dissolve, break up, λ. ἀγορήν dissolve the assembly, Il.1.305;ἀγορὰς ἠμὲν λύει ἠδὲ καθίζει Od.2.69
, etc.:—[voice] Pass.,λῦτο δ' ἀγών Il.24.1
;μὴ λυθείη ἡ στρατιά X.Cyr.6.1.2
; πρὶν <ἂν>.. ἡ ἀγορὰ ( market)λυθῇ Id.Oec. 12.1
;λυθείσης τῆς συνουσίας Plb.5.15.3
.2 of concrete objects, σπάρτα λέλυνται, i. e. have rotted, Il.2.135;ῥαφαὶ δ' ἐλέλυντο ἱμάντων Od.22.186
; λ. τὴν σχεδίην break it up, Hdt.4.97; [ τὴν γέφυραν] X. An.2.4.17; τὴν ἀπόφραξιν ib.4.2.25.3 esp. of physical strength, loosen, i. e. weaken, relax, λῦσε δὲ γυῖα made his limbs slack or loose, i. e. killed him, Il.4.469, al.;ὅς τοι γούνατ' ἔλυσα 22.335
; , etc.;ἀλλά οἱ αὖθι λῦσε μένος 16.332
;πέλεκυς λῦσεν.. βοὸς μένος Od.3.450
, cf. Il.17.29; but οἵ μοι καμάτῳ.. γούνατ' ἔλυσαν made my knees weak with toil, Od.20.118:—[voice] Pass., λύντο δὲ γυῖα, etc., as the effect of death, sleep, weariness, fear, Il. 7.16, etc.;καμάτῳ φίλα γυῖα λέλυντο 13.85
, cf. Od.8.233;αὐτοῦ λύτο γούνατα καὶ φίλον ἦτορ Il.21.114
, 425;λύθη ψυχή τε μένος τε 5.296
, etc.;λύθεν δέ οἱ ἅψεα πάντα Od.4.794
, 18.189;λέλυται γυίων ῥώμη A.Pers. 913
(anap.);λύεται δέ μου μέλη E.Hec. 438
;λέλυμαι μελέων σύνδεσμα Id.Hipp. 199
(anap.).b λύει βλέφαρα closes her eyes in sleep, S.Ant. 1302.c metaph.,λ. τὴν ἐν ταῖς ψυχαῖς πρὸς μάχην παρασκευήν X.HG7.5.22
.4 undo, bring to naught, destroy,πολίων κάρηνα Il.9.25
;Τροίης κρήδεμνα 16.100
, Od.13.388, cf. B.Fr.16.7: generally, put an end to,νείκεα Il.14.205
;μελεδήματα 23.62
;ἔριν E.Ph.81
, AP9.316.12 (Leon.);πόλεμον Th.5.31
;ἐπιμομφάν Pi.O.10(11).9
;μέμψιν Democr.271
; ; φόβον καὶ τὴν ὑποψίαν Polystr.p.7 W., cf. Epicur.Sent.12; ;ἀνάγκας E.Supp.39
; βίον, i.e. die, Id.IT 692; αἰῶν' ἔλυσε, i.e. died, B.1.43;λ. τὸ τέλος βίον S.OC 1720
(lyr.); μαχας Ar. Pax 991 (anap.);νοσήματα Diocl.Fr.35
([voice] Pass.), cf. Gal.6.476;κόπους Dsc.Eup.1.220
; forgive,ἁμαρτήματα LXXJb.42.9
.b in Prose, λ. νόμους repeal or annul laws, Hdt.3.82, D.3.10, Arist.Pol. 1269a15; οὐθὲν τῶν περὶ τὴν πολιτείαν ib. 1298b31;λ. ψήφῳ τὸ παράνομον Aeschin. 3.197
([voice] Pass.), etc.;ἐπεὶ ἐκεῖνοι ἔλυσαν τὰς σπονδὰς λελύσθαι μοι δοκεῖ ἡ ἐκείνων ὕβρις καὶ ἡ ἡμετέρα ὑποψία X.An.3.1.21
; rescind a vote,ψῆφον λύει ὁ νόμος D.24.2
; revoke a will,διαθήκην Is.6.33
, etc. (but in [voice] Pass., to be opened, of a will, POxy.715.19 (ii A. D.), etc.); unbind a spell, Iamb.Myst.3.27:—[voice] Pass., λέλυται πάντα all ties are broken, all is in confusion, D.25.25.c as a technical term, solve a difficulty, a problem, a question,λύεται ἡ ἀπορία Pl.Prt. 324e
, al.;λ. ζήτημα Gal.6.436
.f λ. τὴν φάσιν, of the Moon, pass out of, Vett. Val.134.1, cf. 2.5 break a legal agreement or obligation,τὸν νόμον Hdt.6.106
;τὰς σπονδάς Th.1.23
, 78, cf. 4.23, al.;τὰ συγκείμενα Lys.6.41
; σίς κε τὰς ϝρήτας τάσδε λύση whoso breaks this agreement, Inscr.Cypr.135.29 H.6 in physical sense, dissolve, λύθεν, opp. πάγεν, Emp.15.4; τὸ θερμὸν λύει, opp. πήγνυσι, Arist.Mete. 384b11, cf. 382b33 ([voice] Pass.);ἀμμωνιακὸν ὄξει λύσας Gal.11.106
; melt,παγείσας χιόνας Hdn.8.4.2
;τι πυρὶ λ. Hippiatr.52
.7 of medicines,λ. τὴν κοιλίαν Arist.Pr. 863b29
, cf. Hp.Acut.(Sp.)38, Diocl.Fr.140; so of the effects of terror, Arist.Pr. 877a32 ([voice] Pass.).IV atone for, make up for,τὰς πρότερον ἁμαρτίας Ar.Ra.
691;λύσων ὅσ' ἐξήμαρτον S.Ph. 1224
;λ. φόνον φόνῳ Id.OT 101
, E. Or. 511;αἱ πρόσοδοι λύουσι τἀναλώματα Diph.32.5
:—[voice] Med.,τῶν πάλαι πεπραγμένων λύσασθ' αἷμα.. δίκαις A.Ch. 804
(lyr.).V μισθὸν λύειν pay wages in full, quit oneself of them, used only in cases of obligation, X.Ages.2.31.2 τέλη λύειν, = λυσιτελεῖν, pay, profit. avail, ἔνθα μὴ τέλη λύει φρονοῦντι where it boots not to be wise, S.OT 316: but more freq. λύει without τέλη, construed like λυσιτελεῖ, abs.,λύει δ' ἄλγος E.Med. 1362
, cf. PSI4.400.16: c. dat. pers., , cf.Hipp. 441: c. inf., πῶς οὖν λύει.. ἐπιβάλλειν; Id.Med. 1112 (anap.); ἐμοί τελύειτοῖσιμέλλουσιν τέκνοις τὰ ζῶντ' ὀνῆσαι it is good for me to benefit my living children by means of those to come, ib. 566; (ii B.C.): c. acc. et inf., λύει γὰρ ἡμᾶς οὐδέν, οὐδ' ἐπωφελεῖ,.. θανεῖν it is not expedient that we should die ( οὐδ' ἐπωφελεῖ being parenthetic), S.El. 1005;οὐ γάρ με λύει.. κακορροθεῖσθαι E.Sthen.Prol.35
; cf. λυσιτελέω. -
74 ἀμύνω
Aἄμῡνον Il.15.731
: [tense] fut. ἀμῠνῶ, [dialect] Ion.- ῠνέω Hdt. 9.60
, [ per.] 3pl. - εῦσι ib.6: [tense] aor. 1 ἤμῡνα, [dialect] Ep. ἄμυνα [pron. full] [ᾰμ] Il.17.615: [tense] aor. 2, v. ἀμυνάθω:—[voice] Med., [dialect] Ep. [tense] impf. ἀμυνόμην ib.13.514: [tense] fut. ἀμυνοῦμαι: [tense] aor. 1 ἠμυνάμην: [tense] aor. 2, v. ἀμυνάθω:—[voice] Pass. rare (v. infr. c):—keep off, ward off, Hom., mostly in Il.—Construction:1 c.acc. of the person or thing to be kept off, c. dat. pers. for or from whom danger averted, Δαναοῖσιν λοιγὸν ἄμυνον ward off ruin from the Danai, Il. 1.456, cf. 341, Od.8.525:—dat. freq. omitted,ὃς λοιγὸν ἀμύνει Il.5.603
;ἄ. τὸν βάρβαρον Pl.Lg. 692e
, cf.AB79. b. c. dat. only, defend, aid, succour, ἀ. ὤρεσσι, σοῖσιν ἔτῃσι, Il.5.486, 6.262, cf. Od.11.500, Hdt.8.87, 9.6, etc.; τοιαῦτ' ἀμύνεθ' Ἡρακλεῖ such aid ye give to H., E.HF 219; ἀ. τῇ πόλει, τῷ δήμῳ, Ar.Eq. 577, 790; , Th.3.67:—with inf. added, τοῖς μὲν οὐκ ἠμύνατε σωθῆναι so that they might be saved, Th.6.80.2 c. acc. et gen., Τρῶας ἄμυνε νεῶν he kept the Trojans off from the ships, Il.15.731, cf.4.11, 12.402. b. c. gen. only, ἀ. νηῶν defend the ships, ib.13.109.3 abs., succour, χεῖρες ἀμύνειν hands to aid, ib. 814; ἀμύνειν εἰσὶ καὶ ἄλλοι ib. 312;ὦ ξυνδικασταί.. ἀμύνατε
help!Ar.
V. 197; means of defence,Hdt.
3.155: c. dat. modi, δθένει ἀ. defend with might, Il.13.678.4 with Preps., once in Hom. with περί, ἀμυνέμεναι περὶ Πατρόκλοιο (cf. B.1.3) ib.17.182; in Prose,ἀ. ὑπὲρ τῆς Ἑλλάδος Pl.Lg. 692d
;ἀ. πρὸ πάντων Plb.6.6.8
.II less freq. like B. 11, requite, repay,ἔργ' ἀμύνουσιν κακά S.Ph. 602
;ἀμύνειν.. τοῖσδε τοῖς λόγοις τάδε Id.OC 1128
.B [voice] Med., keep or ward off from oneself, guard or defend oneself against, freq. with collat. notion of requital, revenge:1 c. acc. rei,ἀμύνετο νηλεὲς ἦμαρ Il.13.514
;ἀμύνεσθαι μόρον A.Ag. 1381
;τὸ δυστυχὲς γὰρ ηὑγένει' ἀμύνεται E.Heracl. 303
, cf. S.Fr. 1004. b. c.acc. pers.,ἀ. τὴν Δαρείου στρατιήν Hdt.3.158
;ἐκεῖνον ἠμύναντο S.Fr. 589
.2 that from which danger is warded off in gen., as in [voice] Act.1.2,ἀμυνόμενοι σφῶν αὐτῶν Il.12.155
; νηῶν ἠμύνοντο ib. 179.3 with Preps., ἀμύνεσθαι περὶ πάτρης ib. 243;περὶ τῶν οἰκείων Th.2.39
;ὑπέρ τινος X.Cyn.9.9
.4 abs., defend oneself, act in self-defence,ἀμύνεσθαι φίλον ἔστω Il.16.556
;ἢν συλλαμβανόμενος ἀμύνηται Hdt.1.80
, cf. 4.174,al.;ἀλλ' ἀμύνου Ar.Eq. 244
; ;οὐδ' ἀμυνόμενος ἀλλ' ὑπάρχων Isoc.16.44
, cf. Pl.Grg. 456e;κακῶς πάσχοντα ἀ. ἀντιδρῶντα κακῶς Pl.Cri. 49d
;ἂν ᾖ χαρίεις, ἀ. εὖ δρῶν Arist.EN 1162b10
.II after Hom., ἀ. τινά avenge oneself on an enemy: hence, requite, repay, Ar.Nu. 1428, etc.: freq. c. dat. instr., ;ἀ. τινὰ σιδήρῳ Antipho 4.2.2
; τοῖς ὁμοίοις, ἀρετῇ, Th.1.42, 4.63;ὠμότητα ὠμότητι D.S.14.53
; ἀ. τινὰς ὑπέρ τινος to punish for a thing, Th.5.69; good sense, Simon.229;ἀ. ὁμοίως εὖ παθόντα, ὥσπερ κακῶς Socr.
ap. Arist.Rh. 1398a25: abs., retaliate, c. dat. instr.,ταῖς ναυσίν Th.1.142
;ἀ. ὧν ἔπαθον 1.96
. -
75 ἐρύω
ἐρύω (A), Il.4.467, al., [dialect] Ion. [full] εἰρύω, [dialect] Dor. [full] ϝερύω (v. infr.): [dialect] Ep. inf. εἰρύμεναι [pron. full] [ῠ] Hes.Op. 818: [tense] impf.Aεἴρυον Mosch.2.14
,ἔρυον Il.12.258
,ἐρύεσκον Nonn.D.43.50
: [tense] fut.ἐρύω Il.11.454
, al.,ἐρύσω Opp.H.5.375
; [dialect] Ep.ἐρύσσω Orph.L.35
, Nonn.D.17.183 : [tense] aor.εἴρῠσα Od.2.389
, Hdt. 2.136 (in Hdt. εἴρυσα takes the place of εἵλκυσα),ἔρῠσα Il.5.573
;εἴρυσσα 3.373
, Od.8.85 ; lengthd. ἐρύσασκε ([etym.] ἐξ-) Il.10.490; imper. (hex.), [dialect] Dor. ϝερυσάτω (dub. sens.) BCH50.15 (Delphi, iv B.C.); subj.ἐρύσω Il.17.230
,εἰρύσω Hp.Morb.2.8
, etc.; [ per.] 2sg.ἐρύσσῃς Il.5.110
; [dialect] Ep. [ per.] 1pl. ἐρύσσομεν (for - ωμεν) 14.76, 17.635 ; opt.ἐρύσαιμι 8.21
, εἰρύσαιμι Timo 59 ; inf. ἐρύσαι, ἐρύσσαι, Il.17.419, 8.23,εἰρύσαι Hp. Morb.1.29
, ([etym.] δι-, ἐξ-) Hdt.7.24, 1.141 ; part.ἐρύσας Il.23.21
,ἐρύσαις Pi. N.7.67
,εἰρύσας Hdt.4.10
,ἐρύσσας A.R.3.913
.—[dialect] Ion., [dialect] Dor., and poet. Verb:—drag, draw, implying force or violence, νῆα..εἰς ἅλα, ἅλαδε, ἤπειρόνδε, Il.1.141, Od.2.389, 10.423 ; ἐπ' ἠπείροιο on land, 16.325, 359 ; [δόρυ] ἐ. ἐπ' ἄκρης, of the Trojan horse, 8.508 ; freq. of the dead, νεκρόν, νεκροὺς ἐ., of the friends, drag them away, rescue them, Il.5.573, 16.781 ; of the enemy, drag them off for plunder, ransom, etc., 4.467, al.; τρὶς ἐρύσας περὶ σῆμα (sc. Ἕκτορα) 24.16 ; of dogs and birds of prey, drag and tear,οἰωνοὶ ὠμησταὶ ἐρύουσι 11.454
, etc.; drag away, carry off violently, Od.9.99: c. gen. partit.,διὰ δώματ' ἐ...ἢ ποδὸς ἢ καὶ χειρός 17.479
; ἐ. τινὰ κουρίξ by the hair, 22.187 ; also, pull down, tear away,κρόσσας μὲν πύργων ἔρυον Il.12.258
, cf. 14.35.2 simply, draw, pull,δόρυ ἐξ ὠτειλῆς 16.863
;φάρμακον ἐκ γαίης Od.10.303
;ἐξ οὐρανόθεν πεδίονδε Ζῆν' Il.8.21
;κίον' ἀν' ὑψηλὴν ἐρύσαι Od.22.176
; φᾶρος..κὰκ κεφαλῆς εἴρυσσε drew it over his head, 8.85 ; ἄλλον μὲν χλαίνης ἐρύων, ἄλλον δὲ χιτῶνος pulling or plucking him by.., Il. 22.493 ; νευρὴν ἐπὶ τῷ ἐ. drawing the bowstring at him, 15.464 ;ἐ. τόξον Hdt.3.30
,4.10; εἴρυσον ἔγχος draw thy sword, S.Tr. 1033 (hex.); attract, absorb, [ ὑγρόν] Hp.Loc.Hom.14 : c. gen. partit.,τῆς χολῆς Id.Morb.1.29
; ἐπί τινι κλῆρον ἐ. draw lots for.., Call.Jov.62 ; ἐκ ποδὸς ἐ. to put aside, Pi.N.7.67 ; ὅππῃ ἐμὸν νόον εἰρύσαιμι Timol.c.; also πλίνθους εἰρύσαι make bricks, Hdt.2.136. (B) [voice] Med. [full] ἐρύομαι, [dialect] Ion. [full] εἰρύομαι [pron. full] [ῠ], [tense] fut. inf.Aἐρύεσθαι Il.14.422
, al., ἐρύσσεσθαι v.l. in Od.21.125, Il.21.176 : [tense] aor. 1εἰρύσσατο 22.306
,ἐρύσαντο 1.466
, etc.; subj.ἐρύσωμαι A.R.1.1204
; opt. ἐρύσαιο, -αίατο, Il.5.456, 298 ; inf.ἐρύσασθαι 22.351
; part.ἐρυσσάμενος 1.190
, εἰρυσάμενος (ἐπ-) Hdt.4.8:—draw for oneself, ἐρυσαίμεθα νῆας launch us ships, Il.14.79 ; [ἵππον] ἐς ἀκρόπολιν ἐ. Od.8.504
; ξίφος, ἄορ, μάχαιραν ἐρύεσθαι, draw one's sword, Il.4.530, 21.173, 3.271 ;ἄορ ἐκ κολεοῖο Theoc.22.191
;δόρυ ἐξ ὠτειλῆς εἰρυσάμην Od.10.165
; of meat on the spit, ἐρύσαντό τε πάντα they drew all off, Il.1.466, etc.; ἐρύσσασθαι μενεαίνων in his anxiety to draw [the bow], Od.21.125 ;βύρσαν θηρὸς ἀπὸ μελέων Theoc.25.273
; simply, wrench,ὅταν ἱστὸν ἀνέμοιο κατάϊξ..ὑπὲκ προτόνων ἐρύσηται A.R.1.1204
.2 of captives, χρυσῷ ἐρύσασθαι weigh against gold (cf. ἕλκω): hence, ransom, Il.22.351 (cf. ἀντερύομαι).II draw out of the press,ἐρύσασθαί τινα μάχης Il.5.456
; esp. of friends dragging away the body of a slain hero,οὐδέ κε..ἐκ βελέων ἐρύσαντο νέκυν 18.152
; of enemies, 14.422, 17.161 : c. dat., in spite of, from, 5.298, 17.104. (C) [voice] Pass., [tense] pf. εἴρῡμαι, [tense] plpf. [ per.] 3pl.Aεἰρύατο [ῡ Il.14.30
, al., [pron. full] ῠ 4.248], εἴρυντο (v. infr.): [tense] aor. ἐρύσθην or εἰρ-, Hp.Epid.5.47, Mul.1.36:—to be drawn ashore, drawn up in line, of ships,εἴρυντο νέες ταχὺν ἀμφ' Ἀχιλῆα Il.18.69
; , cf.4.248.2 to be drawn, attracted, of moisture, Hp.l.c.; to be contracted, ἐς τοὔπισθεν ἐρυσθείς, of tetanic convulsions, Id.Epid.5.47 ; τὴν γνάθον ἐρυσθεῖσα ib.4.36. (ϝερῠ-, ϝρῡ-, cf. ῥῡ-τήρ ([etym.] βρύτηρ), ῥῦ-μα, ῥῡ-μός.)------------------------------------ἐρύω (B), only in [voice] Med. [full] ἐρύομαι, redupl. non-thematic [tense] pres. [ per.] 3pl. εἰρύαται [pron. full] [ῠ] Il.1.239, h.Cer. 152, [pron. full] [ῡ]Od.16.463 ; inf.Aεἴρυσθαι 3.268
, 23.151 (from se-srū-, v. infr.); [tense] impf.εἴρῡτο Il.16.542
, 24.499, Od.23.229, Hes.Sc. 138,εἴρυντο Il.12.454
, εἰρύατο [pron. full] [ῠ] 22.303 : from unredupl. stem [pref] ῥῡ- ( srū-]), non-thematic [ per.] 3pl. [tense] impf. ῥύατ' [pron. full] [ῡ] 18.515, Od.17.201, inf.ῥῦσθαι Il.15.141
, iterat.ῥύσκευ 24.730
: thematic [tense] pres. [full] ῥύομαι [pron. full] [ῠ] Od.14.107, 15.35, Il.9.396, 10.259, 417, Hes.Sc. 105 ; with ῡ, ῥύομ' Il.15.257
,ῥύοιτο 12.8
,ῥύοισθε 17.224
; [tense] impf. ῥύετ' [pron. full] [ῡ] 16.799 : [pron. full] ῡ in Trag. (E.HF 197, al., also A.Eleg.3), but [pron. full] ῠ in Id.Th. 303 (lyr.), 824 (anap.): thematic [tense] impf. ἐρύετο [pron. full] [ῡ] Il.6.403 ; non-thematicἔρῡτο 4.138
, 5.23, al.,ἔρῡσο 22.507
( ἔρῡτο as [tense] aor. 2 S.OT 1351 (lyr.)): [tense] pres. inf.ἔρυσθαι Od.5.484
,9.194, al.; later [tense] pres. ind.ἔρῡται A.R.2.1208
: [tense] fut.ἐρύσσεται Il.10.44
, ἐρύεσθαι [pron. full] [ῠ] 20.195, ῥύσομαι [pron. full] [ῡ] Hes.Th. 662, Hdt.1.86, A.Th.91 (lyr.); [ per.] 3pl. : [tense] aor. I εἰρῠσάμην (from e-serū-) Il.4.186, 20.93, 21.230 ; opt. ἐρύσαιτο [pron. full] [ῠ] 24.584 ; ind. also ἐρρύσατο [pron. full] [ῡ] Od.1.6, al., ἐρύσατο [pron. full] [ῡ] Il.5.344, al., once withῥῠ, ῥῠσάμην 15.29
: from the redupl.[tense] pres. εἴρῡμαι are formed [tense] fut. ind. [ per.] 3pl.εἰρύσσονται 18.276
, I pl.εἰρῠόμεσθα 21.588
: [tense] aor. I inf.εἰρύσσασθαι 1.216
; opt.εἰρυσσαίμην 8.143
, 17.327, Od.16.459:—later [voice] Pass., [tense] aor.ἐρρύσθην Ev.Luc.1.74
, 2 Ep.Ti.4.17, Hld.10.7 : for ἔρῠτο and ἐρυσσάμενοι as [voice] Pass., v. infr. 4:—protect, guard, of armour, [πήληξ] κάρη ῥύετ' Ἀχιλλῆος Il.16.799
; [κυνέη] εἴρυτο κάρη Hes.Sc. 138
;ῥύεται δὲ κάρη Il.10.259
, etc.;μίτρης..ἥ οἱ πλεῖστον ἔρυτο 4.138
, cf. 23.819 ;ἄστυ δὲ πύργοι ὑψηλαί τε πύλαι σανίδες τ'..εἰρύσσονται 18.276
, cf. 12.454 ; ἀμφὶ δὲ τάφρον ἤλασαν, ὄφρα σφιν νῆας..ῥύοιτο ib.8 ;οἶος ἐρύετο Ἴλιον Ἕκτωρ 6.403
, cf. 22.507, 24.499 ;οἵ με πάρος γε εἰρύατο 22.303
;ὅς σε πάρος περ ῥύομ' 15.257
, cf.A.Th.91 (lyr.), etc.; καὶ πῶς βέβηλον ἄλσος ἂν ῥύοιτό με; Id.Supp. 509 ;Λυκίην εἴρυτο δίκῃσί τε καὶ σθένεϊ ᾧ Il.16.542
; ; [ἔλαφον] ὕλη εἰρύσατο 15.274
; of warders or watchmen, 10.417 ;σῦς τάσδε φυλάσσω τε ῥύομαί τε Od.14.107
; νῆα, νῆας ἔρυσθαι, 9.194, 10.444, 14.260, 17.429 ;εἴρυσθαι μέγα δῶμα 23.151
; ἣ νῶϊν εἴρυτο θύρας, of a female slave, ib. 229;ἐπέτελλεν..εἴρυσθαι ἄκοιτιν 3.268
; αὖλιν ἔρυντο, of dogs, Theoc.25.76 ; ἔτι μ' αὖτ' εἰρύαται οἴκαδ' ἰόντα lie in wait for me, Od.16.463 ; χαλεπόν σε θεῶν..δήνεα εἴρυσθαι to discover them, 23.82 (here perh. a difft. word, cogn. with ἐρευνάω, cf. Pi.Fr.61) ; φρεσὶν εἰρύσσαιτο keep in his heart, conceal, Od.16.459 ; οἵ τε θέμιστας πρὸς Διὸς εἰρύαται maintain them, Il.1.239 : hence, support, hold in honour, with notion of obedience, ;ἔπος εἰρύσσασθαι 1.216
.2 without any notion of defence, merely cover,ὡς ῥύσαιτο περὶ χροΐ μήδεα φωτός Od.6.129
;φύλλων χύσις ἤλ θα πολλὴ ὅσσον τ' ἠὲ δύω ἠὲ τρεῖς ἄνδρας ἔρυσθαι 5.484
.3 c. acc. rei, keep off, ward off, ἀλλ' οὐκ οἰωνοῖσιν ἐρύσσατο κῆρα μέλαιναν by no augury could he ward off black death, Il.2.859 ; ἡ δ' (sc. ἀσπὶς)οὐκ ἔγχος ἔρυτο 5.538
, 17.518, Od.24.524 ;ἀλλὰ πάροιθεν εἰρύσατο ζωστήρ Il.4.186
.4 thwart, check, curb, much like ἐρύκω,Διὸς νόον εἰρύσσαιτο 8.143
; ;Ἠῶ ῥύσατ' ἐπ' Ὠκεανῷ Od.23.244
;νῆά τ' ἔρυσθαι A.R.3.607
; so prob. in Τροΐας ἶνας ἐκταμὼν δορί, ταί νιν ῥύοντό ποτε ( thwarted him)μάχας..ἔργον..κορύσσοντα Pi.I.8(7).57
; νόστον ἐρυσσάμενοι having been balked of their return ([voice] Med. in pass. sense, cf. ἐστεφανώσατο, κατασχόμενος), Id.N.9.23 (v.l. ἐρεις-):—[voice] Pass.,ἡ δ' ἔρῠτ' εἰν Ἀρίμοισι Hes.Th. 304
.5 rescue, save, deliver (not in [dialect] Att. Prose exc. Th.5.63);μετὰ χερσὶν ἐρύσατο Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων Il.5.344
, cf. 11.363; πῶς ἂν.. εἰρύσσαισθε Ἴλιον; 17.327 ;Ποσειδάων..Νέστορος υἱὸν ἔρυτο 13.555
;βουλῆς..ἥ τίς κεν ἐρύσσεται ἠδὲ σαώσει Ἀργείους 10.44
; ;ὁ δ' ἐρύσατο καί μ' ἐλέησεν Od.14.279
;ἐρρύσατο καὶ ἐσάωσεν Il.15.290
; ;πατρίδα ῥυομένους Id.Eleg.3
;ῥύου με κἀκφύλασσε S.OC 285
, cf. Hdt.7.217,8.114 : freq. folld. by a Prep.,οὐ γάρ κεν ῥύσαιτό σ' ὑπὲκ κακοῦ Od. 12.107
;Ζεῦ πάτερ, ἀλλὰ σὺ ῥῦσαι ὑπ' ἠέρος υἷας Ἀχαιῶν Il.17.645
, cf. 224 ;ἐκ..πόνων ἐρρύσατο Pi.P.12.19
;ῥύσασθαί μιν ἐκ τοῦ παρεόντος κακοῦ Hdt.1.87
;ὡς ἂν ἀλλὰ παῖδ' ἐμὴν ῥυσώμεθ' ἀνδρῶν ἐκ χερῶν μιαιφόνων E.Or. 1563
: (lyr.);ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ Ev.Matt.6.13
: c. gen.,ῥ. τινὰ τοῦ μὴ κατακαυθῆναι Hdt.1.86
;κακῶν μυρίων E.Alc. 770
; (lyr.);πολέμου καὶ μανιῶν ῥ. Ἑλλάδα Ar. Lys. 342
: c. inf.,ῥ. τινὰ θανεῖν E.Alc.11
;τινα μὴ κατθανεῖν Id.HF 197
, cf. Or. 599, Hdt.7.11 ; also, save from an illness, cure, Id.4.187 : generally, Id.3.132.6 set free, redeem, τὸν ἔνθεν ῥυσάμην I set him free from thence, Il.15.29 ;ἐκ δουλοσύνης Hdt.5.49
,9.90; δουλοσύνης ib. 76 ;μάντιν Ἠλεῖον..ἀπημελημένον ἐν τοῖσι ἀνδραπόδοισι ἐρρύσατο Id.3.132
; butχρυσῷ ἐρύσασθαι Il.22.351
seems to come from ([etym.] ϝ) ερύω (v. ἐρύω (A) B.1.2).b metaph., redeem, compensate for.., ἔργῳ γὰρ ἀγαθῷ ῥύσεσθαι τὰς αἰτίας (v.l. λύσεσθαι) Th.5.63 ; ταῦτα πάντα κατθανοῦσα ῥύσομαι my death will redeem (purchase) all this, E.IA 1383 (troch.);ῥ. καμάτους Epigr.Gr.853.6
:—double sense in S.OT 312, 313 ῥῦσαι σεαυτὸν καὶ πόλιν, ῥῦσαι δ' ἐμέ, ῥῦσαι δὲ πᾶν μίασμα τοῦ τεθνηκότος redeem (deliver) thyself and the state and me, and redeem the pollution from the dead (the μίασμα being thought of as an unpaid debt). ( ἐρῠ- ῥῡ- from ser[ucaron]- srū-, cogn. with Lat. servare, v. οὖρος 'guard', ἔρυμα, ἐρυμνός.) -
76 ὁλκός
A drawing to oneself, attractive,θερμόν τε καὶ ὁ. Arist.Pr. 931a25
; ; ὁλκὸν.. ψυχῆς πρὸς ἀλήθειαν ib. 527b ;ὁλκοτέρας τὰς ῥίζας ποιεῖν Thphr. CP3.17.3
( ἑλκοτέρας cod. A: ἑλκτικωτέρας Wimmer).IV [voice] Pass., liable to be attracted, having a propensity,ὁ. διάνοιαι παρθένων πρὸς ἀρετήν Ph.2.229
.------------------------------------I machine for hauling ships on land, hauling-engine, prob. a fixed capstan, windlass, Hdt.2.154, 159, E.Rh. 146, 673 ; but also of movable engines of like kind, for hauling ships across the Isthmus of Corinth, Th.3.15.II furrow, track, trace,αἵματι δ' ὁλκοὶ.. πλήθοντο A.R.3.1391
; σμίλης ὁλκός the traces of a chisel in the wood, Ar.Th. 779(lyr.) ; ὁ. τοῦ ξύλου the furrow made by the wood, X.Cyn.9.18 ; path, track, or orbit of a star or meteor, A.R.3.141, 4.296, Nonn.D. 24.90 ; ἁμάξης ib.1.96 ; ditch or channel, A.R.1.375 ; οἴδματος ὁλκοί the waves, ib. 1167 ;ὁλκοὶ καλλιρόων ὑδάτων Milet.1(9).343
; body-coils of a serpent, Nic.Th. 266, al., Luc.Herm.79 ; but, coiling movement of a serpent, Nic.Th. 162, al. ; cf.ὁ. γλώσσης Id.Al.79
, 281 ; of hair, coil, ὁλκὸς ἐθείρης, πλοκάμων.. ὁλκοί, Nonn.D.3.413, 32.168 : generally, of anything drawn, αἵματος ὁλκῷ ib.4.329, al. ; draught of wine, Antiph. 237.4(pl.).2 in periphrases, δάφνης ὁλκοί drawings, i. e. laurelboughs (or brooms made of them) drawn along, E. Ion 145 (lyr.) ; τερπνὸς ἀκούεται ὁ. ἁμάξης a chariot drawn, D.P.191.3 aqueduct, Cod.Just.1.4.26 ;ὁ. ὑδάτων Lyd.Mens.3.23
.IV a kind of grass, mouse-barley, Plin.HN 27.90. -
77 Li Gao (Li Kao)
SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping[br]fl. 752/820 China[br]Chinese physicist, technologist and patron of engineers.[br]Li Gao was Prince of Cao (Tshao). He was interested in acoustics and carried out experiments on both hydrostatic and air pressure. He constructed "trick" hydrostatic vessels that could take up different positions according to the amount of water in them. Such vessels had been known since the third century BC and were popular at court for over a thousand years: Li's were made of lacquered wood, c. 790, probably in quantity. He made successful use of paddle warships operated by treadmills. Similar vessels may have been in use as early as the late fifth century, but this is not at all certain. Li Gao's ships are therefore the first practical achievement of an idea for ship propulsion that, probably independently, had been mooted but not realized in early Byzantine times in Europe. His experiments with this type of vessel were made during 782 to 785, while he was Governor of Hungchow. It was said that the ships "went like the wind", faster than a charging horse.[br]Further ReadingJ.Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962, Vols IV. 1, pp. 38, 62; 1965, IV. 2, pp. 417–18, 433, 435; Clerks and Craftsmen in China and the West, 1970, pp. 25, 127–8.LRD -
78 Mitchell, Charles
SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping[br]b. 20 May 1820 Aberdeen, Scotlandd. 22 August 1895 Jesmond, Newcastle upon Tyne, England[br]Scottish industrialist whose Tyneside shipyard was an early constituent of what became the Vickers Shipbuilding Group.[br]Mitchell's early education commenced at Ledingham's Academy, Correction Wynd, Aberdeen, and from there he became a premium apprentice at the Footdee Engineering Works of Wm Simpson \& Co. Despite being employed for around twelve hours each day, Mitchell matriculated at Marischal College (now merged with King's College to form the University of Aberdeen). He did not graduate, although in 1840 he won the chemistry prize. On the completion of his apprenticeship, like Andrew Leslie (founder of Hawthorn Leslie) and other young Aberdonians he moved to Tyneside, where most of his working life was spent. From 1842 until 1844 he worked as a draughtsman for his friend Coutts, who had a shipyard at Low Walker, before moving on to the drawing offices of Maudslay Sons and Field of London, then one of the leading shipbuilding and engineering establishments in the UK. While in London he studied languages, acquiring a skill that was to stand him in good stead in later years. In 1852 he returned to the North East and set up his own iron-ship building yard at Low Walker near Newcastle. Two years later he married Anne Swan, the sister of the two young men who were to found the company now known as Swan Hunter Ltd. The Mitchell yard grew in size and reputation and by the 1850s he was building for the Russian Navy and Merchant Marine as well as advising the Russians on their shipyards in St Petersburg. In 1867 the first informal business arrangement was concluded with Armstrongs for the supply of armaments for ships; this led to increased co-operation and ultimately in 1882 to the merger of the two shipyards as Sir W.G.Armstrong Mitchell \& Co. At the time of the merger, Mitchell had launched 450 ships in twenty-nine years. In 1886 the new company built the SS Gluckauf, the world's first bulk oil tanker. After ill health in 1865 Mitchell reduced his workload and lived for a while in Surbiton, London, but returned to Tyneside to a new house at Jesmond. In his later years he was a generous benefactor to many good causes in Tyneside and Aberdeen, to the Church and to the University of Aberdeen.[br]Further ReadingD.F.McGuire, 1988, Charles Mitchell 1820–1895, Victorian Shipbuilder, Newcastle upon Tyne: City Libraries and Arts.J.D.Scott, 1962, Vickers. A History, London: Weidenfeld \& Nicolson (a recommended overview of the Vickers Group).FMW -
79 זווא I, זוזא
זָוָואI, זוּזָא m. (זְוֵי; cmp. זוּג, fr. זָוַג) pair, set; change of clothes; scissors (corresp. to, and interchanging with זוֹגָא). Meg.16a לית לי זווא Ms. M. I have no scissors; אתא אליהו ושדא ליה ז׳ Elijah came and dropped a pair of scissors; (ed. זוזא, a. entirely differ. vers.; Ar. זווא). B. Mets. 116a bot. זוגא דסרבלי ed. (Ms. M. זוזי, Ms. F. זוזא; Ar. זווא) scissors for shearing shaggy woolen stuff; B. Bath.52a; Shebu.46b; Ab. Zar.75b זוזא (Ar. זוו׳). Taan.21b bot. זווא דרבנן ed. Pes. a. oth. (oth. ed. זוזא, oth. זוגא, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note 100) a delegation of scholars. Meg.7a; Succ.4b; Sabb.54b (an editorial gloss) בכוליה סדר מועד כל כי האי זוואוכ׳ Ar. (ed. זוגא) in the entire Order of Moëd, wherever this combination of authorities appears, some take out R. Joh. and insert R. Jon.Ber.22b חד מהאי זוואוכ׳ Ar. (ed. זוגא) one of the first combination of scholars, and one of the second combination.Pl. (זוּזֵי) זָווֵי. Keth.71a ז׳ ז׳ קתני Ar. (ed. זוגי) they are arranged in couples (two scholars for the one opinion and two for the other). Pes.111a הנהו ז׳ בכשפים עסיקן Ms. M. (ed. ודאיוכ׳) these are of the couples engaged in sorcery. Erub.97a צבתים ז׳ ז׳ (v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note 90) tsvathim (Mish. ib. X, 1) means bundles of one set (of Tfillin) each. Ib. 37a עולא זוזי זוזי קתני ed. (Ms. M. זווי, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note) Ula arranges the authorities quoted in couples (two on each side, v. supra). Sabb.129b דקיימא מאדים בז׳ (Ms. M. בזוּזַיָּה, Ms. O. בזוזי, Tosaf. to Erub.56a בזוגי) when the planet Mars rules at evennumbered hours of the day. Y.Ab. Zar. I, 39c bot. רחוץ בז׳ אוחרי bathe in another suit of clothes.Sabb.19b כרכי דזוזי (Ms. O. כריכי דזוגי) coupled (hinged) mattings used for roof-like protections for goods; (Var. quoted in Rashi: זִיוִיִ meaning ships;) ib. 156b (where Rashi has זווי ships). -
80 זָוָוא
זָוָואI, זוּזָא m. (זְוֵי; cmp. זוּג, fr. זָוַג) pair, set; change of clothes; scissors (corresp. to, and interchanging with זוֹגָא). Meg.16a לית לי זווא Ms. M. I have no scissors; אתא אליהו ושדא ליה ז׳ Elijah came and dropped a pair of scissors; (ed. זוזא, a. entirely differ. vers.; Ar. זווא). B. Mets. 116a bot. זוגא דסרבלי ed. (Ms. M. זוזי, Ms. F. זוזא; Ar. זווא) scissors for shearing shaggy woolen stuff; B. Bath.52a; Shebu.46b; Ab. Zar.75b זוזא (Ar. זוו׳). Taan.21b bot. זווא דרבנן ed. Pes. a. oth. (oth. ed. זוזא, oth. זוגא, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note 100) a delegation of scholars. Meg.7a; Succ.4b; Sabb.54b (an editorial gloss) בכוליה סדר מועד כל כי האי זוואוכ׳ Ar. (ed. זוגא) in the entire Order of Moëd, wherever this combination of authorities appears, some take out R. Joh. and insert R. Jon.Ber.22b חד מהאי זוואוכ׳ Ar. (ed. זוגא) one of the first combination of scholars, and one of the second combination.Pl. (זוּזֵי) זָווֵי. Keth.71a ז׳ ז׳ קתני Ar. (ed. זוגי) they are arranged in couples (two scholars for the one opinion and two for the other). Pes.111a הנהו ז׳ בכשפים עסיקן Ms. M. (ed. ודאיוכ׳) these are of the couples engaged in sorcery. Erub.97a צבתים ז׳ ז׳ (v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note 90) tsvathim (Mish. ib. X, 1) means bundles of one set (of Tfillin) each. Ib. 37a עולא זוזי זוזי קתני ed. (Ms. M. זווי, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note) Ula arranges the authorities quoted in couples (two on each side, v. supra). Sabb.129b דקיימא מאדים בז׳ (Ms. M. בזוּזַיָּה, Ms. O. בזוזי, Tosaf. to Erub.56a בזוגי) when the planet Mars rules at evennumbered hours of the day. Y.Ab. Zar. I, 39c bot. רחוץ בז׳ אוחרי bathe in another suit of clothes.Sabb.19b כרכי דזוזי (Ms. O. כריכי דזוגי) coupled (hinged) mattings used for roof-like protections for goods; (Var. quoted in Rashi: זִיוִיִ meaning ships;) ib. 156b (where Rashi has זווי ships).
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