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41 Renewable and Convertible Term
. Term life insurance that is both renewable for an additional period without evidence of insurability and convertible into a permanent or whole life policy. A policy may contain one or both clauses. . Small Business Taxes & Management 2 .Англо-русский экономический словарь > Renewable and Convertible Term
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42 imprisonment for the term of (one's) natural life
Юридический термин: пожизненное заключениеУниверсальный англо-русский словарь > imprisonment for the term of (one's) natural life
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43 imprisonment for the term of natural life
Юридический термин: (one's) пожизненное заключениеУниверсальный англо-русский словарь > imprisonment for the term of natural life
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44 imprisonment for the term of one's natural life
Politics english-russian dictionary > imprisonment for the term of one's natural life
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45 imprisonment for the term of one's natural life
English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > imprisonment for the term of one's natural life
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46 пожизненно
нареч. for term of lifeБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > пожизненно
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47 imprisonment
nтюремное заключение; лишение свободы; содержание под стражейto commute a death sentence to life imprisonment — заменять смертную казнь пожизненным тюремным заключением
to release smb from imprisonment — освобождать кого-л. от тюремного заключения
- false imprisonmentto sentence smb to imprisonment — приговаривать кого-л. к тюремному заключению
- illegal imprisonment
- imprisonment before trial
- imprisonment for the term of one's natural life
- life imprisonment
- punishable by life imprisonment
- rigorous imprisonment
- term of imprisonment -
48 BIOS
['baios] n. shkurtesë nga b asic i nput o utput s ystem ( BIOS) sistemi themelor për hyrje-dalje ( informatikë)What is BIOS?BIOS is an acronym for Basic Input/Output System. It is the boot firmware program on a PC, and controls the computer from the time you start it up until the operating system takes over. When you turn on a PC, the BIOS first conducts a basic hardware check, called a Power-On Self Test (POST), to determine whether all of the attachments are present and working. Then it loads the operating system into your computer's random access memory, or RAM.The BIOS also manages data flow between the computer's operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video card, keyboard, mouse, and printer.The BIOS stores the date, the time, and your system configuration information in a battery-powered, non-volatile memory chip, called a CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) after its manufacturing process.Although the BIOS is standardized and should rarely require updating, some older BIOS chips may not accommodate new hardware devices. Before the early 1990s, you couldn't update the BIOS without removing and replacing its ROM chip. Contemporary BIOS resides on memory chips such as flash chips or EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory), so that you can update the BIOS yourself if necessary.For detailed information about BIOS updates, visit:What is firmware?Firmware consists of programs installed semi-permanently into memory, using various types of programmable ROM chips, such as PROMS, EPROMs, EEPROMs, and flash chips.Firmware is non-volatile, and will remain in memory after you turn the system off.Often, the term firmware is used to refer specifically to boot firmware, which controls a computer from the time that it is turned on until the primary operating system has taken over. Boot firmware's main function is to initialize the hardware and then to boot (load and execute) the primary operating system. On PCs, the boot firmware is usually referred to as the BIOS.What is the difference between memory and disk storage?Memory and disk storage both refer to internal storage space in a computer.The term memory usually means RAM (Random Access Memory). To refer to hard drive storage, the terms disk space or storage are usually used.Typically, computers have much less memory than disk space, because RAM is much more expensive per megabyte than a hard disk. Today, a typical desktop computer might come with 512MB of RAM, and a 40 gigabyte hard disk.Virtual memory is disk space that has been designated to act like RAM.Computers also contain a small amount of ROM, or read-only memory, containing permanent or semi-permanent (firmware) instructions for checking hardware and starting up the computer. On a PC, this is called the BIOS.What is RAM?RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM provides space for your computer to read and write data to be accessed by the CPU (central processing unit). When people refer to a computer's memory, they usually mean its RAM.New computers typically come with at least 256 megabytes (MB) of RAM installed, and can be upgraded to 512MB or even a gigabyte or more.If you add more RAM to your computer, you reduce the number of times your CPU must read data from your hard disk. This usually allows your computer to work considerably faster, as RAM is many times faster than a hard disk.RAM is volatile, so data stored in RAM stays there only as long as your computer is running. As soon as you turn the computer off, the data stored in RAM disappears.When you turn your computer on again, your computer's boot firmware (called BIOS on a PC) uses instructions stored semi-permanently in ROM chips to read your operating system and related files from the disk and load them back into RAM.Note: On a PC, different parts of RAM may be more or less easily accessible to programs. For example, cache RAM is made up of very high-speed RAM chips which sit between the CPU and main RAM, storing (i.e., caching) memory accesses by the CPU. Cache RAM helps to alleviate the gap between the speed of a CPU's megahertz rating and the ability of RAM to respond and deliver data. It reduces how often the CPU must wait for data from main memory.What is ROM?ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It refers to computer memory chips containing permanent or semi-permanent data. Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile; even after you turn off your computer, the contents of ROM will remain.Almost every computer comes with a small amount of ROM containing the boot firmware. This consists of a few kilobytes of code that tell the computer what to do when it starts up, e.g., running hardware diagnostics and loading the operating system into RAM. On a PC, the boot firmware is called the BIOS.Originally, ROM was actually read-only. To update the programs in ROM, you had to remove and physically replace your ROM chips. Contemporary versions of ROM allow some limited rewriting, so you can usually upgrade firmware such as the BIOS by using installation software. Rewritable ROM chips include PROMs (programmable read-only memory), EPROMs (erasable read-only memory), EEPROMs (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), and a common variation of EEPROMs called flash memory.What is an ACPI BIOS?ACPI is an acronym that stands for Advanced Configuration and Power Interface, a power management specification developed by Intel, Microsoft, and Toshiba. ACPI support is built into Windows 98 and later operating systems. ACPI is designed to allow the operating system to control the amount of power provided to each device or peripheral attached to the computer system. This provides much more stable and efficient power management and makes it possible for the operating system to turn off selected devices, such as a monitor or CD-ROM drive, when they are not in use.ACPI should help eliminate computer lockup on entering power saving or sleep mode. This will allow for improved power management, especially in portable computer systems where reducing power consumption is critical for extending battery life. ACPI also allows for the computer to be turned on and off by external devices, so that the touch of a mouse or the press of a key will "wake up" the computer. This new feature of ACPI, called OnNow, allows a computer to enter a sleep mode that uses very little power.In addition to providing power management, ACPI also evolves the existing Plug and Play BIOS (PnP BIOS) to make adding and configuring new hardware devices easier. This includes support for legacy non-PnP devices and improved support for combining older devices with ACPI hardware, allowing both to work in a more efficient manner in the same computer system. The end result of this is to make the BIOS more PnP compatible.What is CMOS?CMOS, short for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, is a low-power, low-heat semiconductor technology used in contemporary microchips, especially useful for battery-powered devices. The specific technology is explained in detail at:http://searchsmb.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid44_gci213860,00.htmlMost commonly, though, the term CMOS is used to refer to small battery-powered configuration chips on system boards of personal computers, where the BIOS stores the date, the time, and system configuration details.How do I enter the Setup program in my BIOS?Warning: Your BIOS Setup program is very powerful. An incorrect setting could cause your computer not to boot properly. You should make sure you understand what a setting does before you change it.You can usually run Setup by pressing a special function key or key combination soon after turning on the computer, during its power-on self test (POST), before the operating system loads (or before the operating system's splash screen shows). During POST, the BIOS usually displays a prompt such as:Press F2 to enter SetupMany newer computers display a brief screen, usually black and white, with the computer manufacturer's logo during POST.Entering the designated keystroke will take you into the BIOS Setup. Common keystrokes to enter the BIOS Setup are F1, F2, F10, and Del.On some computers, such as some Gateway or Compaq computers, graphics appear during the POST, and the BIOS information is hidden. You must press Esc to make these graphics disappear. Your monitor will then display the correct keystroke to enter.Note: If you press the key too early or too often, the BIOS may display an error message. To avoid this, wait about five seconds after turning the power on, and then press the key once or twice.What's the difference between BIOS and CMOS?Many people use the terms BIOS (basic input/output system) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) to refer to the same thing. Though they are related, they are distinct and separate components of a computer. The BIOS is the program that starts a computer up, and the CMOS is where the BIOS stores the date, time, and system configuration details it needs to start the computer.The BIOS is a small program that controls the computer from the time it powers on until the time the operating system takes over. The BIOS is firmware, which means it cannot store variable data.CMOS is a type of memory technology, but most people use the term to refer to the chip that stores variable data for startup. A computer's BIOS will initialize and control components like the floppy and hard drive controllers and the computer's hardware clock, but the specific parameters for startup and initializing components are stored in the CMOS. -
49 love
A n1 (affection, devotion) amour m (for pour) ; to do sth for love faire qch par amour (of sb pour qn) ; to do sth for the love of it faire qch par goût ; for the love of God ou Mike ○ †! pour l'amour de Dieu or du ciel! to be/fall in love être/tomber amoureux/-euse (with de) ; he's in love with the sound of his own voice il s'écoute parler ; to fall out of love cesser d'être amoureux/-euse (with de) ; to make love ( have sex) faire l'amour (with avec ; to à) ; to make love to sb† ( court) faire la cour à qn ;2 ( in polite formulas) give my love to Jo transmets mes amitiés à Jo ; love to Don and the kids ○ baisers à Don et aux enfants ; Andy sends his love Andy t'embrasse ; with love from Bob, love Bob affectueusement, Bob ;3 ( object of affection) amour m ; he/music was my first love il/la musique a été mon premier amour ; my one true love mon seul amour ; the love of his life l'amour de sa vie ; the little loves ○ ! GB ce sont des amours! ; be a love and make some tea ○ GB sois gentil, fais-moi une tasse de thé ;4 GB ( term of address) (to lover, spouse) mon amour m, mon chéri/ma chérie m/f ; ( to child) mon chéri/ma chérie m/f ; that's 25 pence please, love c'est 25 pence, s'il vous plaît Madame/Monsieur ;5 ( in tennis) zéro m ; 15 love 15 (à) zéro ; love 15 zéro (à) 15 ; two sets to love deux sets à zéro.C vtr1 ( feel affection for) aimer [lover, spouse, child, pet, friend] ; to love sb very much/madly/tenderly aimer énormément/follement/tendrement qn ; to love sb for sth aimer qn pour qch ; I love her for saving my life/making me laugh je l'aime parce qu'elle m'a sauvé la vie/me fait rire ; to love each other s'aimer ; ‘he loves me, he loves me not’ ≈ ‘il m'aime, un peu, beaucoup, passionnément, à la folie, pas du tout’ ; I must love you and leave you hum ce n'est pas que je m'ennuie, mais il faut que je m'en aille ;2 (be fond of, appreciate) aimer [activity, place, thing] ; ( stronger) adorer ; I love the scene where… j'adore la scène où… ; I loved the way you said that j'ai bien aimé la façon dont tu as dit ça ; I love it when… j'adore quand… ; to love doing, to love to do aimer faire ; I would love to see them j'aimerais beaucoup les voir ; I'd love to help him but I can't j'aimerais bien l'aider mais je ne peux pas ; ‘dance?’-‘I'd love to!’ ‘tu veux danser?’-‘avec plaisir!’ ; ‘can she help?’-‘she'd love to’ ‘elle peut nous aider?’-‘elle serait ravie’ ; she'll love that! iron elle sera vraiment ravie! iron.love at first sight le coup de foudre ; there's no love lost between them ils/elles se détestent cordialement. ⇒ money. -
50 estate
1) имущество; собственность2) вещно-правовой титул, право вещного характера, вещно-правовой интерес; имущественный интерес в недвижимости3) сословие•estate at sufferance — владение с молчаливого согласия собственника;
estate at will — бессрочная аренда, бессрочное арендное право;
estate by the entirety — супружеская общность имущества;
estate for life — пожизненное право на недвижимое имущество;
estate for term of years — наём недвижимости на определённый срок;
estate for years — аренда на срок, срочное арендное право;
estate from year to year — аренда с пролонгацией из года в год;
estate in common — совместная собственность в неподелённых долях;
estate in coparcenary — совместное наследование;
estate in dower — имущество, переходящее вдове на праве пожизненного пользования;
estate in entirety — супружеская общность имущества;
estate in expectancy — вещное право с отсроченным использованием, ожидаемое имущество;
estate in fee-simple — безусловное право собственности;
estate in (fee-)tail — заповедное имущество, урезанная собственность ( ограниченная в порядке наследования и отчуждения);
estate in inheritance — наследуемый вещно-правовой титул;
estate in joint tenancy — совместное право в недвижимости;
estate in land — право на недвижимость;
estate in possession — вещное право, используемое в настоящем; реально используемое вещное право;
estate in real property — право на недвижимость;
estate in remainder — "выжидательная собственность", последующее имущественное право ( возникающее по прекращении имущественного права другого лица);
estate in reversion — имущество, переходящее к первоначальному собственнику или его наследнику; имущество в порядке поворота прав;
estate in severalty — самостоятельное независимое имущество, обособленная собственность;
estate pur autre vie — право в недвижимости, ограниченное сроком жизни другого лица;
estate tail — заповедное имущество, урезанная собственность ( ограниченная в порядке наследования и отчуждения);
estate tail female — имущество, наследуемое только по женской линии;
- estate of freeholdestate tail male — имущество, наследуемое только по мужской линии;
- estate of inheritance
- estate of matrimony
- estates of the realm
- absolute estate
- administered estate
- allodial estate
- ancestral estate
- bankrupt's estate
- base estate
- beneficial estate
- building estate
- conditional estate
- contingent estate
- continuing estate
- customary estate
- decedent's estate
- determinable estate
- dominant estate
- donor's estate
- eigne estate
- equitable estate
- expectant estate
- family estate
- fast estate
- freehold estate
- future estate
- gross estate of decedent
- inferior estate
- intestate estate
- joint estate
- landed estate
- leased estate
- leasehold estate
- legal estate
- life estate
- movable estate
- paramount estate
- parental estate
- personal estate
- real estate
- residuary estate
- second estate
- separate estate
- servient estate
- settled estate
- single estate
- socage estate
- superior estate
- terminated estate
- testate estate
- trust estate
- vested estate* * * -
51 Coade, Eleanor
SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building[br]b. 24 June 1733 Exeter, Devon, Englandd. 18 November 1821 Camberwell, London, England[br]English proprietor of the Coade Factory, making artificial stone.[br]Born Elinor Coade, she never married but adopted, as was customary in business in the eighteenth century, the courtesy title of Mrs. Following the bankruptcy and death of her father, George Coade, in Exeter, Eleanor and her mother (also called Eleanor) moved to London and founded the works at Lambeth, South London, in 1769 that later became famous as the Coade factory. The factory was located at King's Arms Stairs, Narrow Wall. During the eighteenth century, several attempts had been made in other businesses to manufacture a durable, malleable artificial stone that would be acceptable to architects for decorative use. These substances were not very successful, but Coade stone was different. Although stories are legion about the secret formula supposedly used in this artificial stone, modern methods have established the exact formula.Coade stone was a stoneware ceramic material fired in a kiln. The body was remarkable in that it shrank only 8 per cent in drying and firing: this was achieved by using a combination of china clay, sand, crushed glass and grog (i.e. crushed and ground, previously fired stoneware). The Coade formula thus included a considerable proportion of material that, having been fired once already, was unshrinkable. Mrs Coade's name for the firm, Coade's Lithodipyra Terra-Cotta or Artificial Stone Manufactory (where "Lithodipyra" is a term derived from three Greek words meaning "stone", "twice" and "fire"), made reference to the custom of including such material (such as in Josiah Wedgwood's basalt and jasper ware). The especially low rate of shrinkage rendered the material ideal for making extra-life-size statuary, and large architectural, decorative features to be incorporated into stone buildings.Coade stone was widely used for such purposes by leading architects in Britain and Ireland from the 1770s until the 1830s, including Robert Adam, Sir Charles Barry, Sir William Chambers, Sir John Soane, John Nash and James Wyatt. Some architects introduced the material abroad, as far as, for example, Charles Bulfinch's United States Bank in Boston, Massachusetts, and Charles Cameron's redecoration for the Empress Catherine of the great palace Tsarkoe Selo (now Pushkin), near St Petersburg. The material so resembles stone that it is often mistaken for it, but it is so hard and resistant to weather that it retains sharpness of detail much longer than the natural substance. The many famous British buildings where Coade stone was used include the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, Carlton House and the Sir John Soane Museum (all of which are located in London), St George's Chapel at Windsor, Alnwick Castle in Northumberland, and Culzean Castle in Ayrshire, Scotland.Apart from the qualities of the material, the Coade firm established a high reputation for the equally fine quality of its classical statuary. Mrs Coade employed excellent craftsmen such as the sculptor John Bacon (1740–99), whose work was mass-produced by the use of moulds. One famous example which was widely reproduced was the female caryatid from the south porch of the Erechtheion on the acropolis of Athens. A drawing of this had appeared in the second edition of Stuart and Revett's Antiquities of Athens in 1789, and many copies were made from the original Coade model; Soane used them more than once, for example on the Bank of England and his own houses in London.Eleanor Coade was a remarkable woman, and was important and influential on the neo-classical scene. She had close and amicable relations with leading architects of the day, notably Robert Adam and James Wyatt. The Coade factory was enlarged and altered over the years, but the site was finally cleared during 1949–50 in preparation for the establishment of the 1951 Festival of Britain.[br]Further ReadingA.Kelly, 1990, Mrs Coade's Stone, pub. in conjunction with the Georgian Group (an interesting, carefully written history; includes a detailed appendix on architects who used Coade stone and buildings where surviving work may be seen).DY -
52 fixed asset
капитальный актив
основной капитал
Актив, который предполагается использовать в коммерческой или предпринимательской деятельности в течение значительного периода (сравни: current asset (оборотный капитал)). К основному капиталу в большинстве отраслей относят землю и здания, производственные сооружения, машины и оборудование, инвестиции в компании-филиалы, “гудвил” и автомобили, хотя, находясь в руках дилеров, перечисленные активы являются оборотным капиталом. Издержки на эти активы обычно постепенно списываются из прибыли в течение ожидаемого срока их службы с ежегодным вычитанием части их стоимости из балансовой стоимости и отнесением ее на счет амортизационных отчислений (depriciation).
[ http://www.vocable.ru/dictionary/533/symbol/97]
капитальный актив
Долгосрочный актив, (напр. земельный участок, здания, оборудование и др. фиксированные активы), используемый компанией для своей деятельности (со сроками службы свыше одного года). См. Капитальные активы
[ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]Тематики
Синонимы
EN
основное средство
(ITIL Service Transition)
Измеримый актив бинеса, который имеет длительный жизненный цикл (например, здание, земельный участок, сервер или лицензия на программное обеспечение).
См. тж. сервисный актив; конфигурационная единица.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]EN
fixed asset
(ITIL Service Transition)
A tangible business asset that has a long-term useful life (for example, a building, a piece of land, a server or a software licence).
See also service asset; configuration item.
[Словарь терминов ITIL версия 1.0, 29 июля 2011 г.]Тематики
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > fixed asset
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53 срок
муж.
1) term;
date, deadline в срок, к сроку ≈ in time к условленному сроку, в указанный срок ≈ by the time/date fixed, by a specified date;
to time срок аренды ≈ term of lease срок платежа ≈ date/term of payment
2) (период) period срок военной службы ≈ call-up period избирать сроком на два года ≈ to elect for a term of two years сроком до трех месяцев ≈ within three months в кратчайший срок ≈ in the shortest possible time срок действия ≈ period of validity по истечении срока ≈ when the time expires, at the expiration of the period;
when the time is up за короткий срок ≈ in a short/brief space of time ∙ не давать ни отдыху, ни сроку (кому-л.) ≈ to give no peace дайте срокм.
1. (промежуток времени) period;
term;
(тюремного заключения тж.) stretch разг. ;
~ оплаты пять дней to be paid within five days;
в кратчайший ~ within the shortest possible time, in a very short (space of) time;
по истечении ~a when the term expires;
даю им ~у три часа you have three hours;
2. (предельный момент) deadline, date, time;
амортизационный ~ службы service life;
гарантийный ~ службы warranty life;
долгий, короткий ~ long/short term;
~ исполнения deadline, time allowed;
конечный ~ действия expiry date;
нормативный ~ normative period;
(общий) ~ службы service life;
~ окупаемости фин. pay-back time (period) ;
~ оплаты due date;
~ платежа date of payment, due date, payment period, date fixed for payment;
~ поставки delivery time( date) ;
предельный ~ службы time limit;
средний ~ службы average service life;
~ службы durability, endurance, life, lifetime, service life, time limit, working time;
~ амортизации эк. depreciable life;
~ капиталовложений эк. life of investments;
~ векселя эк. term of a bill;
~ годности эк. serviceable life, applicable time;
~ действия (документа) duration;
~ действия патента licence term;
~ действия соглашения period of validity of an agreement;
~ доставки delivery date;
~ кредита credit period, term of credit;
эксплуатационный ~ службы useful life;
~ хранения storage (shelf) life;
в ~ in/on time;
до ~а before( its) time, early;
к ~у to time;
явиться к ~у arrive on time;
пришёл ~ the moment has arrived;
представить работу в ~ do* the work in time;
все ~и прошли time ran out long ago;
на ~ for a certain period;
дай(те) ~! give me time!;
(как угроза) just you wait! -
54 natural
ˈnætʃrəl
1. прил.
1) а) естественный, природный natural resources natural weapons - natural selection natural phenomena natural day die a natural death the term of one's natural life for the rest of one's natural life natural power natural law Syn: normal б) настоящий, натуральный, неискусственный;
обычный, обыкновенный natural flowers natural teeth natural gas Ant: artificial;
marvellous в) дикий, некультивированный natural growth natural steel г) присущий, врожденный with the bravery natural to him ≈ с присущей ему храбростью She has a natural ability to understand the motives of others. ≈ У нее была врожденная способность понимать причины поведения других людей. natural frequency Syn: innate Ant: acquired
2) а) обычный, нормальный;
понятный That comes natural to me. ≈ Для меня это естественно. It's natural to want a nice car. ≈ Желание иметь хороший автомобиль - вполне естественное. It's perfectly natural that children love ice cream. ≈ Совершенно нормально, что дети любят мороженое. б) естественный, непринужденный He is a very natural person. ≈ Он очень непосредственный человек. come natural to one
3) естественный, относящийся к естествознанию natural philosopher - natural history - natural philosophy natural dialectics
4) а) ист. и уст. свой, неусыновленный;
рожденный в браке б) внебрачный, незаконнорожденный, побочный Syn: illegitimate, bastard
5) мат. натуральный - natural logarithm - natural number
2. сущ.
1) а) что-л. естественное б) у негров: вид прически, оставляющий волосы в первозданном виде
2) а) одаренный человек, самородок б) идиот от рождения;
дурачок, предмет издевательств
3) а) разг. самое подходящее, то, что нужно (для чего-л., в частности, о человеке) He is a natural for art. ≈ Он создан для искусства. He is a natural with any kind of engine. ≈ Он легко обращается с любыми механизмами. She proved to be a natural on camera. ≈ Она продемонстрировала умение держать себя естественно и непринужденно перед камерой. б) карт. в игре в очко: двадцать одно, сданное в первых двух картах;
в других азартных играх: любая комбинация, дающая сразу окончательный выигрыш, тж. перен.
4) а) муз. скрипичный ключ, ключ С б) муз. бекар (знак и связанные с ним действия) в) муз. белая клавиша( на любом клавишном инструменте)
5) редк. гениталии (также мн.) Any female with the desire of fulfilling the functions of her natural. ≈ (Дж. Джойс, "Улисс",)
6) археол. фундамент, пласт, лежащий под культурным слоем ∙ it's a natural! ≈ превосходно! кретин, идиот ( от рождения) - she is not quite a * она не круглая идиотка (разговорное) подходящий( для чего-л.) человек - Bob is a * for this job Боб как будто создан для этой работы( разговорное) самое подходящее - this job's a * for Jim эта работа как раз по Джиму - it's a *! превосходно!, как раз то, что нужно! (сленг) жизнь, земное существование - in all my * за всю (свою) жизнь (музыкальное) бекар (американизм) африканская прическа (без выпрямления и окраски волос) (американизм) "афро", прическа "под африканца";
высокая прическа из мелких завитков естественный, природный - * forces силы природы - * grandeur and beauty величие и красота природы - * resourses природные богатства /ресурсы/ - * gas природный газ - * radioactivity естественная радиоактивность - * harbour естественная гавань - * day сутки - * weapons естественное оружие( кулаки, зубы) - * death естественная смерть - * year тропический год - * number (математика) натуральное число - * cover( военное) естественное укрытие - * seeding самосев, естественное обсеменение( о растениях) - * infancy (юридическое) детство( до 7 лет) - * loss /wastage/ (коммерческое) естественная убыль (усушка, утечка и т. п.) - * horizon (авиация) видимый горизонт - the * cause of a seeming miracle естественно-научное обьяснение кажущегося чуда - * economy натуральное хозяйство - animals living in their * state животные в естественных условиях земной, физический - * life земное существование - the * world этот свет, земное существование - imprisonment for the term of one's * life (юридическое) пожизненное заключение настоящий, натуральный - * wool натуральная шерсть - * flowers живые цветы - * teeth свои зубы - * complexion естественный цвет лица( без косметики) - * portrait портрет, точно передающий сходство;
как живой - * scale( специальное) натуральная величина, масштаб 1:1 - * weight( коммерческое) натуральный вес( зерна) естественный, относящийся к естествознанию - * dialectics диалектика природы - * historian натуралист - * philosophy( устаревшее) физика;
натурфилософия;
философия природы обычный, нормальный;
понятный - * mistake понятная /естественная/ ошибка - it is * for a baby to cry if it is hungry вполне понятно /естественно, нормально/, что ребенок плачет, когда он голоден дикий, некультивированный - * growth дикая растительность - * state первобытное состояние - the * man человек, каким его создала природа;
(философское) естественный человек необработанный, не подвергшийся обработке - * steel незакаленная сталь врожденный, присущий - * gift врожденный дар - * linguist человек с врожденными способностями к языкам - * оrator прирожденный оратор - * fool дурак( от рождения) - with his * modesty со свойственной ему скромностью - it is * for a duck to swim утка обладает врожденными умением плавать непринужденный, естественный - it comes * to him это получается у него естественно /само собой/;
это ему дается легко - it was a very * piece of acting актер играл очень естественно /правдиво/ побочный, внебрачный - his * son его побочный сын - her * brother ее побочный брат, побочный сын ее отца ( американизм) в стиле "афро" (о прическе) (геология) материнский - * rock материнская порода - * ground материк( физическое) собственный - * frequency собственная частота - * vibration собственные колебания ~ естественный, природный;
to die a natural death умереть естественной смертью;
the term of one's natural life вся жизнь for the rest of one's ~ (life) до конца своих дней;
natural power силы природы ~ разг. самое подходящее;
самый подходящий человек (для чего-л.) ;
he is a natural for art он создан для искусства it comes ~ to him это легко ему дается;
he is a very natural person он очень непосредственный человек it comes ~ to him это легко ему дается;
he is a very natural person он очень непосредственный человек it comes ~ to him это получается у него естественно natural муз. бекар, знак бекара;
it's a natural! превосходно! natural муз. бекар, знак бекара;
it's a natural! превосходно! ~ внебрачный, незаконнорожденный;
natural child внебрачный ребенок;
natural son побочный сын ~ дикий, некультивированный;
natural growth дикая растительность;
natural steel незакаленная сталь ~ естественный, относящийся к естествознанию;
natural history естественная история ~ естественный, природный;
to die a natural death умереть естественной смертью;
the term of one's natural life вся жизнь ~ естественный ~ идиот от рождения;
дурачок ~ муз. ключ С ~ настоящий, натуральный;
natural flowers живые цветы;
natural teeth "свои" зубы ~ настоящий ~ натуральный ~ непринужденный, естественный ~ обычный, нормальный;
понятный;
natural mistake понятная, естественная ошибка ~ обычный ~ одаренный человек, самородок ~ понятный ~ природный ~ присущий;
врожденный;
with the bravery natural to him с присущей ему храбростью ~ разг. самое подходящее;
самый подходящий человек (для чего-л.) ;
he is a natural for art он создан для искусства ~ самородный ~ philosophy физика;
natural philosopher физик;
естествоиспытатель;
natural dialectics диалектика природы ~ настоящий, натуральный;
natural flowers живые цветы;
natural teeth "свои" зубы ~ дикий, некультивированный;
natural growth дикая растительность;
natural steel незакаленная сталь ~ естественный, относящийся к естествознанию;
natural history естественная история ~ обычный, нормальный;
понятный;
natural mistake понятная, естественная ошибка ~ selection биол. естественный отбор;
natural phenomena явления природы ~ philosophy физика;
natural philosopher физик;
естествоиспытатель;
natural dialectics диалектика природы philosopher: philosopher философ;
natural philosopher физик;
естествоиспытатель;
philosophers, stone философский камень ~ philosophy физика;
natural philosopher физик;
естествоиспытатель;
natural dialectics диалектика природы for the rest of one's ~ (life) до конца своих дней;
natural power силы природы ~ resources природные богатства;
natural weapons естественное оружие (кулаки, зубы и т. п.) resource: ~ (обыкн. pl) ресурсы, средства, запасы;
natural resources природные богатства resources: natural ~ природные ресурсы ~ selection биол. естественный отбор;
natural phenomena явления природы ~ внебрачный, незаконнорожденный;
natural child внебрачный ребенок;
natural son побочный сын ~ дикий, некультивированный;
natural growth дикая растительность;
natural steel незакаленная сталь ~ настоящий, натуральный;
natural flowers живые цветы;
natural teeth "свои" зубы ~ resources природные богатства;
natural weapons естественное оружие (кулаки, зубы и т. п.) ~ естественный, природный;
to die a natural death умереть естественной смертью;
the term of one's natural life вся жизнь ~ присущий;
врожденный;
with the bravery natural to him с присущей ему храбростью -
55 insurance
1) страхование2) страховой платёж3) страховой полис4) pl акции, выпущенные страховыми обществами -
56 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
57 Creativity
Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with DisorderEven to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)[P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity
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58 long
̈ɪlɔŋ I
1. прил.
1) (протяженный в пространстве) а) длинный;
больше своей ширины long legs/arms/fingernails/nose ≈ длинные ноги, руки, ногти, нос long road/journey ≈ дальняя дорога long distance ≈ дальнее расстояние the long side of the room ≈ длина комнаты it's a long way to go ≈ это далеко he came from a long way off ≈ прибыл он издалека a long way about ≈ немалый крюк (объезд) at long range ≈ на большом расстоянии long measures ≈ меры длины long waves ≈ длинные волны б) редк., иногда шутл. долговязый, высокий Syn: tall в) обладающий определенной протяженностью;
имеющий такую-то длину a mile/ seven yards long ≈ длиной в одну милю, семь ярдов how long your nose is? ≈ какой длины твой нос?
2) (протяженный во времени) а) долгий, длительный, существующий давно;
продолжительный;
затяжной long vacation ≈ летние каникулы( в университетах и судах Великобритании) a long(-lasting) relationship/friendship/love ≈ длительные отношения, старинная дружба, любовь надолго an illness of long standing ≈ застарелая болезнь long cold winter ≈ долгая холодная зима a long beer, drink ≈ разг. пиво, коктейль и т. п. в высоком стакане she gave him a long look/stare ≈ она долго/пристально посмотрела на него long custom/tradition ≈ старинный обычай/давняя традиция long words ≈ долгая речь long memory ≈ долгая, хорошая память we took a long farewell а) мы долго прощались б) мы расставались надолго wait a while long ≈ подождите еще немного I shall not wait (any) long ≈ не буду больше ждать( two days, a week) at (the) longest ≈ самое большее (два дня, неделю) for a long time ≈ очень долго a long time ago ≈ очень давно long time no see ≈ амер. шутл. якобы коверкая язык давно не виделись! in the long term ≈ долгосрочный;
перспективный long service ≈ воен. сверхсрочная служба б) обладающий определенной протяженностью, длящийся столько-то a (whole) life long ≈ длиной в (целую) жизнь;
всю жизнь an hour/three hours long ≈ часовой( продолжительностью в один час) трехчасовой how long does it take you to get there? ≈ сколько времени тебе понадобится, чтобы добраться туда?
3) долгий, медленный;
неспешный, медлительный How long he is! ≈ Что он так долго?! a long count by the referee ≈ (нарочно) медленный отсчет времени судьей (в спорте и т. п.) to be long about smth., to be long doing smth. ≈ копошиться, копаться (делая что-л.) ;
возиться, канителиться( с чем-л.)
4) а) длинный, большой;
обширный (состоящий из многих пунктов, насчитывающий много объектов) long list ≈ огромный, длинный список( a book) 300 pages long ≈ (книга) в триста страниц long family ≈ большая, многодетная семья long shillings ≈ ид. длинный рубль, хороший заработок б) огромный, избыточный, непомерно высокий long odds ≈ карт. высокие ставки long bill ≈ раздутый счет long prices ≈ непомерные, бешеные цены the guy's a long purse! ≈ у него денег до черта! Syn: high I
1., large
1.
5) длинный, далекий( далеко направленный, посланный, пущенный и т. п.) a long left jab ≈ длинный удар левой( в боксе) to hit the long ball ≈ выбить мяч далеко, сильно ударить( в футболе и т. п.) long train ≈ поезд дальнего следования( от long distance train)
6) фон.;
просодика а) долгий (гласный) ;
слоговой( об элементе дифтонга) б) ударный
7) направленный в будущее, относящийся к будущему а) отдаленный, отложенный на будущее long date ≈ отдаленный срок long thoughts ≈ мысли о будущем long guess ≈ долгосрочный прогноз, ожидание на будущее б) фин. долгосрочный a long note/bill, lease ≈ долгосрочный вексель, аренда
8) (on) отличающийся( какой-л. чертой) ;
тж. амер. сл. богатый( чем-л.), сильный в чем-л. long suit ≈ перен. сильная сторона( кого-л.) ;
ориг. карт. длинная масть to be long on common sense ≈ быть весьма здравомыслящим long on hope ≈ не переставать надеяться long on patience ≈ очень долго хранить терпение he-s long on weed ≈ у него еще большая куча травы Syn: strong
1.
9) эмфат., усил. целый, добрый long mile ≈ целая миля, не меньше мили to be waiting for a long hour ≈ ждать битый час
10) продолговатый, удлиненный (о любых фигурах, глазах и т. п.)
11) бирж. играющий на повышение they are now long on wheat ≈ сейчас они играют на повышение цен на пшеницу take a long position in steel ≈ принимать обязательства по срочным сделкам при игре на повышение цен на сталь ∙ long greens long nine Long Tom Long Parliament to make/pull a long face ≈ разг. помрачнеть long ears ≈ глупость, наивность a long head ≈ ум, башковитость;
предусмотрительность to make a long nose ≈ показать 'нос' long in the tooth ≈ о лошади, тж. перен. старый to have a long tongue ≈ много болтать to get a long start over smb. ≈ значительно опередить кого-л. at long weapons ≈ воен. на расстоянии (перестреливаться)
2. нареч.
1) а) долго, длительно;
в течение долгого времени it won't be long ≈ это ненадолго stay for as long as you like ≈ оставайтесь столько, сколько вам будет угодно long a popular hangout ≈ долгое время популярное заведение I, you, etc. may (do something) long enough ≈ ид. хоть в лепешку разбейся;
как горохом об стену можешь стараться сколько угодно - все бесполезно б) до определенного времени didn't stay longer than midnight ≈ до полуночи уже ушла it is no longer possible ≈ это уже/более невозможно
2) далеко, на далекое расстояние I didn't travel that long ≈ не то, чтобы я так далеко ездил threw the ball long ≈ запустил, бросил мяч далеко Syn: far
2.
3) а) давно, задолго до (особенно long before) long before you were born ≈ задолго до твоего появления на свет was excited long before the big day ≈ был весь в нервном напряжении еще задолго до событие long ago/since ≈ давным-давно/уже очень давно to be past long ≈ иметь место, пройти давно б) потом;
долгое время спустя( особенно long after) long after midnight ≈ далеко заполночь
4) усил. полностью, целиком all day/night long ≈ целый день/всю ночь (напролет) all smb.'s life long ≈ всю свою жизнь;
в течение всей своей жизни
5) бирж. на повышение to go long 100 shares ≈ купить 100 акций в расчете на повышение ∙ as long as ≈ пока;
до тех пор, пока so long ≈ пока! до свидания! long live ≈ да здравствует...
3. сущ.
1) долгое время;
долгий срок, долгий период времени before long ≈ скоро;
вскоре, в ближайшем времени for long ≈ надолго, на долгое время it can take long ≈ это может занять много времени it didn't take him long to come ≈ его ждать долго не пришлось
2) фон. долгий гласный;
слоговой гласный дифтонга
3) (the longs) летние каникулы( в университетах и судах Великобритании) Syn: long vacation
4) бирж. маклер, спекулянт, играющий на повышение
5) мн. а) брюки, длинные штаны (в противопоставление shorts) б) большие размеры мужской одежды ∙ the long and short the long and the short II гл. очень хотеть, страстно желать( чего-л.), испытывать потребность( в чем-л.), стремиться (to, for - к чему-л.) I long for you ≈ ты мне очень нужен, я не могу без тебя after she left me I was longing for a change in my life ≈ после того, как она меня покинула, мне очень хотелось радикально изменить свою жизнь he was longing for a shower ≈ он не мог дождаться момента, когда он сможет принять душ they long for peace but are driven to war ≈ им очень хочется мира, а их заставляют воевать I'm longing for a smoke ≈ очень хочется курить, умру без сигареты Syn: yearn, wish
2., desire
2., to be eager долгий срок;
длительный период;
большой промежуток времени - for * надолго, на большой срок - I shan't be away for * я уезжаю ненадолго, я скоро вернусь - before * скоро, в ближайшее время - we shall see you before * мы увидимся с вами в скором времени - it is * since we saw him мы уже давно его не видели, прошло много времени с тех пор, как мы его видели - it will not take * это не займет много времени - he did not take * to answer он не замедлил ответить - will you take * over it? вы скоро кончите? (стихосложение) долгий слог - four *s and six shorts четыре долгих слога и шесть коротких - *s and shorts стих, стихотворная строчка( особ. латинская) (фонетика) долгий гласный (музыкальное) лонга (the L.) (разговорное) сокр. от long vacation (биржевое) покупатель ценных бумаг (биржевое) спекулянт, играющий на повышение (длинные) брюки большие роста (мужской одежды) > the * and the short of smth. самая суть, самое главное( в чем-л.) > the * and the short of it is that they won короче говоря /все дело в том, что/ они выиграли длинный - * hair длинные волосы - * distance большое /далекое/ расстояние - * journey дальний /долгий/ путь - a * way off далеко - from a * way off издалека - a * way to go далеко (докуда-л.) - at * range на большом расстоянии;
с большого расстояния - a * way about (большой) крюк, объезд - * waves (радиотехника) длинные волны - on the * wave на длинной волне - a novel 300 pages * роман( длиной) в 300 страниц (редкое) высокий, долговязый долгий, продолжительный, длительный - * life долгая жизнь - * visit длительный визит - * years долгие годы - * halt (военное) большой привал - * service( военное) сверхсрочная служба - L. Service and Good Conduct Medal медаль "За долголетнюю и безупречную службу" - * farewell долгое прощание;
прощание надолго - * look долгий взгляд - * custom давнишний /старинный/ обычай - at (the) *est самое большее - we can wait only three days at (the) *est мы можем ждать самое большее три дня - for a * time долго, давно;
надолго - a * time ago много времени тому назад;
давным-давно - a * time before the war задолго до войны - it will be a * time before we meet again мы теперь не скоро встретимся опять - in the * term перспективный;
долгосрочный имеющий такую-то длину;
длиной в... - ten feet * длиной в десять футов - how * is this river? какова длина этой реки? имеющий такую-то продолжительность;
продолжительностью в... - an hour * продолжающийся один час, часовой отдаленный - * date отдаленный срок (финансовое) долгосрочный - * bill долгосрочный вексель - to draw at a * date выставить долгосрочный вексель - * lease долгосрочная аренда - * guess загадывание( на будущее) ;
долгосрочный прогноз медленный, медлительный - * illness затяжная болезнь - how * he is! как он копается! - to be * about smth., to be * doing smth. канителиться, копаться (с чем-л.) - the opportunity was not * in coming случай не замедлил представиться, случай пришлось ждать недолго томительный, скучный - the * hours dragged slowly by долгие, томительные часы тянулись так медленно - the days never seemed *, so full of interest were they заполненные интересными событиями, (эти) дни быстро пролетели - I had not seen him for many a * day я его целую вечность не видел (разговорное) многочисленный, обширный;
состоящий из множества пунктов, большого числа членов и т. п. - * family очень большая /многодетная/ семья - * bill длинный счет;
раздутый счет большой - * price непомерная цена - * purse много денег, толстый кошелек удлиненный, продолговатый - * square (вытянутый) прямоугольник - * slanted eyes миндалевидные раскосые глаза (фонетика) (стихосложение) долгий (о гласном, о слоге) - * mark знак долготы (:), (-) (грамматика) полный - * form полная форма( прилагательного и т. п.) целый - * mile добрая миля, не меньше мили - * hour целый /добрый/ час (on) богатый (чем-л.) ;
сильный (в чем-л.) - he is * on common sense здравый смысл - его сильная сторона - they are * on hope их никогда не оставляет надежда( биржевое) играющий на повышение - * position обзательства /позиция/ по срочным сделкам при игре на повышение - to be * on exchange играть на повышение курса валюты > * tongue длинный язык, болтливость > * ears глупость;
глуп, как осел > * suit (карточное) длинная масть;
превосходство, преимущество( в чем-л.) > * finger средний палец руки > * bone (анатомия) трубчатая кость > a * dozen тринадцать;
чертова дюжина > L. Tom дальнобойная пушка;
длинная сигара;
длинная глиняная трубка > * home могила > to make a * nose показать (длинный) нос > * hot summer (американизм) (историческое) период расовых столкновений и борьбы негров за свои права > * head проницательность;
предусмотрительность > to have a * head быть проницательным или предусмотрительным > to take * views проявлять предусмотрительность, быть дальновидным > to take the * view of smth. рассматривать что-л. в перспективе /с точки зрения возможностей чего-л./ > to have a * wind обладать способностью долго бежать или долго говорить не задыхаясь > in the * run в конечном счете, в результате > to make /to cut/ a * story short короче говоря > * in the tooth старый (о коне) ;
пожилой, в годах > she is rather * in the tooth она уже не первой молодости > by a * chalk намного, значительно > he is not * for this world он не жилец на этом свете долго;
длительно - how * do you mean to stay in London? сколько времени вы думаете пробыть в Лондоне? - I shan't be * я скоро вернусь, я не задержусь - we've * been intending to call on you мы уже давно собираемся навестить вас - we can't wait any *er, we can wait no *er мы больше не можем ждать - he does not work here any *er он здесь больше не работает - it is no *er possible это уже невозможно давно;
долгое время (спустя или перед чем-л.) - * after спустя много времени - * before задолго до - * before we were born задолго до нас - * ago /since/ давно - it was * past midnight было далеко за полночь - these events are * past все это случилось давно - she is * since dead она давно уже умерла (усилительно) полностью;
с начала до конца - all day * целый день;
день-деньской - all night * всю ночь напролет - all his life * всю свою долгую жизнь;
в течение всей своей жизни (биржевое) на повышение - we went * 500 shares мы купили 500 акций в расчете на повышение > as * as пока (тж. so * as) > as * as I live пока я жив > you may stay there as * as you like вы можете оставаться там сколько (за) хотите > so * as если только, при условии, что > so *! до свидания! > * live...! да здравствует...! (for, after) страстно желать;
стремиться - to * to go away стремиться уйти - to * for smb. тосковать, скучать по кому-л. - to * for a change жаждать перемены - we are *ing to see you мы очень хотим повидаться с вами - I *ed for a drink я ужасно хотел пить /выпить/;
у меня в горле пересохло - we are *ing for your return мы ждем не дождемся вашего возвращения ~ имеющий такую-то длину или продолжительность;
a mile long длиной в одну милю;
an hour long продолжающийся в течение часа ~ долго;
as long as пока;
stay for as long as you like оставайтесь столько, сколько вам будет угодно;
long live... да здравствует... ~ длинный;
long measures меры длины;
at long range на большом расстоянии;
a long mile добрая миля;
long waves радио длинные волны ~ долгий срок, долгое время;
for long надолго;
before long скоро;
вскоре;
will not take long не займет много времени a ~ farewell прощание надолго;
a friendship (an illness) of long standing старинная дружба (застарелая болезнь) ;
long vacation летние каникулы Long Parliament ист. Долгий парламент;
long in the teeth старый;
to get a long start over (smb.) значительно опередить (кого-л.) go ~ играть большую роль go ~ иметь большое влияние ~ медленный;
медлительный;
how long he is! как он копается! long большой промежуток времени ~ давно;
долгое время (перед, спустя) ;
long before задолго до;
long after долгое время спустя;
long since уже давным-давно ~ длинный;
long measures меры длины;
at long range на большом расстоянии;
a long mile добрая миля;
long waves радио длинные волны ~ длинный ~ длительный период ~ фон., прос. долгий (о гласном звуке) ~ долгий;
длительный;
давно существующий;
long look долгий взгляд;
a long custom давнишний, старинный обычай ~ фон. долгий гласный ~ долгий срок, долгое время;
for long надолго;
before long скоро;
вскоре;
will not take long не займет много времени ~ долго;
as long as пока;
stay for as long as you like оставайтесь столько, сколько вам будет угодно;
long live... да здравствует... ~ долгосрочная ценная бумага ~ фин. долгосрочный;
long ears глупость ~ долгосрочный ~ имеющий такую-то длину или продолжительность;
a mile long длиной в одну милю;
an hour long продолжающийся в течение часа ~ медленный;
медлительный;
how long he is! как он копается! ~ pl мужская одежда больших размеров ~ наличие у банка определенной суммы в иностранной валюте ~ обширный, многочисленный;
long family огромная семья;
long bill длинный, раздутый счет;
long price непомерная цена;
long shillings хороший заработок ~ покупатель ценных бумаг ~ скучный, многословный ~ спекулянт, играющий на повышение курса ~ срочная позиция, образовавшаяся в результате покупки фьючерсных и опционных контрактов ~ страстно желать (чего-л.), стремиться (to, for - к чему-л.) ~ тосковать ~ удлиненный, продолговатый ~ ценные бумаги, принадлежащие инвестору ~ (the longs) = ~ vacation;
the ~ and the short of it короче говоря, словом longer: longer сравн. ст. от long;
wait a while longer подождите еще немного;
I shall not wait (any) longer не буду больше ждать longest: longest превосх. ст. от long;
(a week) at longest самое большее (неделю) ~ давно;
долгое время (перед, спустя) ;
long before задолго до;
long after долгое время спустя;
long since уже давным-давно ~ (the longs) = ~ vacation;
the ~ and the short of it короче говоря, словом ~ долгий;
длительный;
давно существующий;
long look долгий взгляд;
a long custom давнишний, старинный обычай ~ фин. долгосрочный;
long ears глупость ~ обширный, многочисленный;
long family огромная семья;
long bill длинный, раздутый счет;
long price непомерная цена;
long shillings хороший заработок a ~ farewell долгое прощание a ~ farewell прощание надолго;
a friendship (an illness) of long standing старинная дружба (застарелая болезнь) ;
long vacation летние каникулы ~ greens амер. разг. бумажные деньги ~ head проницательность, предусмотрительность ~ adv his life ~ в течение всей его жизни, всю его жизнь Long Parliament ист. Долгий парламент;
long in the teeth старый;
to get a long start over (smb.) значительно опередить (кого-л.) ~ долго;
as long as пока;
stay for as long as you like оставайтесь столько, сколько вам будет угодно;
long live... да здравствует... ~ долгий;
длительный;
давно существующий;
long look долгий взгляд;
a long custom давнишний, старинный обычай ~ длинный;
long measures меры длины;
at long range на большом расстоянии;
a long mile добрая миля;
long waves радио длинные волны ~ длинный;
long measures меры длины;
at long range на большом расстоянии;
a long mile добрая миля;
long waves радио длинные волны ~ nine амер. разг. дешевая сигара ~ odds большое неравенство ставок;
неравные шансы odds: long (short) ~ неравные (почти равные) шансы;
odds on шансы на выигрыш выше, чем у противника Long Parliament ист. Долгий парламент;
long in the teeth старый;
to get a long start over (smb.) значительно опередить (кого-л.) ~ обширный, многочисленный;
long family огромная семья;
long bill длинный, раздутый счет;
long price непомерная цена;
long shillings хороший заработок ~ обширный, многочисленный;
long family огромная семья;
long bill длинный, раздутый счет;
long price непомерная цена;
long shillings хороший заработок ~ давно;
долгое время (перед, спустя) ;
long before задолго до;
long after долгое время спустя;
long since уже давным-давно Long Tom дальнобойная пушка Long Tom разг. длинная сигара Tom: Tom название большого колокола или орудия, напр.: Long Tom ист. "Длинный Том" a ~ farewell прощание надолго;
a friendship (an illness) of long standing старинная дружба (застарелая болезнь) ;
long vacation летние каникулы ~ (the longs) = ~ vacation;
the ~ and the short of it короче говоря, словом vacation: ~ каникулы;
the long vacation летние каникулы ~ длинный;
long measures меры длины;
at long range на большом расстоянии;
a long mile добрая миля;
long waves радио длинные волны wave: ~ радио сигнал;
волна;
long (medium, short) waves длинные (средние, короткие) волны to make (или to pull) a ~ face помрачнеть to make a ~ nose показать "нос" ~ имеющий такую-то длину или продолжительность;
a mile long длиной в одну милю;
an hour long продолжающийся в течение часа so ~ разг. пока!, до свидания! ~ долго;
as long as пока;
stay for as long as you like оставайтесь столько, сколько вам будет угодно;
long live... да здравствует... ~ долгий срок, долгое время;
for long надолго;
before long скоро;
вскоре;
will not take long не займет много времени -
59 policy
̈ɪˈpɔlɪsɪ I сущ.
1) а) политика, линия поведения, установка, курс to adopt, establish, formulate, set a policy ≈ принимать курс, устанавливать политику to adhere to, follow, pursue a policy ≈ следовать политике, держать курс, проводить политику to carry out, implement a policy ≈ проводить политику to form, shape a policy ≈ вырабатывать политику cautious policy ≈ осмотрительная, осторожная политика clear, clear-cut policy ≈ четкий политический курс conciliatory policy ≈ примиренческая политика deliberate policy ≈ обдуманная, взвешенная политика economic policy ≈ экономическая политика established, set policy ≈ установленная политика firm policy ≈ твердая политика flexible policy ≈ гибкая политика foolish policy ≈ недальновидная политика foreign policy ≈ внешняя политика friendly policy ≈ дружественная политика government, public policy ≈ политика правительства long-range, long-term policy ≈ долгосрочная политика military policy ≈ военная политика monetary policy ≈ денежная политика national policy ≈ национальная политика official policy ≈ официальная политика open-door policy ≈ политика открытых дверей personnel policy ≈ кадровая политика prudent policy ≈ разумная, предусмотрительная политика rigid policy ≈ твердая, жесткая политика scorched-earth policy ≈ воен. тактика выжженной земли short-range, short-term policy ≈ краткосрочная политика sound, wise policy ≈ здравая, мудрая политика tough policy ≈ жесткий политический курс, твердая политика wait-and-see policy ≈ политика выжидания It is our established policy to treat everyone fairly. ≈ У нас принято со всеми обращаться справедливо. It is company policy that all workers be/should be paid according to the same criteria. ≈ Политика компании состоит в том, чтобы все сотрудники получали зарплату на общих основаниях. bridge-building policy ≈ политика наведения мостов б) искусство управлять Syn: statecraft, diplomacy
2) благоразумие, политичность;
ловкость, хитрость In this case he was actuated by policy rather than by sentiment. ≈ На этот раз он руководствовался благоразумием, а не чувствами. Syn: prudence, sense
3) шотланд. парк (вокруг усадьбы) II сущ.
1) страховой полис to take out a policy ≈ получать страховой полис to issue, write up a policy ≈ выдавать, выписывать страховой полис to reinstate a policy ≈ восстанавливать страховой полис to cancel a policy ≈ аннулировать страховой полис endowment policy homeowner's policy insurance policy lifetime policy term policy
2) а) амер. род азартной игры, лотерея( построенная по принципу угадывания чисел) б) число, комбинация чисел (в азартной игре) Syn: number политика - home /internal, domestic/ * внутренняя политика - foreign * внешняя политика - long-range * долгосрочная политика - wait-and-see * выжидательная политика - give-and-take * политика взаимных уступок - kid-glove * умеренная /осторожная/ политика - big stick * (американизм) политика "большой дубинки" - ostrich * политика, основанная на самообмане - laissez-faire * политика (государственного) невмешательства (в экономику) - open-door * политика открытых дверей - procrastination * политика проволочек - "scorched-earth" * политика /тактика/ выжженной земли - carrot and stick * политика кнута и пряника - position-of-strength * политика (с позиции) силы - * of neutrality политика нейтралитета - * of pin-pricks политика булавочных уколов - brink-of-war *, * of brinkmanship( американизм) политика балансирования на грани войны - for reasons of * по политическим соображениям - to follow /to pursue, to conduct, to carry out/ a * проводить политику политика, линия поведения, курс;
установка;
стратегия - * authority директивный орган - their * is to satisfy the customers их цель - удовлетворить клиентов - honesty is the best * честность - лучшая политика - it is a poor * to promise more than you can do плохо обещать больше, чем можешь сделать система;
методика;
правила - all-in and all-out * (сельскохозяйственное) система использования( птичника) с однократным заполнением и последующей однократной реализацией птицы - feeding * (сельскохозяйственное) система кормления - first-in-first-out * очередность обслуживания в порядке поступления политичность, благоразумие - the * of such a course is doubtful разумность подобного курса сомнительна хитрость, ловкость проницательность;
дальновидность;
практичность;
предусмотрительность - he was actuated by * rather than sentiment он больше руководствовался практическими соображениями, нежели чувствами часто pl (шотландское) парк (при усадьбе или поместье) (редкое) правление;
правительство страховой полис - open * невалютированный полис - floating /running/ * генеральный полис - life (insurance) * полис страхования жизни - to issue /to draw up, to make out/ a * оформить полис( американизм) род азартной игры (в числа) - * shop место, где делаются ставки в этой игре accounting ~ общие принципы отражения хозяйственных операций в учете accounting ~ учетная политика adjustment ~ политика направленая на обеспечение трудоустройства (лиц, теряющих работу в результате структурных изменений в экономике) agricultural ~ аграрная политика alcohol ~ алкогольная политика (акциз, разрешение или запрещение производства, торговли и т. п.) all-in ~ универсальный страховой полис annuity insurance ~ договор страхования ренты antiinflationary ~ полит.эк. антиинфляционная политика austerity ~ полит.эк. политика строгой экономии banker ~ банковский страховой полис banking ~ политика банка bearer ~ полис на предъявителя blanket ~ генеральный полис blanket ~ полис, покрывающий все страховые случаи block ~ постоянный полис borrowing ~ кредитная политика capital contribution ~ полис страхования капиталов capital insurance ~ полис страхования капитала cargo ~ фрахтовый полис cheap money ~ политика низких процентных ставок coalition ~ политика сотрудничества collective bargaining ~ правила ведения переговоров о заключении коллективного договора commercial ~ торговая политика compensatory fiscal ~ компенсационная финансовая политика comprehensive household ~ полис комбинированного страхования квартиры и имущества comprehensive ~ полис комбинированного страхования consolidation ~ политика слияния consumer ~ политика в области защиты потребителей consumer ~ потребительская политика contractionary fiscal ~ жесткая финансово-кредитная политика contractionary fiscal ~ жесткая фискальная политика conversion ~ полис, предусматривающий возможность изменения страховой ответственности credible ~ политика, заслуживающая доверия credit ~ кредитная политика criminal ~ уголовная полиция currency ~ валютная политика data ~ политика в области информационной технологии dear-money ~ ограничение кредита путем повышения процентных ставок declaration ~ генеральный страховой полис development ~ политика развития (политический курс направленный на преимущественное развитие тех или иных областей) discount rate ~ политика регулирования учетных ставок discretionary fiscal ~ дискреционная финансовая политика dividend ~ дивидендная политика domestic ~ внутреняя политика easy monetary ~ политика "дешевых" денег easy money ~ политика "дешевых" денег economic ~ экономическая политика educational ~ политика в области образования employment ~ политика обеспечения занятости endowment ~ страхование на дожитие до определенного возраста environmental ~ экологическая политика exchange ~ валютная политика expansionary fiscal ~ экспансионистская финансово-бюджетная политика expansionary fiscal ~ экспансионистская фискальная политика expansionist monetary ~ экспансионистская денежно-кредитная политика external monetary ~ внешняя кредитно-денежная политика fidelity ~ полис страхования от финансовых потерь, связанных со злоупотреблениями служащих компании financial ~ финансовая политика fiscal ~ финансовая политика fiscal ~ финансово-бюджетная политика fiscal ~ фискальная политика fisheries ~ политика в области рыболовства fleet ~ морской полис floating ~ генеральный или постоянный полис floating ~ генеральный полис for reasons of ~ по политическим соображениям;
tough policy твердая политика foreign exchange ~ валютная политика foreign trade ~ политика в области внешней торговли free ~ бесплатный полис global ~ глобальный страховой полис grant a ~ выдавать страховой полис group ~ групповой полис growth ~ стратегия развития householder's comprehensive ~ страх. полис страхования нескольких видов домашнего имущества по одному договору hull ~ мор. страх. полис страхования корпуса судна immigrant ~ иммиграционная политика income distribution ~ политика распределения доходов incomes ~ политика в области контроля доходов index-linked ~ индексированный страховой полис individual ~ личный страховой полис industrial development ~ политика индустриального развития industrial ~ промышленная политика innovation ~ политика перемен insurance ~ договор страхования insurance ~ страховой полис insurance ~ amount сумма страхового полиса insurance ~ number номер страхового полиса interest rate ~ политика в области ставок процента internal ~ внутренняя политика inventory ~ политика управления запасами investment ~ инвестиционная политика isolation ~ политика изоляции issue a ~ выдавать страховой полис joint lives ~ полис совместного страхования жизни joint lives ~ полис страхования жизни двух или более лиц labour market ~ политика рынка труда laissez-faire ~ политика невмешательства государства в экономику laissez-faire ~ политика свободного предпринимательства land use ~ политика землепользования lapsed ~ полис, действие которого прекращено досрочно last survivor ~ полис лица, дожившего до определенного возраста legal ~ правовая политика lending ~ кредитная политика liberal trade ~ политика свободной торговли life annuity ~ полис пожизненной ренты life ~ полис страхования жизни liquidity ~ политика ликвидности loan against ~ ссуда под полис loan ~ кредитная политика loss ~ полис страхования от потерь management ~ политика руководства manpower ~ кадровая политика marine insurance ~ полис морского страхования marine ~ полис морского страхования marketing ~ политика в области сбыта marketing ~ стратегия в области сбыта master ~ групповой полис migration policies политика в вопросах миграции рабочей силы mixed ~ смешанный полис moderate ~ осторожная политика monetary ~ валютная политика monetary ~ денежно-кредитная политика monetary ~ монетарная политика mortgage protection ~ полис страхования погашения ипотечной задолженности national ~ государственная политика neutrality ~ политика нейтралитета nonalignment ~ политика неприсоединения obstructive ~ обструкционная политика omnium ~ страховой полис на общую сумму open ~ невалютированный полис, полис без указания стоимости предмета страхования open ~ невалютированный полис open ~ нетаксированный полис open-door ~ политика открытых дверей original ~ основной полис paging ~ вчт. алгоритм замещения страниц paid-up ~ оплаченный страховой полис ~ политика;
peace policy политика мира, мирная политика personal accident ~ полис личного страхования от несчастного случая personal accident ~ полис персонального страхования от несчастного случая personnel ~ кадровая политика policy вчт. алгоритм распределения ресурса ~ благоразумие, политичность;
хитрость, ловкость ~ курс ~ линия поведения ~ методика ~ шотл. парк (вокруг усадьбы) ~ поведение ~ полис (страховой) ~ политика, линия поведения, установка, курс ~ политика;
peace policy политика мира, мирная политика ~ политика ~ правила ~ амер. род азартной игры ~ вчт. стратегия ~ стратегия ~ страховой полис ~ страховой полис ~ of compromise политика компромиссов ~ of court судебная практика ~ of fiscal and monetary restraints политика финансовых и денежно-кредитных ограничений ~ of law правовая политика ~ of low interest rates политика низких процентных ставок ~ of violence политика насилия premium ~ полис с уплатой страховых взносов price ~ ценовая политика prices ~ политика цен pricing ~ политика ценообразования public ~ государственная политика reallotment ~ политика перераздела земли reform ~ политика реформ refugee ~ эмиграционная политика regional ~ региональная политика restrictive monetary ~ ограничительная денежно-кредитная политика restrictive monetary ~ ограничительная монетарная политика restrictive ~ политика ограничения restrictive ~ политика сдерживания restrictive trade ~ политика ограничения торговли retrenchment ~ политика экономии savings insurance ~ договор страхования сбережений security ~ вчт. стратегия защиты security ~ стратегия обеспечения безопасности service ~ вчт. стратегия обслуживания short-term economic ~ краткосрочная экономическая политика short-term ~ краткосрочная политика single-premium life ~ полис страхования жизни с единовременным страховым взносом single-premium ~ полис с единовременным страховым взносом social development ~ политика социального развития social ~ социальная политика solidary pay ~ политика платежей с солидарной ответственностью stabilization ~ политика стабилизации stabilization ~ политика стабилизации валюты stabilization ~ политика стабилизации цен stabilization ~ политика стабилизации экономической конъюнктуры stabilization ~ стратегия экономической стабилизации staff ~ кадровая политика stationary ~ вчт. стационарная стратегия structural ~ структурная политика subvention ~ политика в области субсидий supplementary ~ дополнительный полис supply-side ~ политика в области предложения survivorship ~ страховой полис пережившего супруга systematic ~ согласованная политика tax ~ налоговая политика taxation ~ политика налогообложения ticket ~ типовой полис tight money ~ жесткая кредитная политика tight money ~ политика дорогого кредита time ~ полис на срок time ~ срочный полис, полис страхования на срок for reasons of ~ по политическим соображениям;
tough policy твердая политика tough: ~ policy полит. жесткий курс;
a tough problem трудноразрешимая проблема trade ~ торговая политика translation ~ политика в области обменного курса валют turnover ~ полис страхования товарооборота uniform accounting ~ единая методика бухгалтерского учета unvalued ~ невалютированный полис unvalued ~ нетаксированный полис valued ~ валютированный полис valued ~ таксированный полис wage ~ политика в области зарплаты wage ~ политика в области оплаты труда wage restraint ~ политика сдерживания роста заработной платы wager ~ азартный полис whole-life ~ полис пожизненного страхования на случай смерти worldwide ~ глобальная политика worldwide ~ мировая политика youth ~ молодежная политика -
60 long
1. n долгий срок; длительный период; большой промежуток времениfor long — надолго, на большой срок
before long — скоро, в ближайшее время
it is long since we saw him — мы уже давно его не видели, прошло много времени с тех пор, как мы его видели
he may not endure long — он, вероятно, долго не продержится
2. n стих. долгий слогlong term — долгий срок; долгосрочный
long memory — долгая память, хорошая память
3. n фон. долгий гласный4. n муз. лонга5. n бирж. покупатель ценных бумагlong elephant — ширина рулона обойной бумаги,8
foolscap long folio — формат писчей бумаги,5Х40,6 см
6. n бирж. спекулянт, играющий на повышение7. n бирж. брюки8. n бирж. большие роста9. a длинныйat long range — на большом расстоянии; с большого расстояния
a long way about — крюк, объезд
10. a редк. высокий, долговязый11. a долгий, продолжительный, длительныйLong Service and Good Conduct Medal — медаль «За долголетнюю и безупречную службу»
for a long time — долго, давно; надолго
a long time ago — много времени тому назад; давным-давно
12. a имеющий такую-то длину; длиной в …13. a имеющий такую-то продолжительность; продолжительностью в …an hour long — продолжающийся один час, часовой
as long as life endures — пока есть жизнь, пока человек жив
long swing hip beat — с большого маха вис лежа на н.ж.
14. a отдалённый15. a фин. долгосрочный16. a медленный, медлительный17. a томительный, скучныйthe long hours dragged slowly by — долгие, томительные часы тянулись так медленно
long, unlively debate — длинные, скучные дебаты
18. a разг. большойlong drink — «большой стакан»
19. a разг. удлинённый, продолговатый20. a разг. грам. полный21. a разг. целыйlong mile — добрая миля, не меньше мили
22. a разг. богатый; сильныйhe is long on common sense — здравый смысл — его сильная сторона
long ears — глупость;
a long dozen — тринадцать;
long head — проницательность; предусмотрительность
to take long views — проявлять предусмотрительность, быть дальновидным
in the long run — в конечном счёте; в результате
23. adv долго; длительно24. adv давно; долгое времяlong ago — давно; давным-давно
25. adv усил. полностью; с начала до концаall day long — целый день; день-деньской
long house — длинный вигвам; общий дом нескольких семейств
26. adv бирж. на повышениеso long as — если только, при условии, что
long mark — знак долготы,
27. v страстно желать; стремитьсяСинонимический ряд:1. boring (adj.) boring; long-winded; prolix; tedious; verbose; wordy2. lengthy (adj.) attenuated; dragging; drawn out; drawn-out; elongate; elongated; extended; extensive; interminable; lengthy; long-drawn-out; longsome; overlong; prolonged; protracted; unending3. age (noun) aeon; aeons; age; ages; blue moon; coon's age; dog's age; donkey's years; eternity4. ache (verb) ache; covet; crave; desire; dream; hanker; hanker for; hunger; itch; long for; lust; pant; pine; pine for; sigh; suspire; thirst; wish; yearn; yearn for; yenАнтонимический ряд:brief; compact; compressed; concise; condensed; curt; disdain; ephemeral; evanescent; fleeting; forgo; interesting; laconic; pithy; short
См. также в других словарях:
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Life annuity — Life Life (l[imac]f), n.; pl. {Lives} (l[imac]vz). [AS. l[imac]f; akin to D. lijf body, G. leib body, MHG. l[imac]p life, body, OHG. l[imac]b life, Icel. l[imac]f, life, body, Sw. lif, Dan. liv, and E. live, v. [root]119. See {Live}, and cf.… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Life arrow — Life Life (l[imac]f), n.; pl. {Lives} (l[imac]vz). [AS. l[imac]f; akin to D. lijf body, G. leib body, MHG. l[imac]p life, body, OHG. l[imac]b life, Icel. l[imac]f, life, body, Sw. lif, Dan. liv, and E. live, v. [root]119. See {Live}, and cf.… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Life assurance — Life Life (l[imac]f), n.; pl. {Lives} (l[imac]vz). [AS. l[imac]f; akin to D. lijf body, G. leib body, MHG. l[imac]p life, body, OHG. l[imac]b life, Icel. l[imac]f, life, body, Sw. lif, Dan. liv, and E. live, v. [root]119. See {Live}, and cf.… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Life buoy — Life Life (l[imac]f), n.; pl. {Lives} (l[imac]vz). [AS. l[imac]f; akin to D. lijf body, G. leib body, MHG. l[imac]p life, body, OHG. l[imac]b life, Icel. l[imac]f, life, body, Sw. lif, Dan. liv, and E. live, v. [root]119. See {Live}, and cf.… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Life car — Life Life (l[imac]f), n.; pl. {Lives} (l[imac]vz). [AS. l[imac]f; akin to D. lijf body, G. leib body, MHG. l[imac]p life, body, OHG. l[imac]b life, Icel. l[imac]f, life, body, Sw. lif, Dan. liv, and E. live, v. [root]119. See {Live}, and cf.… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English