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at+government+level

  • 21 highest level meeting

    private meeting — закрытое заседание; неофициальная встреча

    English-Russian big medical dictionary > highest level meeting

  • 22 subsidiary principle

    1. принцип учета мнений на всех уровнях

     

    принцип учета мнений на всех уровнях
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    subsidiary principle
    The fundamental doctrine or tenet that policy making decisions should be made at the most decentralized level, in which a centralized governing body would not take action unless it it is more effective than action taken at a lower government level. (Source: ODE)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > subsidiary principle

  • 23 set\ up

    1. III
    1) set up smth. /smth. up/ set up a tent (a scarecrow, a fence, posts, a statue, etc.) (по)ставить палатку и т.д.; set up a house (a building, a school, a factory, etc.) построить /возвести/ дом и т.д.; set up one's easel (a printing-press, etc.) установить мольберт и т.д.; set up a monument воздвигнуть монумент; set up a camp разбить лагерь; I set up a camera in the shade я установил фотоаппарат в тени
    2) set up smth. /smth. up/ set up a notice (a flag, a slogan, streamers, etc.) вывешивать объявление и т.д.
    3) set up smth. /smth. up/ set up a government (a state, a commission, etc.) создать /сформировать/правительство и т.д., set up a republic установить республику; set up a Cabinet (opposition, a board of directors, a tribunal, etc.) создать /сформировать/ кабинет и т.д.; set up a special committee учредить специальную комиссию; set up a company (a business, a newspaper, a fund, etc.) основать компанию и т.д.; we shall have to set up a new laboratory нам придется организовать /создать/ новую лабораторию; he set up a small bookshop он открыл небольшой книжный магазин и т.д.; they set up a bank robbery они организовали /устроили/ ограбление банка; set up friendly relations установить /наладить/ дружеские отношения
    4) set up smth. / smth. up/ set up new laws (new rules, a new economic order, an international control system, a quota, a custom, etc.) устанавливать /вводить/ новые законы и т.д.; set up a national control of electric power ввести государственный контроль над расходованием электроэнергии; set up a new principle (a theory, etc.) выдвигать новый принцип и т.д.; set up an original method предложить оригинальный метод; set up a program (me) (the main requirements, a new approach, etc.) разработать программу и т.д.; set up a defence построить /создать/ новую систему обороны; set up a record установить рекорд; set up a claim (a counter-claim, etc.) предъявлять иск и т.д.
    5) set up smth. /smth. up/ set up a howl (a terrific noise, a loud cry, etc.) поднимать вой и т.д.; set up a commotion (a row, a scuffling, etc.) устраивать волнения и т.д.; set up an alarm поднимать тревогу; the wheels set up a tremendous creaking колеса начали отчаянно скрипеть; the wind sets up a humming in the wires от ветра начинают гудеть провода; set up a rash (an inflammation, a swelling, infection, etc.) вызывать сыпь и т.д.
    6) set up smb. /smb. up/ coll. this medicine set him up это лекарство поставило его на ноги; the fresh country air set her up свежий деревенский воздух восстановил ее здоровье; а fortnight in the country (a holiday, a change of air, etc.) will set you up двухнедельное пребывание в деревне и т.д. вернет вам силы; you want some good walks (fresh air, some rest, etc.) to set you up для хорошего самочувствия вам необходимы /нужны, полезны/ длительные прогулки и т.д.
    7) set up smth. /smth. up/ print set up a page (a book, a manuscript, type, etc.) набирать полосу и т.д.
    2. IV
    1) set up smth. /smth. up/ in some manner set up ninepins again снова поднять /поставить/ [упавшие] кегли
    2) set up smb. /smb. up/ in some manner this fine air (a change of air, her holiday in the country, etc.) set her up again этот прекрасный воздух и т.д. вновь поставил ее на ноги; а summer in the camp sets up a boy wonderfully лето [пребывания] в лагере является прекрасной закалкой /тренировкой/ для мальчиков
    3. VII
    set up smth. /smth. up/ to do smth. set up an international organization to maintain peace (to carry out the programme), to guard the world against the atomic bomb, etc.) создать международную организацию для борьбы за мир и т.д.
    4. XI
    1) be set up at some time the camp and the aerodrome were set up later лагерь и аэродром были построены позднее; be set up somewhere the portrait was set up on the stage портрет был установлен на сцене; special seats had to be set up around the sides of the hall по бокам зала пришлось поставить дополнительные стулья /устроить дополнительные места/
    2) be set up on smth. an inscription was set up on the tablet на плите была высечена надпись
    3) be set up with smth. be set up with food (with clothes, with cars, with equipment, etc.) for an expedition быть обеспеченным продовольствием и т.д. на все время экспедиции; I am set up with novels for the winter у меня теперь книг [хватит] на всю зиму
    4) be set up infection (swelling, irritation, etc.) was set up появилась инфекция и т.д.; the doctor has no idea how the condition was first set up врач не имеет представления, что явилось причиной такого состояния
    5) be set up in some manner he is quite set up again он опять на ногах /хорошо себя чувствует/
    5. XVI
    1) set up in smth. set up in trade (in business, in law, etc.) открывать собственное предприятие и т.д.
    2) set up for smb. coll. set up for a man of wit претендовать на остроумие; set up for a scholar (for a profound scientist, for a critic, for a moralist, for a gentleman, for an atheist, etc.) a) считать себя ученым и т.д.; б) выдавать себя за ученого и т.д.; I don't set up for an authority я не претендую на то, чтобы считаться авторитетом
    6. XX1
    set up as smb. set up as a lawyer (as a doctor, as a chemist, etc.) открыть свою юридическую контору и т.д.
    7. XXI1
    1) set up smth. /smth. up/ along (in, on, etc.) smth. set up posts along the street (milestones along a road, machines in their places, telephone booths in the street, etc.) ставить столбы вдоль улицы и т.д.; set up a home in the country (in another city, etc.) создать там и т.д. дом /семью/; set men up on a chess-board расставлять фигуры на шахматной доске; set up smb. /smb. up/ to smth. set up a claimant to the throne возвести претендента на престол, посадить претендента на трон
    2) set up smb. /smb. up/ over smb. set oneself up over one's colleagues (over one's people, etc.) ставить себя выше своих коллег и т.д.; set up smb. /smb. up/ for smb. although he is such an ignorant fellow, he sets himself up for a critic человек он невежественный, а претендует на то, чтобы критиковать других
    3) set up smth., smb. /smth., smb. up/ in smth. set up a shop in a new neighbourhood открыть магазин в новом районе; set up one's office in one of the rooms in the building открыть свою контору в одной из комнат этого здания; he wishes to set himself up in business all for himself ему хочется стать во главе собственного дела; set up an office in the Department of Agriculture сформировать отдел в министерстве земледелия; set up a policy board at high government level сформировать политический комитет на высоком уровне
    4) set up smb. /smb. up/ in smth. set him up in business помочь ему открыть собственное дело; they set their son up in real estate они открыли для своего сына контору по продаже недвижимой собственности; set smb. up in life помочь кому-л. стать на ноги
    5) set up smth. /smth. up/ in /at/ smth. what defence did his lawyer set up at /in/ the trial? как построил его адвокат защиту на суде?
    6) set up smb. /smb. up/ with (in) smth. set him up with books (with clothing, with equipment, with food, etc.) обеспечивать его книгами и т.д.; set him up in funds предоставить ему нужные фонды /деньги/, материально обеспечить его
    7) set up smth. /smth. up/ in (on, etc.) smth. set up an irritation in one's throat (this rash on my face, an itch on the skin, etc.) вызывать раздражение горла и т.д.; I wonder what has set up inflammation on the wound не могу понять, отчего воспалилась рана
    8) set up smth. /smth. up/ in smth. print. set a page (a manuscript, a book, etc.) up in type сделать набор полосы и т.д.
    8. XXIV1
    set smb. up as smb.
    1) set smb. up as a tobacconist помочь кому-л. открыть собственный табачный магазин; set oneself up as a grocer начать торговлю бакалейными товарами
    2) set oneself up as an authority (as an important fellow, as a merchant, as a scholar, etc.) считать себя специалистом /авторитетом/ и т.д. или выдавать себя за специалиста и т.д.

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > set\ up

  • 24 use (one's) position

    Официальное выражение: использовать своё служебное положение (use his or her position to influence any acts or decisions on any government level)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > use (one's) position

  • 25 use position

    Официальное выражение: (one's) использовать своё служебное положение (use his or her position to influence any acts or decisions on any government level)

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > use position

  • 26 military

    1. n
    1) войска, военная сила
    2) ( the military ) военнослужащие, военные
    2. a
    военный, воинский

    English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > military

  • 27 governance

    •• government, governance

    •• Government 1. the political direction or control exercised over a nation, state, community, etc. 2. the form or system by which a nation, state, community, etc. is governed. 3. a governing body or persons. 4. control or rule (The Random House Dictionary).
    •• Governance governing, control (Oxford American Dictionary).
    •• О важном отличии употребления слова government в британском и американском вариантах английского языка рассказано в статье American English/British English. Поскольку в британском употреблении это слово, как и у нас, означает обычно правительство, кабинет министров, здесь мы будем говорить в основном об особенностях американской трактовки этого слова. Она связана прежде всего с тем, что для американцев government – это система правления, государственной власти и все, что с ней связано. Согласно доктрине разделения властей (separation of powers) государственная власть делится на законодательную, исполнительную и судебную (суды для американцев тоже government), которые взаимно сдерживают друг друга (система checks and balances – сдержек и противовесов). Далее, государственное управление имеет несколько уровней – федеральный, штатный, муниципальный (местный). Для американцев это тоже government. А вот сказать the Clinton government (или the Nixon government) нельзя. Это лишь часть того, что американцы называют the government (в этом смысле всегда с определенным артиклем), а тех, кто «приходит и уходит» с каждым президентом (кабинет министров – кстати, министры в США, как и в Великобритании, Secretaries - и других политических назначенцев), американцы называют the Administration.
    •• При минимальном внимании переводчик без особого труда сделает правильный выбор. Вот несколько примеров:
    •• 1. I had had many years of experience in government (George Kennan). [Rachel Carson] went to work for the government, editing and writing pamphlets for the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Interior Department (Washington Post). В обоих случаях government – государственная служба. Обратим внимание на Interior Department. Это, конечно, не министерство внутренних дел в нашем понимании, а скорее министерство природных (если угодно, внутренних) ресурсов;
    •• 2. Americans jealously, even obsessively guard their rights and are suspicious of government authority. – Американцы ревностно, болезненно-непримиримо оберегают свои права и с подозрением относятся к власти;
    •• 3. Kremlin funding for social services is sparse, and much of the burden falls on cash-poor and often corrupt local governments (Washington Post). Здесь governments – местные органы власти.
    •• Действительно, американцы не слишком тепло относятся к government. В глазах большинства из них государство – это не только никем не любимые налоги, но и вообще нечто казенное. Соответственно выражение government issue (так говорят о форменной одежде и т.п.) – это казенное имущество. Кстати, сокращение GI, вошедшее в язык во время Второй мировой войны, – отсюда. Так до сих пор называют американских солдат.
    •• В последнее время среди политиков, журналистов и социологов приобрело популярность слово governance, которое уже невозможно отнести, как это делают наши словари, к чисто книжной лексике. Вот заголовок статьи обозревателя «Нью-Йорк таймс» Томаса Фридмана – The Big Issue Now Is Competent Governance. Речь в ней идет об управлении жизнью общества. Чтобы было яснее, приведу довольно пространную цитату: With the collapse of communism, virtually every country has the same “hardware.” That is, they have all adopted free market capitalism to one degree or another. But where they differ is the “software” – the institutions of governance, be they regulatory bodies, a watchdog press, or uncorrupted courts, civil service, parliaments and police. Встречается также выражение corporate governance – структуры и методы управления корпорациями.
    •• * В последнее время часто употребляется словосочетание good governance. Требование обеспечить good governance выдвигается международными «донорами» в качестве условия предоставления помощи развивающимся странам. Необходимость good governance признана в документах ООН, например в Плане действий, принятом в Иоханнесбурге:
    •• Good governance within each country and at the international level is essential for sustainable development. At the domestic level, sound environmental, social and economic policies, democratic institutions responsive to the needs of the people, the rule of law, anti-corruption measures, gender equality and an enabling environment for investment are the basis for sustainable development.
    •• Второе предложение можно считать своего рода рабочим определением этого понятия. К сожалению, русская служба письменных переводов ООН приняла в качестве перевода неудачный, на мой взгляд, вариант благое управление. Отчасти оправдывает ооновских переводчиков необходимость иметь во всех официальных текстах ООН одно и только одно соответствие английскому термину. Существует мнение, что это выражение пришло в английский язык из китайского, а именно из учения Конфуция о «хорошем управлении государством».
    •• И хотя некоторые коллеги считают, что с вариантом благое управление придется смириться, мне кажется, что еще можно побороться. По смыслу (особенно когда речь идет о требовании good governance) это то, что мы назвали бы наведением порядка во власти/управлении/государстве. В зависимости от контекста можно использовать варианты порядок во власти/управлении/государстве и даже оздоровление власти. И все же в большинстве случаев по чисто прагматическим причинам придется выбрать вариант, включающий в себя слово управление (нередко, но не всегда – государственное управление). Здесь возможны варианты надлежащее/адекватное/правильное управление (в последнем варианте – тавтология, но он, по-моему, вполне отражает смысл).
    •• Интересно выражение global governance. Глобальное управление слишком похоже на «мировое правительство», от стремления создать которое все открещиваются. Неплохие варианты – управление глобальными процессами или глобальная управляемость. Corporate governance – корпоративное управление, хотя мне встречалось также внутрикорпоративное управление и даже принципы корпоративного поведения. Может быть, последнее, как утверждают сторонники этого варианта, и лучше отражает суть понятия, но надо помнить, что условен и английский термин и, как следствие, его перевод. Поэтому во избежание путаницы стоит, наверное, остановиться на первом варианте.

    English-Russian nonsystematic dictionary > governance

  • 28 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
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    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
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    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
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    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
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    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 29 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 30 fall

    1. noun
    1) (act or manner of falling) Fallen, das; (of person) Sturz, der

    fall of snow/rain — Schnee-/Regenfall, der

    2) (collapse, defeat) Fall, der; (of dynasty, empire) Untergang, der; (of government) Sturz, der
    3) (slope) Abfall, der (to zu, nach)
    4) (Amer.): (autumn) Herbst, der
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) fallen; [Person:] [hin]fallen, stürzen; [Pferd:] stürzen

    fall off something, fall down from something — von etwas [herunter]fallen

    fall down [into] something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]fallen

    fall down dead — tot umfallen

    fall down the stairs — die Treppe herunter-/hinunterfallen

    fall [flat] on one's face — (lit. or fig.) auf die Nase fallen (ugs.)

    fall into the trap — in die Falle gehen

    fall from a great height — aus großer Höhe abstürzen

    rain/snow is falling — es regnet/schneit

    2) (fig.) [Nacht, Dunkelheit:] hereinbrechen; [Abend:] anbrechen; [Stille:] eintreten
    3) (fig.): (be uttered) fallen
    4) (become detached) [Blätter:] [ab]fallen

    fall out — [Haare, Federn:] ausfallen

    5) (sink to lower level) sinken; [Barometer:] fallen; [Absatz, Verkauf:] zurückgehen

    fall into sin/temptation — eine Sünde begehen/der Versuchung er- od. unterliegen

    6) (subside) [Wasserspiegel, Gezeitenhöhe:] fallen; [Wind:] sich legen
    7) (show dismay)

    his/her face fell — er/sie machte ein langes Gesicht (ugs.)

    8) (be defeated) [Festung, Stadt:] fallen; [Monarchie, Regierung:] gestürzt werden; [Reich:] untergehen
    9) (perish) [Soldat:] fallen
    10) (collapse, break) einstürzen

    fall to pieces, fall apart — [Buch, Wagen:] auseinander fallen

    fall apart at the seams — an den Nähten aufplatzen

    11) (come by chance, duty, etc.) fallen (to an + Akk.)

    it fell to me or to my lot to do it — das Los, es tun zu müssen, hat mich getroffen

    fall into decay — [Gebäude:] verfallen

    fall into a swoon or faint — in Ohnmacht fallen

    12) [Auge, Strahl, Licht, Schatten:] fallen ( upon auf + Akk.)
    13) (have specified place) liegen (on, to auf + Dat., within in + Dat.)

    fall into or under a category — in od. unter eine Kategorie fallen

    14) (occur) fallen (on auf + Akk.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/26285/fall_about">fall about
    * * *
    [fo:l] 1. past tense - fell; verb
    1) (to go down from a higher level usually unintentionally: The apple fell from the tree; Her eye fell on an old book.) fallen
    2) ((often with over) to go down to the ground etc from an upright position, usually by accident: She fell (over).) fallen
    3) (to become lower or less: The temperature is falling.) fallen
    4) (to happen or occur: Easter falls early this year.) stattfinden
    5) (to enter a certain state or condition: She fell asleep; They fell in love.) fallen
    6) ((formal: only with it as subject) to come as one's duty etc: It falls to me to take care of the children.) überlassen bleiben
    2. noun
    1) (the act of falling: He had a fall.) der Sturz
    2) ((a quantity of) something that has fallen: a fall of snow.) der Fall
    3) (capture or (political) defeat: the fall of Rome.) der Fall
    4) ((American) the autumn: Leaves change colour in the fall.) der Herbst
    •
    - falls
    - fallout
    - his
    - her face fell
    - fall away
    - fall back
    - fall back on
    - fall behind
    - fall down
    - fall flat
    - fall for
    - fall in with
    - fall off
    - fall on/upon
    - fall out
    - fall short
    - fall through
    * * *
    [fɔ:l, AM esp fɑ:l]
    I. NOUN
    1. (tumble, drop) Fall m; (harder) Sturz m
    she broke her leg in the \fall sie brach sich bei dem Sturz das Bein
    to break sb's \fall jds Sturz abfangen
    to have a \fall hinfallen; (harder) stürzen
    to take a \fall stürzen; (from a horse) vom Pferd fallen
    to have [or take] a nasty \fall schwer stürzen
    2. no pl (descent) Fallen nt; of leaves Herabfallen nt geh; (drop) of an axe, a guillotine Herunterfallen nt; of a level also [Ab]sinken nt
    the audience roared at the \fall of the curtain das Publikum brüllte, als der Vorhang fiel
    at the \fall of the tide bei Ebbe f
    the rise and \fall of the tide Ebbe und Flut
    3. METEO, GEOG
    \fall of earth Erdrutsch m
    [heavy] \falls of rain/snow [heftige] Regen-/Schneefälle
    \fall of rock Steinschlag m
    4. SPORT (in wrestling) Schultersieg m
    5. no pl (slope) Gefälle nt
    6. no pl (decrease) Rückgang m (in + gen); in support Nachlassen nt (in + gen); in a level also Sinken nt (in + gen)
    there was a \fall in support for his party at the last election die Unterstützung für seine Partei hat bei den letzten Wahlen nachgelassen
    \fall in demand/price/temperature Nachfrage-/Preis-/Temperaturrückgang m
    there has been a slight \fall in the price of petrol der Benzinpreis ist leicht zurückgegangen
    sudden \fall in price Preissturz m
    \fall in pressure Druckabfall m
    \fall in moral standards Verfall m der Sitten
    a sharp \fall in temperature ein Temperaturabfall m, ein Temperatursturz m
    \fall in value Wertverlust m
    7. no pl (defeat) of a city Einnahme f; of a dictator, regime Sturz m
    the \fall of the Berlin Wall/Iron Curtain der Fall der Berliner Mauer/des Eisernen Vorhangs
    the \fall of Constantinople die Eroberung Konstantinopels
    the \fall of the Roman Empire der Untergang des Römischen Reiches
    \fall from power Entmachtung f
    ▪ the F\fall [of Man] der Sündenfall
    9. AM (autumn) Herbst m
    10. (waterfall)
    ▪ \falls pl Wasserfall m
    [the] Victoria F\falls die Viktoriafälle
    11.
    ▶ to be as innocent as Adam before the F\fall ( saying) so unschuldig sein wie Adam vor dem Sündenfall
    ▶ to take a [or the] \fall for sb/sth AM ( fam) für jdn/etw die Schuld auf sich akk nehmen, für jdn/etw einstehen
    AM (sun, weather) Herbst-
    \fall clothing Herbstkleidung f
    \fall collection Herbstkollektion f
    \fall plowing Wintersaat f
    <fell, fallen>
    1. (drop, tumble) fallen; (harder) stürzen; (topple) person hinfallen; (harder) stürzen; tree, post, pillar umfallen; (harder) umstürzen
    he fell badly and broke his arm er stürzte schwer und brach sich den Arm
    the bridge fell into the river die Brücke stürzte ins Wasser
    her horse fell at a fence ihr Pferd blieb an einem Hindernis hängen
    the bomb fell on the church and totally destroyed it die Bombe fiel auf die Kirche und zerstörte sie vollständig
    the picture's \fallen behind the piano das Bild ist hinter das Klavier gefallen
    to \fall into sb's/each other's arms jdm/sich in die Arme fallen
    to \fall into bed ins Bett fallen
    to \fall under a bus/train unter einen Bus/Zug geraten
    to \fall to one's death in den Tod stürzen
    to \fall flat on one's face aufs Gesicht [o fam auf die Nase] fallen
    to \fall on the floor/to the ground auf den Boden fallen
    to \fall to one's knees auf die Knie fallen
    to \fall down dead tot umfallen
    2. (hang) fallen
    to \fall loosely locker fallen
    ▪ to \fall around/on/to sth auf etw akk fallen [o geh herabhängen]
    his hair fell around his shoulders in golden curls sein Haar fiel ihm in goldenen Locken auf die Schulter
    her hair fell to her waist ihr Haar reichte ihr bis zur Taille
    ▪ to \fall into sth in etw akk fallen
    a curl/a strand of hair fell into her face eine Locke/Strähne fiel ihr ins Gesicht
    3. (descend) fallen; light, shadow
    ▪ to \fall across/on/over sth auf etw akk fallen; blow, weapon
    ▪ to \fall on sb/sth jdn/etw treffen; ( fig) darkness, night hereinbrechen; ( fig) silence
    ▪ to \fall on sb/sth jdn/etw überfallen
    the audience was still laughing as the curtain fell als der Vorhang fiel, lachte das Publikum immer noch
    the snow had been \falling all day es hatte den ganzen Tag über geschneit
    more rain had \fallen overnight über Nacht hatte es noch mehr geregnet
    darkness \falls early in the tropics in den Tropen wird es früh dunkel
    night was already \falling es begann bereits dunkel zu werden
    the blows continued to \fall on him die Schläge prasselten weiter auf ihn nieder
    the axe looks likely to \fall on 500 jobs 500 Stellen werden wahrscheinlich gestrichen werden
    silence fell on the group of men [ein] Schweigen überfiel die Männer
    4. (slope) [steil] abfallen
    5. (decrease) sinken; price, temperature, pressure, value also fallen; demand, sales, numbers also zurückgehen; ( fig) barometer fallen
    water supplies have \fallen to danger levels der Wasservorrat ist auf einen gefährlich niedrigen Stand abgesunken
    the attendance fell well below the expected figure die Besucherzahlen blieben weit hinter den erwarteten Zahlen zurück
    church attendance has \fallen dramatically die Anzahl der Kirchenbesucher ist drastisch zurückgegangen [o gesunken]
    \falling prices pl Preisrückgang m
    6. (be defeated) government, regime, politician gestürzt werden; empire untergehen; city, town eingenommen werden, fallen
    to \fall from power seines Amtes enthoben werden
    ▪ to \fall to sb jdm in die Hände fallen
    Basildon finally fell to Labour at the last election Basildon fiel in der letzten Wahl Labour zu
    7. (lose a position, status) fallen
    to \fall in the charts/the table in den Charts/der Tabelle fallen
    to have \fallen to the bottom of the league table ganz unten in der Tabelle stehen
    to \fall in sb's estimation in jds Achtung sinken
    8. (fail)
    to stand or \fall on sth mit etw dat stehen und fallen
    the proposal will stand or \fall on the possible tax breaks der Vorschlag wird mit den zu erwartenden Steuervergünstigungen stehen und fallen
    9. ( liter: die in a battle) fallen
    10. (be) liegen
    Easter \falls early/late this year Ostern ist dieses Jahr früh/spät
    this year, my birthday \falls on a Monday diese Jahr fällt mein Geburtstag auf einen Montag
    the accent \falls on the second syllable der Akzent liegt auf der zweiten Silbe
    11. (belong)
    ▪ to \fall into sth in etw akk fallen
    to \fall into a category/class in [o unter] eine Kategorie/Klasse fallen
    ▪ to \fall outside sth nicht in etw akk fallen
    this matter \falls outside the area for which we are responsible diese Sache fällt nicht in unseren Zuständigkeitsbereich
    ▪ to \fall under sth in etw akk fallen
    that side of the business \falls under my department dieser Geschäftsteil fällt in meinen Zuständigkeitsbereich
    that \falls under the heading... das fällt unter die Rubrik...
    ▪ to \fall within sth in etw akk fallen
    any offence committed in this state \falls within the jurisdiction of this court jedes Vergehen, das in diesem Staat begangen wird, fällt in den Zuständigkeitsbereich dieses Gerichts
    12. (be divided)
    ▪ to \fall into sth sich in etw akk gliedern
    the text \falls into three sections der Text gliedert sich in drei Kategorien
    to \fall prey [or victim] to sb/sth jdm/etw zum Opfer fallen
    to \fall asleep einschlafen
    to \fall due fällig sein
    to \fall foul of sb mit jdm Streit bekommen
    to \fall foul of a law [or regulation] ein Gesetz übertreten
    to \fall ill [or sick] krank werden
    to \fall open aufklappen
    to \fall silent verstummen
    to \fall vacant frei werden
    14. (enter a particular state)
    to \fall into debt sich akk verschulden
    to \fall into disrepair [or decay] verkommen
    to \fall into disrepute in Misskredit geraten
    to \fall into disuse nicht mehr benutzt werden
    to \fall into error/sin REL sich akk versündigen
    to \fall out of favour [or AM favor] [with sb] [bei jdm] nicht mehr gefragt sein
    to \fall into the habit of doing sth sich dat angewöhnen, etw zu tun
    to \fall into hysterics sich akk vor Lachen kringeln fam
    to \fall under the influence of sb/sth unter den Einfluss einer Person/einer S. gen geraten
    to \fall in love [with sb/sth] sich akk [in jdn/etw] verlieben
    to \fall out of love [with sb/sth] nicht mehr [in jdn/etw] verliebt sein
    to \fall into a reflective mood ins Grübeln kommen
    to have \fallen under the spell of sb/sth von jdm/etw verzaubert sein
    15.
    ▶ to \fall on deaf ears auf taube Ohren stoßen
    ▶ to \fall out of one's dress ( fam) aus allen Wolken fallen fam
    ▶ sb's face fell jd machte ein langes Gesicht
    ▶ to \fall into the hands [or clutches] of sb jdm in die Hände fallen
    ▶ to \fall on hard times harte Zeiten durchleben
    ▶ to \fall in [or into] line [with sth] sich akk [etw dat] anpassen
    ▶ to \fall to pieces plan, relationship in die Brüche gehen; person zerbrechen
    ▶ to \fall into place (work out) sich akk von selbst ergeben; (make sense) einen Sinn ergeben, [einen] Sinn machen fam
    ▶ to \fall short [of sth] etw nicht erreichen
    ▶ to \fall short of sb's expectations hinter jds Erwartungen zurückbleiben
    ▶ to \fall on stony ground auf felsigen Grund fallen liter
    ▶ to \fall among thieves ( old) unter die Räuber fallen veraltet
    ▶ to \fall into a/sb's trap in die/jdm in die Falle gehen
    I was afraid that I might be \falling into a trap ich hatte Angst, in eine Falle zu laufen
    they fell into the trap of overestimating their own ability sie haben ihre eigenen Fähigkeiten völlig überschätzt
    ▶ to \fall to a whisper in einen Flüsterton verfallen
    * * *
    [fɔːl] vb: pret fell, ptp fallen
    1. n
    1) (lit, fig: tumble) Fall m no pl, Sturz m; (= decline of empire etc) Untergang m

    to have a fall — (hin)fallen, stürzen

    2) (= defeat of town, fortress etc) Einnahme f, Eroberung f; (of Troy) Fall m; (of country) Zusammenbruch m; (of government) Sturz m
    3)

    fall of rain/snow — Regen-/Schneefall m

    4) (of night) Einbruch m
    5) (= lowering) Sinken nt; (in temperature) Abfall m, Sinken nt; (sudden) Sturz m; (of barometer) Fallen nt; (sudden) Sturz m; (in wind) Nachlassen nt; (in revs, population, membership) Abnahme f; (in graph) Abfall m; (in morals) Verfall m; (of prices, currency, gradual) Sinken nt; (sudden) Sturz m
    6) (= slope of roof, ground) Gefälle nt; (steeper) Abfall m
    7) (= waterfall also falls) Wasserfall m
    8) (WRESTLING) Schultersieg m
    9) (= hang of curtains etc) Fall m
    10) (US: autumn) Herbst m

    in the fall — im Herbst

    2. vi
    1) (lit, fig: tumble) fallen; (SPORT, from a height, badly) stürzen; (object, to the ground) herunterfallen
    2) (= hang down hair, clothes etc) fallen
    3) (snow, rain) fallen
    4) (= drop temperature, price) fallen, sinken; (population, membership etc) abnehmen; (voice) sich senken; (wind) sich legen, nachlassen; (land) abfallen; (graph, curve, rate) abnehmen; (steeply) abfallen
    5) (= be defeated country) eingenommen werden; (city, fortress) fallen, erobert or eingenommen werden; (government, ruler) gestürzt werden

    to fall to the enemy — vom Feind eingenommen werden; (fortress, town also) vom Feind erobert werden

    6) (= be killed) fallen
    7) (night) hereinbrechen; (silence) eintreten
    8) (BIBL) den Sündenfall tun; (old, girl) die Unschuld or Ehre verlieren (dated)
    9) (= occur birthday, Easter etc) fallen (on auf +acc); (accent) liegen (on auf +dat); (= be classified) gehören (under in +acc), fallen (under unter +acc)

    that falls within/outside the scope of... — das fällt in/nicht in den Bereich +gen..., das liegt innerhalb/außerhalb des Bereichs +gen...

    10) (= be naturally divisible) zerfallen, sich gliedern (into in +acc)
    11) (fig)

    where do you think the responsibility/blame for that will fall? — wem wird Ihrer Meinung nach die Verantwortung dafür/die Schuld daran gegeben?

    12) (= become) werden

    to fall ill — krank werden, erkranken (geh)

    to fall out of love with sb — aufhören, jdn zu lieben

    13)

    (= pass into a certain state) to fall into decline (building) — verkommen; (economy) schlechter werden

    to fall into a state of unconsciousness — das Bewusstsein verlieren, in Ohnmacht fallen

    to fall apart or to pieces (chairs, cars, book etc) — aus dem Leim gehen (inf); (clothes, curtains) sich in Wohlgefallen auflösen (inf); (house) verfallen; (system, company, sb's life) aus den Fugen geraten or gehen

    I fell apart when he left me — meine Welt brach zusammen, als er mich verließ

    14)

    (in set constructions see also n, adj etc) to fall into the hands of sb —

    * * *
    fall [fɔːl]
    A s
    1. Fall m, Sturz m, Fallen n:
    fall from ( oder out of) the window Sturz aus dem Fenster;
    have a bad ( oder heavy) fall schwer stürzen;
    a) verwegen reiten,
    b) auch head for a fall fig das Schicksal oder Unheil herausfordern, ins Unglück rennen;
    take the fall for sb umg für jemanden den Kopf hinhalten
    2. a) (Ab)Fallen n (der Blätter etc)
    b) besonders US Herbst m:
    in fall im Herbst;
    fall weather Herbstwetter n
    3. Fall m, Herabfallen n, Faltenwurf m (von Stoff)
    4. Fallen n (des Vorhangs)
    5. TECH Niedergang m (des Kolbens etc)
    6. Zusammenfallen n, Einsturz m (eines Gebäudes)
    7. PHYS
    a) → free fall
    b) Fallhöhe f, -strecke f
    8. a) (Regen-, Schnee) Fall m
    b) Regen-, Schnee-, Niederschlagsmenge f
    9. Fallen n, Sinken n (der Flut, Temperatur etc):
    fall in demand WIRTSCH Nachfragerückgang m;
    ( heavy oder sudden) fall in prices Preis-, Kurssturz m;
    speculate for a fall auf Baisse oder à la baisse spekulieren; → operate A 4
    10. Abfall(en) m(n), Gefälle n, Neigung f (des Geländes):
    a sharp fall ein starkes Gefälle
    11. (Wasser) Fall m:
    12. An-, Einbruch m (der Nacht etc)
    13. Fall m, Sturz m, Nieder-, Untergang m, Verfall m, Ende n:
    the fall of Troy der Fall von Troja;
    fall of life fig Herbst m des Lebens
    14. a) (moralischer) Verfall
    b) Fall m, Fehltritt m:
    the Fall, the fall of man BIBEL der (erste) Sündenfall
    15. JAGD
    a) Fall m, Tod m (von Wild)
    b) Falle f
    16. AGR, ZOOL Wurf m (Lämmer etc)
    17. Ringen: Niederwurf m:
    win by fall Schultersieg m;
    try a fall with sb fig sich mit jemandem messen
    B v/i prät fell [fel], pperf fallen [ˈfɔːlən]
    1. fallen:
    the curtain falls der Vorhang fällt
    2. (ab)fallen (Blätter etc)
    3. (herunter)fallen, abstürzen:
    he fell to his death er stürzte tödlich ab
    4. (um-, hin-, nieder)fallen, stürzen, zu Fall kommen, zu Boden fallen (Person):
    he fell badly ( oder heavily) er stürzte schwer; → flat1 C 1
    5. umfallen, -stürzen (Baum etc)
    6. (in Locken oder Falten etc) (herab)fallen
    7. fig fallen:
    a) (im Krieg) umkommen
    b) erobert werden (Stadt)
    c) gestürzt werden (Regierung)
    d) (moralisch) sinken
    e) die Unschuld verlieren, einen Fehltritt begehen (Frau)
    f) SPORT gebrochen werden (Rekord etc)
    8. fig fallen, sinken (Flut, Preis, Temperatur etc):
    the temperature has fallen (by) 10 degrees die Temperatur ist um 10 Grad gesunken;
    the wind falls der Wind legt sich oder lässt nach;
    his courage fell sein Mut sank;
    his voice (eyes) fell er senkte die Stimme (den Blick);
    his face fell er machte ein langes Gesicht;
    falling visitor numbers zurückgehende Besucherzahlen; → birthrate
    9. abfallen (toward[s] zu … hin) (Gelände etc)
    10. auch fall apart zerfallen:
    fall apart ( oder asunder, in two) auseinanderfallen, entzweigehen; → piece A 2
    11. (zeitlich) eintreten, fallen:
    Easter falls late this year Ostern ist oder fällt oder liegt dieses Jahr spät
    12. sich ereignen
    13. hereinbrechen (Nacht etc)
    14. fig fallen (Worte etc):
    the remark fell from him er ließ die Bemerkung fallen
    15. krank, fällig etc werden:
    fall heir to sth etwas erben
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (act or manner of falling) Fallen, das; (of person) Sturz, der

    fall of snow/rain — Schnee-/Regenfall, der

    2) (collapse, defeat) Fall, der; (of dynasty, empire) Untergang, der; (of government) Sturz, der
    3) (slope) Abfall, der (to zu, nach)
    4) (Amer.): (autumn) Herbst, der
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) fallen; [Person:] [hin]fallen, stürzen; [Pferd:] stürzen

    fall off something, fall down from something — von etwas [herunter]fallen

    fall down [into] something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]fallen

    fall down the stairs — die Treppe herunter-/hinunterfallen

    fall [flat] on one's face — (lit. or fig.) auf die Nase fallen (ugs.)

    rain/snow is falling — es regnet/schneit

    2) (fig.) [Nacht, Dunkelheit:] hereinbrechen; [Abend:] anbrechen; [Stille:] eintreten
    3) (fig.): (be uttered) fallen
    4) (become detached) [Blätter:] [ab]fallen

    fall out — [Haare, Federn:] ausfallen

    5) (sink to lower level) sinken; [Barometer:] fallen; [Absatz, Verkauf:] zurückgehen

    fall into sin/temptation — eine Sünde begehen/der Versuchung er- od. unterliegen

    6) (subside) [Wasserspiegel, Gezeitenhöhe:] fallen; [Wind:] sich legen

    his/her face fell — er/sie machte ein langes Gesicht (ugs.)

    8) (be defeated) [Festung, Stadt:] fallen; [Monarchie, Regierung:] gestürzt werden; [Reich:] untergehen
    9) (perish) [Soldat:] fallen
    10) (collapse, break) einstürzen

    fall to pieces, fall apart — [Buch, Wagen:] auseinander fallen

    11) (come by chance, duty, etc.) fallen (to an + Akk.)

    it fell to me or to my lot to do it — das Los, es tun zu müssen, hat mich getroffen

    fall into decay — [Gebäude:] verfallen

    fall into a swoon or faint — in Ohnmacht fallen

    12) [Auge, Strahl, Licht, Schatten:] fallen ( upon auf + Akk.)
    13) (have specified place) liegen (on, to auf + Dat., within in + Dat.)

    fall into or under a category — in od. unter eine Kategorie fallen

    14) (occur) fallen (on auf + Akk.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (US) n.
    Herbst -e m. (of a regime, society) n.
    Verfall -¨e m. n.
    Fall ¨-e m.
    Sturz ¨-e m. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: fell, fallen)
    = absinken v.
    fallen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: fiel, ist gefallen)
    purzeln v.
    stürzen v.

    English-german dictionary > fall

  • 31 GL

    1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Genetic Latch, green liquor
    2) Компьютерная техника: Global LInks, Graphic Library, Graphics Language, Graphics Library, Grasp Library
    3) Американизм: Geographic Location
    4) Ботаника: Green Luminescence
    5) Спорт: Graeco Latin
    8) Математика: General Linear, Granularity Level
    9) Религия: God Like, Guiding Light
    10) Метеорология: Ground Light
    11) Юридический термин: Government And Laws, Gun Lord
    12) Бухгалтерия: General Ledger
    13) Ветеринария: Glycemic Loading
    14) Грубое выражение: Giant Loser
    15) Кино: Graphic Language
    16) Политика: Greenland
    18) Текстиль: Genuine Leather
    19) Университет: Guest Lecturer
    20) Физиология: Glycemic Load
    21) Вычислительная техника: Generation Language
    22) Нефть: gas lift, gathering line, guideline, initial condensate liquids in reservoir, газлифт (gas lift), газлифтный (gas lift), сборная линия (внутрипромысловой системы сбора нефти; gathering line), уровень земли (ground level)
    25) Пищевая промышленность: Green Lettuce
    26) Фирменный знак: General Lingware
    27) СМИ: Girls Life
    28) Деловая лексика: Gross Loss
    29) Сетевые технологии: General Libraries, Global Layer
    30) Программирование: Global Long
    31) Автоматика: grinding line
    32) Расширение файла: Script (GALink), Animation (GRASP - GRAphical System for Presentation format), Animation format
    33) Нефть и газ: газлифтовый, gas-lift, gaslift
    34) Имена и фамилии: Gary Lee, George Lambert, Green Lantern
    36) NYSE. Great Lakes Real Estate Investment Trust, Inc.
    37) Единицы измерений: Gallon, Gauge Length
    38) СМС: Good Lord
    39) Международная торговля: General License

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > GL

  • 32 Gl

    1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Genetic Latch, green liquor
    2) Компьютерная техника: Global LInks, Graphic Library, Graphics Language, Graphics Library, Grasp Library
    3) Американизм: Geographic Location
    4) Ботаника: Green Luminescence
    5) Спорт: Graeco Latin
    8) Математика: General Linear, Granularity Level
    9) Религия: God Like, Guiding Light
    10) Метеорология: Ground Light
    11) Юридический термин: Government And Laws, Gun Lord
    12) Бухгалтерия: General Ledger
    13) Ветеринария: Glycemic Loading
    14) Грубое выражение: Giant Loser
    15) Кино: Graphic Language
    16) Политика: Greenland
    18) Текстиль: Genuine Leather
    19) Университет: Guest Lecturer
    20) Физиология: Glycemic Load
    21) Вычислительная техника: Generation Language
    22) Нефть: gas lift, gathering line, guideline, initial condensate liquids in reservoir, газлифт (gas lift), газлифтный (gas lift), сборная линия (внутрипромысловой системы сбора нефти; gathering line), уровень земли (ground level)
    25) Пищевая промышленность: Green Lettuce
    26) Фирменный знак: General Lingware
    27) СМИ: Girls Life
    28) Деловая лексика: Gross Loss
    29) Сетевые технологии: General Libraries, Global Layer
    30) Программирование: Global Long
    31) Автоматика: grinding line
    32) Расширение файла: Script (GALink), Animation (GRASP - GRAphical System for Presentation format), Animation format
    33) Нефть и газ: газлифтовый, gas-lift, gaslift
    34) Имена и фамилии: Gary Lee, George Lambert, Green Lantern
    36) NYSE. Great Lakes Real Estate Investment Trust, Inc.
    37) Единицы измерений: Gallon, Gauge Length
    38) СМС: Good Lord
    39) Международная торговля: General License

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Gl

  • 33 gl

    1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Genetic Latch, green liquor
    2) Компьютерная техника: Global LInks, Graphic Library, Graphics Language, Graphics Library, Grasp Library
    3) Американизм: Geographic Location
    4) Ботаника: Green Luminescence
    5) Спорт: Graeco Latin
    8) Математика: General Linear, Granularity Level
    9) Религия: God Like, Guiding Light
    10) Метеорология: Ground Light
    11) Юридический термин: Government And Laws, Gun Lord
    12) Бухгалтерия: General Ledger
    13) Ветеринария: Glycemic Loading
    14) Грубое выражение: Giant Loser
    15) Кино: Graphic Language
    16) Политика: Greenland
    18) Текстиль: Genuine Leather
    19) Университет: Guest Lecturer
    20) Физиология: Glycemic Load
    21) Вычислительная техника: Generation Language
    22) Нефть: gas lift, gathering line, guideline, initial condensate liquids in reservoir, газлифт (gas lift), газлифтный (gas lift), сборная линия (внутрипромысловой системы сбора нефти; gathering line), уровень земли (ground level)
    25) Пищевая промышленность: Green Lettuce
    26) Фирменный знак: General Lingware
    27) СМИ: Girls Life
    28) Деловая лексика: Gross Loss
    29) Сетевые технологии: General Libraries, Global Layer
    30) Программирование: Global Long
    31) Автоматика: grinding line
    32) Расширение файла: Script (GALink), Animation (GRASP - GRAphical System for Presentation format), Animation format
    33) Нефть и газ: газлифтовый, gas-lift, gaslift
    34) Имена и фамилии: Gary Lee, George Lambert, Green Lantern
    36) NYSE. Great Lakes Real Estate Investment Trust, Inc.
    37) Единицы измерений: Gallon, Gauge Length
    38) СМС: Good Lord
    39) Международная торговля: General License

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > gl

  • 34 control

    kənˈtrəul
    1. сущ.
    1) а) надзор, сдерживание, контроль;
    регулирование;
    контроль, проверка She was in full control of the situation. ≈ Она полностью контролировала ситуацию. The fire was finally brought under control. ≈ Огонь наконец-то удалось погасить. The area was placed under the control of the military. ≈ Территория была передана под контроль армии. - birth control - social control - absolute control - close control - strict control - government control - parental control - communicable-disease control - emissions control - flood control - pest control - quality control - stress control - wage control exercise control exert control pass under the control of smb. cost control flight control control panel control rod price control control tower without control - out of control be in control Everything under control. ≈ Все путем, все как надо, все в порядке. б) самообладание, сдержанность в) спорт в автогонках: зона трассы, где ограничена скорость, напр. пит-лейн г) спорт в автогонках: место, где производятся контрольные замеры параметров машины, напр., высота, клиренс и т.п. д) лицо, осуществляющее надзор, контроль е) в спиритизме: дух, прямо связанный с медиумом и контролирующий его поведение и слова в течение транса ∙ Syn: restraint, check, restriction
    2) руководство, управление, контроль;
    власть She lost control of the car. ≈ Она потеряла управление машиной, она не справилась с управлением. assume control of take control of
    3) техническое регулирование а) регулировка, настройка( напр., радиоприемника), подгонка б) радио модуляция в) мн.;
    тех. органы управления( кнопки, ручки, рычаги и т.п.) ;
    ручки настройки радиоприемника remote control control stick
    4) мед. контрольный пациент( в эксперименте) ;
    биол. контрольное подопытное животное
    2. гл.
    1) распоряжаться, управлять, руководить, господствовать, подчинять, приказывать, командовать;
    иметь большинство( в совете директоров и т.п..) ;
    осуществлять власть (любого рода) Henceforth I obey and you control. ≈ Отныне я подчиняюсь, а ты командуешь;
    отныне ты начальник, я дурак. Syn: administer, direct, govern, manage, regulate, rule, supervise
    2) осуществлять надзор, контроль а) регулировать, контролировать, проверять Anyone who wishes to control my statements will have no difficulty in doing so. ≈ Любой, кто захочет проверить истинность моих утверждений не столкнется ни с малейшими трудностями. Syn: verify б) тех. настраивать (обычно set up) в) сдерживать (что бы то ни было) The superabundance of life is controlled by the law of mutual destruction. ≈ Беспредельный рост числа живых существ сдерживается действием закона взаимного уничтожения. Difficulty in controlling his temper. ≈ Трудности в сдерживании себя. control oneself Syn: curb, hinder г) юр. отменять( о словах: предыдущие заявления, показания) ;
    отклонять Syn: overrule ∙ Syn: check управление, руководство - the teacher has good * over his class учитель держит класс в руках;
    - under government * контролируемый правительством;
    - circumstances beyond our * не зависящие от нас обстоятельства;
    - to get beyond * выйти из-под влияния;
    - to bring under * подчинить своему влиянию, контролировать (политика) контроль, власть;
    обладание - islands under British * острова, управляемые Великобританией;
    - to exercise * over smth. осуществлять контроль над чем-л.;
    владеть чем-л.;
    - to be in * smth. управлять чем-л.;
    - to be in the * of smb. быть в чьей-л. власти;
    - he was in the * of crimilans он оказался в руках преступников контроль, проверка;
    надзор - selective * выборочный контроль;
    - to be under * быть под надзором контрольный экземпляр, препарат;
    контрольная группа регулировка, управление - traffic * регулирование уличного движения;
    - birth * регулирование рождаемости;
    - * of fire (военное) управление огнем;
    - remote * управление на расстоянии;
    телеуправление, дистанционное управление;
    - to lose * of a motor-car потерять управление автомобилем;
    - to go out of * (авиация) (морское) потерять управление;
    перестать слушаться руля регулирование;
    ограничение - rent * регулирование кввартирной или арендной платы;
    - wage-price * контроль над ценами и заработной платой;
    - arms * контроль над вооружениями, ограничение вооружения борьба( с отрицательными явлениями) - * of epidemics борьба с эпидемическими заболеваниями;
    - noise * борьба с шумом;
    - locust * борьба с саранчой сдержанность, самообладание - don't lose * of your temper не теряйте самообладания;
    - to speak without * говорить не стесняясь;
    - to keep one's feelings under * сдерживать свои чувства, владеть собой;
    - to regain * of oneself овладеть собой pl (техническое) органы управления (топография) сеть опорных пунктов пробный удар (фехтование) (радиотехника) регулировка, модуляция "хозяин", дух, который вещает устами медиума "хозяин", шеф, руководящий деятельностью агента, шпиона контрольный - * experiment контрольный опыт;
    - * organization контрольная организация относящийся к управлению - * room диспетчерская, аппаратная;
    пункт управления - * station( военное) пост управления;
    - * board( техническое) приборный щиток, панель или пульт управления;
    - * flight( авиация) управляемый полет;
    - * airport( военное) аэродром с регулируемым воздушным движением;
    - * surface( авиация) плоскость управления;
    - * whell( авиация) штурвал;
    - * level( авиация) рычаг управления;
    - * bit (компьютерное) управляющий разряд;
    служебный разряд;
    - * block управляющий блок управлять, руководить - he knows how to * his horse он умеет управлять лошадью;
    - to * fire (военное) управлять огнем;
    - to * the ball (спортивное) держать мяч под контролем контролировать, владеть - who *s these islands? кому принадлежат эти острова? контролировать, проверять - to * expenditure проверять расходы регулировать, контролировать;
    ограничивать - to * prices регулировать цены( радиотехника) настраивать сдерживать - to * emotions сдерживать чувства;
    - to * oneself сдерживаться, сохранять самообладание делать пробный удар (фехтование) access ~ контроль доступа access ~ вчт. контроль за доступом accuracy ~ вчт. контроль правильности adaptive ~ вчт. адаптивное управление anticipatory ~ вчт. управление с прогнозированием appropriation ~ контроль за ассигнованиями arms ~ контроль над вооружениями assessment ~ контроль налогообложения to be beyond( или out of) ~ выйти из подчинения social ~ общественный контроль;
    to be in control, to have control over управлять, контролировать ~ надзор;
    сдерживание;
    контроль, проверка;
    регулирование;
    birth control регулирование рождаемости birth ~ контроль за рождаемостью birth ~ регулирование рождаемости border ~ пограничный контроль brightness ~ вчт. регулирование яркости изображения brightness ~ вчт. регулировка яркости to bring under ~ подчинить;
    to pass under the control (of smb.) перейти в (чье-л.) ведение budgetary ~ контроль исполнения сметы budgetary ~ контроль методом сличения со сметой budgetary ~ сметный метод контроля built-in ~ вчт. встроенный контроль carriage ~ вчт. управление кареткой cascade ~ вчт. каскадное управление channel ~ вчт. управление каналом circumstances outside one's ~ обстоятельства непреодолимой силы communications ~ вчт. управление передачей concurrency ~ вчт. контроль совпадений concurrency ~ вчт. управление параллелизмом concurrent-operations ~ вчт. управление параллельной работой continuous ~ вчт. непрерывное управление contrast ~ вчт. регулировка контраста contrast ~ регулятор контраста control борьба с отрицательными явлениями ~ владеть ~ власть ~ государственное регулирование ~ контролировать ~ контроль ~ контрольный ~ контрольный орган ~ контрольный пациент (в эксперименте) ;
    контрольное подопытное животное ~ радио модуляция ~ надзор;
    сдерживание;
    контроль, проверка;
    регулирование;
    birth control регулирование рождаемости ~ надзор ~ тех. настраивать ~ обусловливать;
    нормировать (потребление) ~ ограничение ~ проверка ~ проверять ~ распоряжаться ~ регулировать;
    контролировать;
    проверять ~ регулировать ~ регулировка ~ регулировка ~ руководить;
    господствовать;
    заправлять;
    иметь большинство (в парламенте и т. п.) ~ руководить ~ руководство ~ (обыкн. pl) радио ручки настройки радиоприемника ~ pl тех. рычаги управления ~ сдержанность, самообладание ~ сдержанность ~ сдерживать (чувства, слезы) ;
    to control oneself сдерживаться, сохранять самообладание ~ сдерживать ~ управление, руководство ~ вчт. управление ~ управление ~ управлять, распоряжаться ~ вчт. управлять ~ управлять ~ attr. контрольный;
    control experiment контрольный опыт ~ attr. контрольный;
    control experiment контрольный опыт experiment: control ~ контрольный эксперимент ~ of access контроль доступа ~ of epidemics борьба с эпидемическими заболеваниями ~ of foreign exchange transactions контроль валютных операций ~ of line limits страх. контроль по максимуму ~ of overdrafts контроль превышения кредита ~ of posting контроль бухгалтерских проводок ~ сдерживать (чувства, слезы) ;
    to control oneself сдерживаться, сохранять самообладание coordinated ~ вчт. согласованное регулирование cost ~ контроль за уровнем затрат credit ~ кредитная политика credit ~ кредитный контроль cursor ~ вчт. управление курсором customs ~ таможенный контроль damage ~ ремонтно-восстановительные работы dash ~ вчт. кнопочное управление data coherency ~ вчт. обеспечение непротиворечивости данных data ~ вчт. управление данными data flow ~ вчт. управление потоками данных data-initiated ~ вчт. управление с внешним запуском derivative ~ вчт. регулирование производной digital ~ вчт. цифровое управление direct ~ прямое регулирование direct ~ прямое управление discontinuous ~ вчт. прерывистое регулирование distribution ~ вчт. управление распространением economic ~ экономический контроль encoded ~ вчт. кодовое управление end-to-end-flow ~ вчт. сквозное управление потоком error ~ вчт. устранение ошибок exchange ~ валютный контроль, валютное регулирование exchange ~ валютный контроль exclusive ~ вчт. монопольное управление export ~ контроль за экспортом exposure ~ контроль риска потенциальных убытков feed ~ вчт. управление подачей feedback ~ вчт. управление с обратной связью feedforward ~ вчт. регулирование по возмущению financial ~ финансовый контроль finger-tip ~ вчт. сенсорное управление floating ~ вчт. астатическое регулирование flow ~ вчт. управление потоками flow ~ вчт. управление потоком данных format ~ вчт. управление форматом get under ~ попадать под влияние get under ~ попадать под контроль government ~ государственное регулирование government ~ государственный контроль government ~ правительственный контроль graphic attention ~ контроль с помощью мнемосхемы ground ~ радио наземное управление, управление с земли social ~ общественный контроль;
    to be in control, to have control over управлять, контролировать hazard ~ контроль степени риска home country ~ контроль внутри страны housing ~ контроль за жилищным строительством import ~ контроль импорта independent ~ вчт. автономное управление industrial ~ производственный контроль industrial ~ вчт. управление произвольным процессом inferential ~ вчт. косвенное регулирование input/output ~ вчт. управление вводом-выводов interacting ~ вчт. связанное регулирование interactive ~ вчт. управление в интерактивном режиме intermittent ~ вчт. прерывистое регулирование interrupt ~ вчт. контроль прерываний inventory ~ управление запасами keyboard ~ вчт. клавишное управление legality ~ контроль за законностью light pen ~ вчт. управление световым пером link ~ вчт. управление каналом связи main ~ вчт. основное управляющее воздействие manual ~ вчт. ручное управление marketing ~ регулирование сбыта marketing ~ управление маркетингом master ~ вчт. организующая программа materiel ~ склад. управление материально-техническим обеспечением medium-access ~ вчт. управление доступом к среде передачи данных memory ~ вчт. управление памятью micropramming ~ вчт. микропрограммное управление multicircuit ~ вчт. многоконтактная схема управления multipath ~ вчт. многоканальное управление multivariable ~ вчт. многосвязное регулирование nonlinear ~ вчт. нелинейное регулирование numeric ~ цифровое управление off-line ~ вчт. автономное управление on-off ~ вчт. двухпозиционное регулирование operation ~ управление хозяйственной деятельностью optimizing ~ вчт. экстремальное регулирование to bring under ~ подчинить;
    to pass under the control (of smb.) перейти в (чье-л.) ведение passport ~ паспортный контроль pen ~ вчт. управление световым пером physical ~ физическая проверка pollution ~ борьба с загрязнением pollution ~ контроль за загрязнениями portfolio ~ контроль портфеля активов prevention and ~ профилактика и контроль price ~ действия правительства по контролю над ценами price ~ контроль цен price ~ котроллирование цен (путем установления потолка цен на некоторые продукты) price ~ регулирование цен priority ~ вчт. приоритетное управление process ~ управление производственным процессом process ~ вчт. управление техническим процессом production ~ диспетчеризация production ~ контроль производства production ~ регулирование производства production ~ управление производственным процессом production yield ~ вчт. контроль выхода programmed ~ вчт. программное управление project ~ управление проектом proportional ~ вчт. линейное регулирование pulse ~ вчт. импульсное управление push-button ~ вчт. кнопочное управление quality ~ контроль качества quality ~ (QC) произ. проверка качества;
    контроль качества;
    управление качеством;
    регулирование качества rate ~ вчт. регулирование скоростью ratio ~ вчт. регулирование соотношения read ~ вчт. управление считыванием remote ~ дистанционное регулирование remote ~ дистанционное управление remote: ~ тех. дистанционный;
    действующий на расстоянии;
    remote control дистанционное управление, телеуправление rent ~ регулирование арендной платы rent ~ регулирование квартирной платы retarted ~ вчт. регулирование с запаздыванием risk ~ контроль риска selective credit ~ селективный кредитный контроль self-acting ~ вчт. саморегулирование self-operated ~ вчт. прямое управление sensitivity ~ вчт. регулирование чувствительности separate ~ надзор за выполнением соглашения о раздельном жительстве супругов sequential ~ последовательный контроль servo ~ вчт. следящее управление shared ~ вчт. совместное управление sight ~ вчт. визуальный контроль sign ~ вчт. контроль по знаку single-level ~ вчт. одноуровневое управление single-loop ~ вчт. одноконтурное регулирование slide ~ вчт. плавное регулирование social ~ общественный контроль;
    to be in control, to have control over управлять, контролировать split-cycle ~ вчт. быстрое регулирование step ~ вчт. ступенчатое регулирование step-by-step ~ вчт. шаговое регулирование stepless ~ вчт. непрерывное регулирование stock ~ вчт. контроль уровня запасов storage ~ comp. блок управления памятью storage ~ контроль уровня запасов storage ~ comp. управление памятью storage ~ comp. устройство управления памятью strict cost ~ жесткий контроль затрат supervisory ~ административно-технический надзор supervisory ~ вчт. диспетчерский контроль supervisory ~ диспетчерский контроль supervisory ~ оперативное руководство task ~ вчт. управление заданиями tax ~ налоговый контроль technical ~ технический контроль time-variable ~ вчт. регулирование во времени traffic ~ регулирование движения traffic ~ вчт. регулирование трафика transfer ~ вчт. управление передачей upsetting ~ вчт. задающее воздействие version ~ вчт. управление версиями write ~ вчт. управление записью

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > control

  • 35 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 36 top

    ̈ɪtɔp I
    1. сущ.
    1) а) верхушка, вершина( мачты, горы и т.д.) ;
    мор. марс б) макушка( головы, дерева) в) купол, шпиль г) обыкн. мн. ботва( у корнеплодов) д) горн. кровля( выработки) е) мн. отвороты (у сапог) ;
    высокие сапоги с отворотами ж) метал. колошник (верхняя часть доменной печи)
    2) а) верхний конец, верхняя поверхность, верхняя часть box top ≈ крышка коробки screw top ≈ головка винта б) верх (экипажа, лестницы, страницы) ;
    в) крышка (кастрюли) to put on, screw on a top ≈ надеть, завинтить крышку to screw off, unscrew a top ≈ снять, отвинтить, открыть крышку bottle top ≈ пробка от бутылки г) верхний обрез( книги)
    3) а) высшее, первое место to come/rise to the top ≈ всплыть на поверхность;
    перен. отличиться come out on top б) высшая ступень, высшая степень;
    высшее напряжение в) мн. карт. две старшие карты какой-л. масти (в бридже) ∙ to be/sit on top of the world ≈ быть на седьмом небе to be at the top of the ladder/tree ≈ занимать видное положение( особ. в какой-л. профессии) go over the top
    2. прил.
    1) верхний Syn: upper
    2) а) наибольший, наивысший, максимальный, верхний Syn: the highest, the utmost б) самый главный ∙
    3. гл.
    1) а) покрывать(ся), накрывать(ся) б) покрывать (новым слоем краски и т. п.) в) с.-х. покрывать
    2) а) перевалить (через перевал) ;
    перепрыгнуть( через что-л.) б) прям. перен. подняться на вершину в) превышать;
    достигать какой-л. величины, веса и т. п. г) превосходить;
    быть во главе, быть первым д) увенчивать, доводить до совершенства
    3) обрезать верхушку (дерева и т. п.;
    тж. top up) Syn: trim ∙ top off top out top up II сущ. волчок (игрушка) the top sleeps (или is asleep) ≈ волчок вертится так, что вращение его незаметно верхушка;
    вершина;
    макушка - the * of a mountain вершина горы - the of the head макушка - the * of tree верхушка дерева - at the * of the stairs наверху лестницы - * climbers альпинисты, совершающие восхождение на вершину;
    штурмовая группа альпинистов верхняя часть, верхний конец - the * of the house верх дома - the * of a page верхняя часть /начало/ страницы - line 5 from the * пятая строчка сверху - the * of a car верх автомобиля (особ. убирающийся) - a * for a kettle крышка чайника - the * of the street верхний конец улицы - the * of the atmosphere верхние слои атмосферы - pajama * верх пижамы;
    пижамная куртка шпиль;
    купол;
    шатер - the * of a church церковный купол верхняя поверхность - box * крышка ящика - the * of a table столешница, крышка стола - put the package on the * of the table положите пакет на стол - on the * of the ground на поверхности земли - she put the best apples on * лучшие яблоки она положила наверх /сверху/ - oil always comes to the * нефть всегда всплывает на поверхность (воды) темя голова - shaved * бритая голова (диалектизм) пучок (волос) (диалектизм) волосы высшая степень, высшая ступень - the * of fashion последний крик моды - the * of the tide высшая точка прилива, полная вода - at the * of one's voice во весь голос;
    во всю силу легких - to shout at the * of one's voice кричать во весь голос - at the * of one's speed во весь опор, во всю мочь - at the * of one's career на вершине карьеры - to be on the * of one's form быть в своей лучшей форме, достичь пика формы - to bring smb. to the * of his form подвести кого-л. к пику формы высший ранг, высокое положение;
    первое место - at the * of the table во главе стола - to take the * of the table сидеть на самом почетном месте - to be at the * of one's profession занимать ведущее положение в своей области человек, занимающий высокое положение, первое место и т. п. - the * of the class первый ученик в классе - a conference with the *s of government конференция с участием членов правительства - he is the * of his profession он ведущий специалист в своей области лучшая, отборная часть - the * of the crop лучшая часть урожая - the * of the milk сливки - a hotel serving the * of society отель, обслуживающий элиту /сливки общества/ начало, ранний этап - the * of the year начало года pl отвороты (сапог) ;
    высокие сапоги с отворотами обыкн. pl (ботаника) ботва - beet *s свекольная ботва перо (лука) (карточное) старшая карта какой-л. масти (в руке одного игрока) (карточное) туз или король( карточное) pl две старшие карты какой-л. масти (в бридже) (горное) кровля (выработки) колошник (морское) марс;
    топ pl (химическое) легкие фракции, дистилляты pl ( физическое) звуки верхних частот удар по мячу выше центра (гольф) > on * сверх, вдобавок;
    победивший, выигравший > I'm glad you came on * я очень рад, что вы пришли первым > to come out on * победить в состязании /в соревновании/;
    занимать видное положение, преуспевать > on * of that вдобавок ко всему;
    сверх всего, и без того;
    непосредственно за чем-л. > to get another 10 per cent on * of that получать сверх этого еще десять процентов > on * of everything else в первых рядах;
    в исключительном положении > on * of smth. сверх чего-л., вдобавок к чему-л.;
    держа в своих руках, имея под своим контролем > it's one thing on * of another все время то одно, то другое > on * of it all he wanted to leave her вдобавок ко всему он хотел оставить ее;
    мало этого, он хотел еще оставить ее > the conductor was always on * of the music дирижер ни на секунду не терял контроля над оркестром > on * of that, on * of the world в первых рядах;
    в исключительном /главенствующем/ положении;
    наверху блаженства > to be /to sit, to feel/ on * of the world быть на седьмом небе /на верху блаженства/ > * of the heap самое выгодное положение > (a little bit) off the * не в своем уме > off /out of/ the * of one's head не подумав;
    экспромтом;
    необдуманный, импровизированный > he just said it off the * of his head он сказал это, не подумав;
    это была его первая /непосредственная/ реакция, не надо придавать значения этим его словам > to the * of smb.'s bent совсем, полностью, совершенно;
    вволю, сколько душе угодно > from * downward сверху вниз;
    с головы до пят > from * to toe с головы до пят;
    с головы до ног;
    до кончиков ногтей, с головы до ног > they were English from * to toe это были англичане до кончиков ногтей > from * to bottom сверху донизу > (the) * of the morning to you! доброе утро! > to be at the * of the tree /of the ladder/ быть во главе (чего-л.) ;
    занимать видное /ведущее/ положение (особ. в какой-л. профессии) > to be at the * of the bill быть гвоздем программы( об актере и т. п.) > to hit the * добраться до самого верха > to come to the * отличиться, добиться успеха /славы/ > to go over the * (военное) идти в атаку( из траншей) ;
    ринуться в атаку;
    сделать решительный шаг, начать действовать > to be (the) *s быть верхом совершенства > you're *s with me вы для меня верх совершенства > to blow one's * злиться, выходить из себя;
    становиться невменяемым > to veer /to go/ over the * перебарщивать, перебирать верхний - the * shelf верхняя полка - the * right hand corner верхний правый угол - * drawer верхний ящик - * storey верхний этаж - * stair /step/ (of the staircase) последняя /верхняя/ ступенька( лестницы) - * garment верхняя одежда - * copy первый экземпляр( машинописного текста) - * milk молоко со сливками;
    сливки - * man верхний борец (борьба) - * dead centre( автомобильное) верхняя мертвая точка - * water (гидрология) вода выше продуктивного пласта, верховодка высший, максимальный;
    предельный;
    последний - * speed наибольшая /предельная скорость - at * speed на предельной скорости - * mark высший балл - * grade высший сорт /класс/ - * level высший уровень - negotiations on the * level переговоры на высшем уровне - * prices самые высокие цены - * note самая высокая нота( у певца) - to be in /on/ * form (спортивное) быть в прекрасной форме, достичь пика формы - * places высшие /призовые/ места - the * place in a class первое место в классе самый главный, самый важный;
    высший;
    высокопоставленный - * advisers высшие советники - * command верховное командование - * executives высший административно-управленческий персонал - * management высшее руководство, верхушка управляющих - a journal for those in the * bracket of management журнал для высшего эшелона управления - * men люди, занимающие самое высокое /руководящее/ положение (в обществе и т. п.) ;
    важные персоны, большие шишки, заправилы - * positions главные /ключевые/ позиции лучший, первый, ведущий - * pupil первый /лучший/ ученик - * specialist ведущий специалист - the * brains of the industry лучшие умы /мозговой трест/ (этой) отрасли промышленности - to come * (in history) (разговорное) оказаться лучшим (по истории) ;
    отхватить высший балл (по истории) престижный, привилегированный - * firm фешенебельная фирма > * secret "совершенно секретно" (гриф) > * dog (сленг) победитель > to be the * dog держать все в своих руках > * kick (американизм) (военное) (профессионализм) старшина( роты и т. п.) ;
    (американизм) (сленг) большая шишка;
    заправила, босс > the * brass( американизм) (сленг) высшие офицеры;
    заправилы, высокое начальство;
    тузы > the * brass of the government самые влиятельные члены правительства > to be the * dog держать все в своих руках > to come out of the * drawer быть хорошо воспитанным;
    принадлежать к высшему обществу снабжать верхушкой;
    покрывать (сверху) - to * a box накрыть ящик крышкой - a mountain *ped with snow гора со снежной вершиной срезать верхушку - to * a tree обрезать верхушку дерева - to * and tail срезать оба конца, срезать черенок и хвостик( у крыжовника и т. п.) достигать какого-л. уровня, достигать вершины - to * a hill подняться на холм - the sun *ped the horizon солнце поднялось над горизонтом перевалить (через гору) ;
    перепрыгнуть (через что-л.) - to * the ridge перевалить (через) хребет - the horse *ped the fence лошадь перепрыгнула через изгородь быть завершением;
    увенчивать, возвышаться - a church *s the hill церковь возвышается на холме - *ped with a steeple увенчанный шпилем - a statue *s the column колонна увенчана статуей быть во главе;
    стоять на первом месте - to * the list быть первым в списке, открывать список - she has never *ped the fifth place она никогда не поднималась выше пятого места быть больше( какой-л. величины) - to * smth. in height быть выше чего-л. - he *s his father by half a head он выше отца на полголовы - the fish *ped 75 pounds рыба весила больше 75 фунтов - he *ped my score by at least ten points он опередил меня по крайней мере на десять очков превосходить, быть первым - to * everyone in tennis лучше всех играть в теннис - to * the class быть лучшим в классе - it *s all I ever saw это превосходит все, что я когда-либо видел;
    ничего подобного /похожего/ я еще не видел покрывать (новой краской), подкрашивать( сельскохозяйственное) производить подкормку (посевов) (спортивное) ударять( по мячу) сверху (сельскохозяйственное) вывершивать (стог, скирду) (сельскохозяйственное) покрывать > to * one's fruit показывать товар лицом > to * one's part (театроведение) прекрасно сыграть свою роль;
    выходить за рамки образа;
    выдержать роль > and to * it all в довершение всего;
    вдобавок ко всем несчастьям волчок - the * sleeps /is asleep/ волчок вертится так, что вращение незаметно > old * старина, дружище > to sleep like /as sound as, as fast as/ a * крепко спать, спать мертвым сном ~ высшая ступень, высшая степень;
    высшее напряжение;
    at the top of one's voice( speed) во весь голос (опор) voice: at the top of one's ~ громко, громогласно;
    to teach voice заниматься постановкой голоса;
    ставить голос;
    to lift up one's voice заговорить to be at the ~ of the ladder (или tree) занимать видное положение (особ. в какой-л. профессии) to be (или to sit) on ~ of the world быть на седьмом небе big ~ разг. купол цирка big ~ разг. цирк to come out on ~ победить в состязании, выйти на первое место to come out on ~ преуспевать в жизни;
    to come (или to rise) to the top всплыть на поверхность;
    перен. отличиться to come out on ~ преуспевать в жизни;
    to come (или to rise) to the top всплыть на поверхность;
    перен. отличиться from ~ to toe с ног до головы;
    с головы до пят;
    from top to bottom сверху донизу from ~ to toe с ног до головы;
    с головы до пят;
    from top to bottom сверху донизу to go over the ~ воен. идти в атаку to go over the ~ сделать решительный шаг;
    начать решительно действовать;
    on top of everything else в добавление ко всему ~ превышать;
    достигать (какой-л.) величины (веса и т. п.) ;
    he tops his father by a head он на целую голову выше отца;
    he tops six feet он шести футов ростом ~ превышать;
    достигать (какой-л.) величины (веса и т. п.) ;
    he tops his father by a head он на целую голову выше отца;
    he tops six feet он шести футов ростом top покрывать (сверху), снабжать верхушкой (куполом и т. п.) ;
    the mountain was topped with snow вершина горы была покрыта снегом negotiations at ~ level переговоры на высшем уровне ~ мор. марс;
    (a little bit) off the top не в своем уме ~ волчок (игрушка) ;
    the top sleeps (или is asleep) волчок вертится так, что вращение его незаметно;
    old top старина, дружище to go over the ~ сделать решительный шаг;
    начать решительно действовать;
    on top of everything else в добавление ко всему to take the ~ of the table сидеть во главе стола ~ off заканчивать, завершать;
    they topped off their dinner with fruit в конце обеда им были поданы фрукты;
    top up доливать, досыпать (доверху) ~ превосходить;
    быть во главе, быть первым;
    this picture tops all I have ever seen эта картина - лучшее из того, что я когда-л. видел top покрывать (сверху), снабжать верхушкой (куполом и т. п.) ;
    the mountain was topped with snow вершина горы была покрыта снегом ~ (обыкн. pl) ботва (корнеплодов) ~ верхний;
    the top shelf верхняя полка ~ верхний конец, верхняя поверхность;
    верх (экипажа, лестницы, страницы) ;
    крышка (кастрюли) ;
    верхний обрез (книги) ;
    top of milk пенка молока ~ верхушка, вершина (горы) ;
    макушка (головы, дерева) ~ волчок (игрушка) ;
    the top sleeps (или is asleep) волчок вертится так, что вращение его незаметно;
    old top старина, дружище ~ высшая ступень, высшая степень;
    высшее напряжение;
    at the top of one's voice (speed) во весь голос (опор) ~ высшая ступень ~ высшая точка ~ высшая точка курса акций ~ высшая цена ~ высшее, первое место ~ высший ~ метал. колошник ~ горн. кровля (выработки) ~ мор. марс;
    (a little bit) off the top не в своем уме ~ pl карт. две старшие карты (какой-л.) масти (в бридже) ~ наивысший, максимальный;
    top speed самая большая скорость;
    top price самая высокая цена ~ обрезать верхушку (дерева и т. п.;
    тж. top up) ~ pl отвороты (сапог) ;
    высокие сапоги с отворотами ~ подняться на вершину;
    перевалить (через гору) ;
    перепрыгнуть (через что-л.) ~ с.-х. покрывать ~ покрывать (новой краской и т. п.) ~ превосходить;
    быть во главе, быть первым;
    this picture tops all I have ever seen эта картина - лучшее из того, что я когда-л. видел ~ превосходить ~ превышать;
    достигать (какой-л.) величины (веса и т. п.) ;
    he tops his father by a head он на целую голову выше отца;
    he tops six feet он шести футов ростом ~ превышать ~ самый главный;
    top men люди, занимающие самое высокое положение;
    top secret совершенно секретно ~ увенчивать, доводить до совершенства;
    to top one's part прекрасно сыграть свою роль ~ шпиль, купол ~ самый главный;
    top men люди, занимающие самое высокое положение;
    top secret совершенно секретно ~ of form начало страницы ~ верхний конец, верхняя поверхность;
    верх (экипажа, лестницы, страницы) ;
    крышка (кастрюли) ;
    верхний обрез (книги) ;
    top of milk пенка молока ~ of stack вчт. вершина стека ~ of stack pointer вчт. указатель вершины стека ~ off заканчивать, завершать;
    they topped off their dinner with fruit в конце обеда им были поданы фрукты;
    top up доливать, досыпать (доверху) ~ off отделывать;
    украшать to ~ one's fruit укладывать наверху лучшие фрукты ~ увенчивать, доводить до совершенства;
    to top one's part прекрасно сыграть свою роль ~ самый главный;
    top men люди, занимающие самое высокое положение;
    top secret совершенно секретно ~ верхний;
    the top shelf верхняя полка ~ волчок (игрушка) ;
    the top sleeps (или is asleep) волчок вертится так, что вращение его незаметно;
    old top старина, дружище ~ наивысший, максимальный;
    top speed самая большая скорость;
    top price самая высокая цена ~ off заканчивать, завершать;
    they topped off their dinner with fruit в конце обеда им были поданы фрукты;
    top up доливать, досыпать (доверху)

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > top

  • 37 flat

    flæt
    1. adjective
    1) (level; without rise or fall: a flat surface.) llano, plano, liso
    2) (dull; without interest: She spent a very flat weekend.) monótono
    3) ((of something said, decided etc) definite; emphatic: a flat denial.) rotundo
    4) ((of a tyre) not inflated, having lost most of its air: His car had a flat tyre.) desinflado
    5) ((of drinks) no longer fizzy: flat lemonade; (also adverb) My beer has gone flat.) sin gas
    6) (slightly lower than a musical note should be: That last note was flat; (also adverb) The choir went very flat.) desafinado

    2. adverb
    (stretched out: She was lying flat on her back.) horizontalmente

    3. noun
    1) ((American apartment) a set of rooms on one floor, with kitchen and bathroom, in a larger building or block: Do you live in a house or a flat?) apartamento
    2) ((in musical notation) a sign (♭) which makes a note a semitone lower.) bemol
    3) (a level, even part: the flat of her hand.) plano; palma
    4) ((usually in plural) an area of flat land, especially beside the sea, a river etc: mud flats.) llano, llanura
    •
    - flatten
    - flat rate
    - flat out
    flat1 adj
    1. llano / plano
    a flat roof un tejado plano / una azotea
    2. desinflado
    El comparativo de flat se escribe flatter; el superlativo se escribe flattest
    flat2 n piso / apartamento
    do you live in a house or a flat? ¿vives en una casa o en un piso?
    Se dice flat en inglés británico, en inglés americano se dice apartment
    tr[flæt]
    adjective (comp flatter, superl flattest)
    1 (level, even) llano,-a, plano,-a; (smooth) liso,-a
    2 (shallow) llano,-a
    3 (shoes) sin tacón
    4 (tyre, ball etc) desinflado,-a
    5 (battery) descargado,-a
    6 (drink) sin gas
    7 figurative use (dull) monótono,-a, soso,-a
    9 (firm, absolute, categorical) rotundo,-a
    10 (exact) justo,-a
    11 SMALLMUSIC/SMALL (key) bemol; (voice, instrument) desafinado,-a
    1 (plain) llano, llanura
    2 (of hand) palma
    3 SMALLMUSIC/SMALL bemol nombre masculino
    4 SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL (tyre) pinchazo
    1 (completely) categóricamente
    2 SMALLMUSIC/SMALL desafinadamente
    3 (exactly) exactamente
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    and that's flat no hay más que decir
    as flat as a pancake liso,-a como la palma de la mano
    flat broke sin blanca
    to be in a flat spin (person) estar hecho,-a un lío
    to fall flat (joke etc) caer mal, no hacer gracia
    to go flat out ir a toda pastilla, ir a todo gas
    to lay flat estirar, extender
    to play flat / sing flat desafinar
    flat cap gorra
    flat racing carreras nombre femenino plural de caballos sin vallas
    flat spin SMALLAVIATION/SMALL barrena
    ————————
    tr[flæt]
    1 (apartment) piso
    flat ['flæt] vt, flatted ; flatting
    1) flatten: aplanar, achatar
    2) : bajar de tono (en música)
    flat adv
    1) exactly: exactamente
    in ten minutes flat: en diez minutos exactos
    2) : desafinado, demasiado bajo (en la música)
    1) even, level: plano, llano
    2) smooth: liso
    3) definite: categórico, rotundo, explícito
    a flat refusal: una negativa categórica
    4) dull: aburrido, soso, monótono (dícese la voz)
    5) deflated: desinflado, pinchado, ponchado Mex
    6) : bemol (en música)
    to sing flat: cantar desafinado
    flat n
    1) plain: llano m, terreno m llano
    2) : bemol m (en la música)
    3) apartment: apartamento m, departamento m
    4) or flat tire : pinchazo m, ponchadura f Mex
    n.
    • apartamento s.m. (Drink)
    adj.
    • sin gas (Bebida) adj. (Tire)
    n.
    • pinchada (Neumático) (•Automóvil•) s.f. (Wine)
    n.
    • insípido (Vino) s.m.
    adj.
    • bemol adj.
    • desanimado, -a adj.
    • deslustrado, -a adj.
    • empañado, -a adj.
    • horizontal adj.
    • insulso, -a adj.
    • insípido, -a adj.
    • liso, -a adj.
    • llano, -a adj.
    • mate adj.
    • mocho, -a adj.
    • monótono, -a adj.
    • muerto, -a adj.
    • plano, -a adj.
    • raso, -a adj.
    • tendido, -a adj.
    n.
    • apartamiento s.m.
    • bemol s.m.
    • palma de la mano s.f.
    • pantano s.m.
    • piso s.m.
    • plano s.m.

    I flæt
    1)
    a) < surface> plano; < countryside> llano

    flat feet — pies mpl planos

    houses with flat roofs — casas fpl con techos planos or con azoteas

    I lay down flat and tried to relax — me tumbé or me tendí e intenté relajarme; face I 1) a)

    b) < dish> llano, bajo (Chi), playo (RPl)

    flat shoes — zapatos mpl bajos, zapatillas fpl de piso (Méx)

    flat cap o hat — (BrE) gorra f ( de lana con visera)

    c) ( deflated) < ball> desinflado, ponchado (Méx)

    you have a flat tire o (BrE) tyre — tienes un neumático desinflado or una rueda desinflada or (Méx) una llanta ponchada

    2)
    a) <lemonade/beer> sin efervescencia, sin gas
    b) < battery> descargado
    3) (dull, uninteresting) <conversation/party> soso (fam); < joke> sin gracia; < voice> monótono

    to fall flat — \<\<play/project\>\> fracasar*, no ser* bien recibido

    4) (total, firm) <denial/refusal> rotundo, categórico
    5) ( Mus)
    a) ( referring to key) bemol

    A flat — la m bemol

    b) ( too low)
    6) ( fixed) (before n) < rate> fijo, uniforme
    7) ( broke) (AmE colloq) (pred)

    to be flat — estar* pelado (fam)


    II
    1)
    a) <refuse/turn down> de plano, categóricamente
    b) ( exactly)
    c) (AmE colloq) (as intensifier) completamente; see also broke II
    2) ( Mus) demasiado bajo

    III
    1) ( apartment) (BrE) apartamento m, departamento m (AmL), piso m (Esp)
    2)
    a) ( surface - of sword) cara f de la hoja; (- of hand) palma f
    b) ( level ground) llano m, terreno m llano
    3) ( Mus) bemol m
    4) ( Theat) bastidor m
    5) flats pl
    a) ( low-lying ground) llano m
    b) ( shoes) (esp AmE) zapatos mpl bajos, zapatillas fpl de piso (Méx)

    I [flæt]
    1. ADJ
    (compar flatter) (superl flattest)
    1) (=level) [surface, roof] plano; [countryside] llano

    • lie flat on your back — túmbate de espaldas en el suelo

    • to fall flat on one's face — (lit) caer(se) de bruces

    spin
    2) (=smooth, even) [road, surface] liso, llano

    to smooth sth flat — [+ paper etc] alisar algo

    3) (=shallow) [dish] llano; [box] plano
    4) [foot, shoe] plano; [nose] chato
    5) (=deflated) [tyre, ball] pinchado, desinflado

    we got a flat tyre — se nos pinchó una rueda, se nos ponchó una llanta (Mex)

    I had a flat tyre — tenía una rueda pinchada or desinflada, tenía un pinchazo, tenía una ponchada (Mex)

    6) (=dull, lifeless) [voice, colour] apagado; [taste, style] soso; [light] sin contraste; [drink] sin burbujas or gas; [battery] descargado

    • the atmosphere at the party was a bit flat — el ambiente de la fiesta estaba un poco apagado

    • I'm feeling rather flat — estoy un poco deprimido

    • she meant it as a joke, but it fell flat — lo dijo de broma, pero nadie le vio la gracia

    • the champagne has gone flat — al champán se le ha ido la fuerza or se le han ido las burbujas

    7) (=inactive) [trade, business] flojo

    sales have been flat this summer — las ventas han estado flojas este verano, no ha habido mucho movimiento de ventas este verano

    8) (=outright) [refusal, denial] rotundo, terminante

    • his suggestion met with a flat refusal — su sugerencia recibió una negativa rotunda or terminante

    • he says he's not going and that's flat * — dice que no va y sanseacabó

    9) (Mus)
    a) [voice, instrument] desafinado

    she/her singing was flat — desafinaba cantando

    b) (of key) bemol
    10) (=fixed) [rate, fee, charge] fijo
    11) (Horse racing)

    • flat jockey — jinete mf de carreras sin obstáculos

    12) (=not shiny) (of painted surface) mate, sin brillo
    2. ADV
    1) (=absolutely)

    • to be flat broke * — estar pelado *, estar sin un duro (Sp) *, estar sin un peso (LAm) *

    2) (=outright) [refuse] rotundamente, terminantemente

    • I told her flat that she couldn't have it — le dije terminantemente que no se lo podía quedar

    • to turn sth down flat — rechazar algo rotundamente or de plano

    3) (=exactly)
    4) (esp Brit)

    flat out: flat out, the car can do 140mph — cuando pones el coche a toda máquina, llega a las 140 millas por hora

    • to go flat out — ir a toda máquina

    • to work flat out (to do sth) — trabajar a toda máquina (para hacer algo)

    5) (Mus)

    to play/sing flat — tocar/cantar demasiado bajo, desafinar

    3. N
    1) [of hand] palma f; [of sword] cara f de la hoja
    2) (Mus) bemol m
    3) (Aut) pinchazo m, ponchada f (Mex)

    • we got a flat — se nos pinchó una rueda, se nos ponchó una llanta (Mex)

    • I had a flat — tenía una rueda pinchada or desinflada, tenía un pinchazo, tenía una ponchada (Mex)

    4) flats (Geog) (=marshland) marismas fpl; (=sand) bancos mpl de arena

    • mud flats — marismas fpl

    • salt flats — salinas fpl

    5) (Theat) bastidor m
    6) (Horse racing)
    4.
    CPD

    flat cap N — gorra de lana con visera

    flat pack N —

    it comes in a flat pack — viene en una caja plana para el automontaje; see flat-pack

    flat racing N — carreras fpl de caballos sin obstáculos

    flat rate N — [of interest, tax] tanto m alzado; (Internet, Telec) tarifa f plana; see flat-rate

    flat screen N — (TV, Comput) pantalla f plana; see flat-screen


    II
    [flæt]
    N (Brit) apartamento m, piso m (Sp), departamento m (LAm)
    * * *

    I [flæt]
    1)
    a) < surface> plano; < countryside> llano

    flat feet — pies mpl planos

    houses with flat roofs — casas fpl con techos planos or con azoteas

    I lay down flat and tried to relax — me tumbé or me tendí e intenté relajarme; face I 1) a)

    b) < dish> llano, bajo (Chi), playo (RPl)

    flat shoes — zapatos mpl bajos, zapatillas fpl de piso (Méx)

    flat cap o hat — (BrE) gorra f ( de lana con visera)

    c) ( deflated) < ball> desinflado, ponchado (Méx)

    you have a flat tire o (BrE) tyre — tienes un neumático desinflado or una rueda desinflada or (Méx) una llanta ponchada

    2)
    a) <lemonade/beer> sin efervescencia, sin gas
    b) < battery> descargado
    3) (dull, uninteresting) <conversation/party> soso (fam); < joke> sin gracia; < voice> monótono

    to fall flat — \<\<play/project\>\> fracasar*, no ser* bien recibido

    4) (total, firm) <denial/refusal> rotundo, categórico
    5) ( Mus)
    a) ( referring to key) bemol

    A flat — la m bemol

    b) ( too low)
    6) ( fixed) (before n) < rate> fijo, uniforme
    7) ( broke) (AmE colloq) (pred)

    to be flat — estar* pelado (fam)


    II
    1)
    a) <refuse/turn down> de plano, categóricamente
    b) ( exactly)
    c) (AmE colloq) (as intensifier) completamente; see also broke II
    2) ( Mus) demasiado bajo

    III
    1) ( apartment) (BrE) apartamento m, departamento m (AmL), piso m (Esp)
    2)
    a) ( surface - of sword) cara f de la hoja; (- of hand) palma f
    b) ( level ground) llano m, terreno m llano
    3) ( Mus) bemol m
    4) ( Theat) bastidor m
    5) flats pl
    a) ( low-lying ground) llano m
    b) ( shoes) (esp AmE) zapatos mpl bajos, zapatillas fpl de piso (Méx)

    English-spanish dictionary > flat

  • 38 official

    1. n
    сотрудник; государственный служащий, должностное лицо, чиновник

    to shelve an official — отстранять от должности / увольнять служащего

    - administration official
    - aid official
    - career diplomatic official
    - corrupt official
    - customs official
    - defense official
    - diplomatic official
    - election official
    - embassy official
    - environmental official
    - family-planning official
    - government official
    - hand-picked official
    - health official
    - high-level official
    - high-ranking official
    - human rights official
    - immigration official
    - international public official
    - Justice official
    - law enforcement official
    - lay official
    - leading official
    - local official
    - low-level official
    - municipal official
    - national official
    - prison official
    - relief official
    - senior government official
    - senior official
    - space official
    - state official
    - team of officials
    - top official
    - top-level official
    - trade-union official     2. a
    официальный, служебный; государственный; формальный

    Politics english-russian dictionary > official

  • 39 pitch

    I 1. noun
    1) (Brit.): (usual place) [Stand]platz, der; (stand) Stand, der; (Sport): (playing area) Feld, das; Platz, der
    2) (Mus.) Tonhöhe, die; (of voice) Stimmlage, die; (of instrument) Tonlage, die
    3) (slope) Neigung, die
    4) (fig.): (degree, intensity)

    reach such a pitch that... — sich so zuspitzen, dass...

    2. transitive verb
    1) (erect) aufschlagen [Zelt]

    pitch camp — ein/das Lager aufschlagen

    2) (throw) werfen
    3) (Mus.) anstimmen [Melodie]; stimmen [Instrument]
    4) (fig.)
    5)

    pitched battle — offene [Feld]schlacht

    3. intransitive verb
    (fall) [kopfüber] stürzen; [Schiff, Fahrzeug, Flugzeug:] mit einem Ruck nach vorn kippen; (repeatedly) [Schiff:] stampfen
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/90132/pitch_in">pitch in
    II noun
    (substance) Pech, das
    * * *
    I 1. [pi ] verb
    1) (to set up (a tent or camp): They pitched their tent in the field.) aufschlagen
    2) (to throw: He pitched the stone into the river.) werfen
    3) (to (cause to) fall heavily: He pitched forward.) stürzen
    4) ((of a ship) to rise and fall violently: The boat pitched up and down on the rough sea.) stampfen
    5) (to set (a note or tune) at a particular level: He pitched the tune too high for my voice.) anstimmen
    2. noun
    1) (the field or ground for certain games: a cricket-pitch; a football pitch.) das Feld
    2) (the degree of highness or lowness of a musical note, voice etc.) die Tonhöhe
    3) (an extreme point or intensity: His anger reached such a pitch that he hit her.) der Grad
    4) (the part of a street etc where a street-seller or entertainer works: He has a pitch on the High Street.) der Stand
    5) (the act of pitching or throwing or the distance something is pitched: That was a long pitch.) der Wurf
    6) ((of a ship) the act of pitching.) das Stampfen
    •
    - -pitched
    - pitcher
    - pitched battle
    - pitchfork     II [pi ] noun
    (a thick black substance obtained from tar: as black as pitch.) das Pech
    - pitch-black
    - pitch-dark
    * * *
    pitch1
    n
    1. COMPUT (characters per inch) Zeichendichte f
    2. (satellite/antenna movement) Nicken nt
    pitch2
    [pɪtʃ]
    n no pl Pech nt
    pitch3
    [pɪtʃ]
    I. n
    <pl -es>
    1. BRIT, AUS (sports field) [Spiel]feld nt, Platz m; BRIT (for camping) [Zelt]platz m
    baseball/hockey \pitch Baseball-/Hockeyfeld nt
    football \pitch Fußballfeld nt, Fußballplatz m
    2. (baseball throw) Wurf m
    3. no pl (tone) Tonhöhe f; (of a voice) Stimmlage f; (of an instrument) Tonlage f; (volume) Lautstärke f
    the noise [had] reached such a \pitch that the neighbours complained der Lärm war so laut, dass sich die Nachbarn beschwerten
    perfect \pitch absolutes Gehör
    to get the \pitch right ( also fig) den richtigen Ton treffen a. fig
    4. ( fig: level)
    to be at fever \pitch (worked-up) [furchtbar] aufgeregt sein; children [völlig] aufgedreht [o ÖSTERR überdreht] sein
    5. no pl (persuasion)
    [sales] \pitch [Verkaufs]gerede nt a. pej fam, [Verkaufs]sprüche pl a. pej fam
    he gave me his usual [sales] \pitch about quality and reliability er spulte seine üblichen Sprüche über Qualität und Zuverlässigkeit ab fam
    to make a \pitch for sth/to do sth sich akk um etw akk bemühen
    the city made a \pitch to stage the competition die Stadt bemühte sich um die Austragung der Wettkämpfe
    6. esp BRIT (sales area) Platz m
    7. (slope) Schräge f, Neigung f
    low/steep \pitch flache/steile Neigung
    to have a low \pitch flach geneigt sein
    to have a steep \pitch steil [geneigt] sein
    II. vt
    ▪ to \pitch sb/sth jdn/etw werfen
    the bouncer \pitched him into the street der Türsteher warf ihn hinaus; ( fig)
    his constant criticism had \pitched him into trouble with his boss seine ständige Kritik hatte ihm Ärger mit seinem Chef eingebracht
    bad luck had \pitched him into a life of crime bedingt durch widrige Umstände, rutschte er in die Kriminalität ab
    to be \pitched [headlong] into despair in [eine] tiefe Verzweiflung gestürzt werden
    2. (set up)
    ▪ to \pitch sth etw aufstellen
    to \pitch camp das Lager aufschlagen
    to \pitch a tent ein Zelt aufbauen [o aufschlagen
    he has \pitched the last 3 innings er spielte in den letzten 3 Runden den Werfer
    to \pitch a ball einen Ball werfen
    to \pitch a curve ball den Ball anschneiden
    4. MUS
    ▪ to \pitch sth instrument etw stimmen; song etw anstimmen; note etw treffen
    the tune was \pitched [too] high/low die Melodie war [zu] hoch/tief
    5. (target)
    ▪ to \pitch sth at [or AM to] sb etw auf jdn ausrichten
    ▪ to be \pitched at sb book, film sich an jdn richten
    the film is \pitched at adults between 20 and 30 der Film richtet sich an Erwachsene [o an die Zielgruppe] zwischen zwanzig und dreißig
    to \pitch sth at [or AM to] a certain level etw auf einem bestimmten Niveau ansiedeln
    you have to \pitch the course at beginners' level der Kurs sollte auf Anfänger ausrichtet sein
    to be \pitched too high/low zu hoch/niedrig angesetzt sein
    your aspirations/expectations are \pitched too high deine Ziele/Erwartungen sind zu hochgesteckt
    7. usu passive (slope)
    to be \pitched at 30° eine Neigung von 30° haben [o aufweisen]
    \pitched roof Schrägdach nt
    ▪ to \pitch sth etw propagieren [o sl pushen]
    ▪ to \pitch sth to sb bei jdm für etw akk werben
    III. vi
    1. (move) ship stampfen fachspr; AVIAT absacken
    to \pitch headlong to the ground kopfüber zu Boden fallen
    to \pitch into a hole in ein Loch stürzen
    to \pitch forward vornüberstürzen
    the passengers \pitched forward die Passagiere wurden nach vorne geschleudert
    4. SPORT (in cricket) [auf den Boden] aufkommen
    5. (slope) sich akk [nach unten] neigen
    the footpath \pitches down to the river der Fußweg führt zum Fluss hinunter
    6. (aim)
    ▪ to \pitch for sth etw anstreben
    he's \pitching for the government to use its influence er versucht die Regierung dazu zu bewegen, ihren Einfluss geltend zu machen
    7. (attack)
    ▪ to \pitch into sb jdn angreifen
    8. (start)
    ▪ to \pitch into sth etw [entschlossen] angehen [o anpacken]
    * * *
    I [pɪtʃ]
    n
    Pech nt II
    1. n
    1) (= throw) Wurf m
    2) (NAUT) Stampfen nt
    3) (esp Brit SPORT) Platz m, Feld nt
    4) (Brit for doing one's business, in market, outside theatre etc) Stand m; (fig = usual place on beach etc) Platz m
    See:
    → queer
    5) (inf: sales pitch) (= long talk) Sermon m (inf); (= technique) Verkaufstaktik f, Masche f (inf)

    he gave us his pitch about the need to change our policy — er hielt uns (wieder einmal) einen Vortrag über die Notwendigkeit, unsere Politik zu ändern

    6) (PHON also of note) Tonhöhe f; (of instrument) Tonlage f; (of voice) Stimmlage f
    7) (= angle, slope: of roof) Schräge f, Neigung f; (of propeller) Steigung f
    8) (fig

    = degree) he roused the mob to such a pitch that... — er brachte die Massen so sehr auf, dass...

    the tension/their frustration had reached such a pitch that... — die Spannung/ihre Frustration hatte einen derartigen Grad erreicht, dass...

    matters had reached such a pitch that... — die Sache hatte sich derart zugespitzt, dass...

    at its highest pitch —

    we can't keep on working at this pitch much longer — wir können dieses Arbeitstempo nicht mehr lange durchhalten

    See:
    → fever
    9) (US inf)

    what's the pitch? — wie siehts aus?, was liegt an? (inf), was geht? (sl)

    2. vt
    1) (= throw) hay gabeln; ball werfen

    as soon as he got the job he was pitched into a departmental battle — kaum hatte er die Stelle, wurde er schon in einen Abteilungskrieg verwickelt

    2) (MUS) song anstimmen; note (= give) angeben; (= hit) treffen; instrument stimmen; (inf by DJ) pitchen
    3) (fig)

    the production must be pitched at the right level for London audiences — das Stück muss auf das Niveau des Londoner Publikums abgestimmt werden

    she pitched the plan to business leaders —

    4) (= put up) camp, tent aufschlagen; stand aufstellen
    5) (BASEBALL) ball werfen
    3. vi
    1) (= fall) fallen, stürzen

    he pitched off his horse —

    he pitched forward as the bus braked — er fiel nach vorn, als der Bus bremste

    2) (NAUT) stampfen; (AVIAT) absacken
    3) (BASEBALL) werfen
    * * *
    pitch1 [pıtʃ]
    A s
    1. MINER Pech n: → mineral pitch
    2. BOT (rohes Terpentin-)Harz
    B v/t (ver)pechen, (-)pichen:
    pitched thread Pechdraht m
    pitch2 [pıtʃ]
    A v/t
    1. ein Zelt, ein Lager, einen Verkaufsstand etc aufschlagen, -stellen, eine Leiter etc anlegen, ein Lager etc errichten:
    pitch one’s tent fig seine Zelte aufschlagen
    2. einen Pfosten etc einrammen, -schlagen, befestigen
    3. einen Speer etc werfen, schleudern:
    pitch a coin eine Münze hochwerfen (zum Losen etc)
    4. Heu etc (auf)laden, (-)gabeln
    5. MIL, HIST in Schlachtordnung aufstellen:
    a) regelrechte oder offene (Feld)Schlacht,
    b) fig knallharte Auseinandersetzung
    6. (der Höhe oder dem Wert etc nach) festsetzen, -legen:
    pitch one’s expectations too high seine Erwartungen zu hoch schrauben, zu viel erwarten;
    pitch one’s hopes too high seine Hoffnungen zu hoch stecken
    7. fig eine Rede etc abstimmen (on auf akk), (auf bestimmte Weise) ausdrücken
    8. MUS
    b) ein Lied etc (in bestimmter Tonhöhe) anstimmen oder singen oder spielen, die Tonhöhe für ein Lied etc festsetzen oder anschlagen:
    pitch the voice high hoch anstimmen oder singen;
    his voice was well pitched er hatte eine gute Stimmlage
    9. Golf: den Ball pitchen
    10. fig den Sinn etc richten (toward[s] auf akk)
    11. eine Straße (be)schottern, (mit unbehauenen Steinen) pflastern, eine Böschung (mit unbehauenen Steinen) verpacken
    12. Kartenspiel: eine Farbe durch Ausspielen zum Trumpf machen, die Trumpffarbe durch Ausspielen festlegen
    13. Ware
    a) zum Verkauf anbieten, ausstellen
    b) anpreisen
    14. umg eine Geschichte etc auftischen: → tale 3, yarn A 3
    B v/i
    1. (besonders kopfüber) (hin)stürzen, hinschlagen
    2. aufschlagen, -prallen (Ball etc)
    3. taumeln
    4. SCHIFF stampfen (Schiff)
    5. werfen
    6. Golf: pitchen, einen Pitch schlagen oder spielen
    7. sich neigen (Dach etc)
    8. a) ein Zelt oder Lager aufschlagen, (sich) lagern
    b) einen (Verkaufs)Stand aufschlagen
    9. (on, upon) sich entscheiden (für), verfallen (auf akk)
    10. pitch in umg
    a) sich (tüchtig) ins Zeug legen, loslegen, sich ranmachen,
    b) tüchtig zulangen (essen),
    c) einspringen, aushelfen ( beide:
    with mit),
    d) mit anpacken ( with bei)
    11. pitch into umg
    a) losgehen auf jemanden, herfallen über das Essen,
    b) sich (mit Schwung) an die Arbeit machen
    12. umg
    a) SPORT allg spielen
    b) fig kämpfen
    C s
    1. Wurf m ( auch SPORT):
    what’s the pitch? US sl was ist los?;
    I get the pitch US sl ich kapiere
    2. SCHIFF Stampfen n
    3. Neigung f, Gefälle n (eines Daches etc)
    4. Höhe f
    5. MUS Tonhöhe f:
    pitch level Ton- oder Stimmlage f;
    pitch name absoluter Notenname;
    pitch number Schwingungszahl f (eines Tones)
    6. MUS
    a) (tatsächliche, absolute) Stimmung (eines Instruments)
    b) richtige Tonhöhe (in der Ausführung):
    above (below) pitch zu hoch (tief);
    sing true to pitch tonrein singen
    7. MUS Normalton(höhe) m(f), Kammerton m: → concert A 1 a
    8. auch sense of pitch MUS Tonbewusstsein n:
    have absolute ( oder perfect) pitch das absolute Gehör haben
    9. Grad m, Stufe f, Höhe f (auch fig):
    pitch of an arch Bogenhöhe;
    fly a high pitch hoch fliegen
    10. fig äußerster (höchster oder tiefster) Punkt, höchster Grad, Gipfel m:
    to the highest pitch aufs Äußerste
    11. besonders Br
    a) Stand m (eines Straßenhändlers etc)
    b) (Stand)Platz m:
    queer sb’s pitch umg jemandem die Tour vermasseln, jemandem einen Strich durch die Rechnung machen
    12. WIRTSCH Br (Waren)Angebot n
    13. sl
    a) Anpreisung f
    b) Verkaufsgespräch n
    c) Werbeanzeige f
    14. sl Platte f, Masche f (beide pej)
    15. SPORT Spielfeld n:
    pitch inspection Platzbesichtigung f
    16. Golf: Pitch(-Shot) m (kurzer Annäherungsschlag zur Fahne)
    17. TECH
    a) Teilung f (eines Gewindes, Zahnrads etc)
    b) FLUG (Blatt)Steigung f (einer Luftschraube)
    c) Schränkung f (einer Säge)
    18. a) Lochabstand m (beim Film)
    b) Rillenabstand m (der Schallplatte)
    * * *
    I 1. noun
    1) (Brit.): (usual place) [Stand]platz, der; (stand) Stand, der; (Sport): (playing area) Feld, das; Platz, der
    2) (Mus.) Tonhöhe, die; (of voice) Stimmlage, die; (of instrument) Tonlage, die
    3) (slope) Neigung, die
    4) (fig.): (degree, intensity)

    reach such a pitch that... — sich so zuspitzen, dass...

    2. transitive verb
    1) (erect) aufschlagen [Zelt]

    pitch camp — ein/das Lager aufschlagen

    2) (throw) werfen
    3) (Mus.) anstimmen [Melodie]; stimmen [Instrument]
    4) (fig.)
    5)

    pitched battle — offene [Feld]schlacht

    3. intransitive verb
    (fall) [kopfüber] stürzen; [Schiff, Fahrzeug, Flugzeug:] mit einem Ruck nach vorn kippen; (repeatedly) [Schiff:] stampfen
    Phrasal Verbs:
    II noun
    (substance) Pech, das
    * * *
    (sound) n.
    Tonhöhe -n f.
    Tonlage -n f. n.
    Abstand -¨e m.
    Harz -- n.
    Pech nur sing. n.
    Stufe -n f. v.
    errichten v.
    festsetzen v.
    werfen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: warf, geworfen)

    English-german dictionary > pitch

  • 40 raise

    raise [reɪz]
    augmentation ⇒ 1 (a) lever ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (e), 2 (f), 2 (n) soulever ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (k) remonter ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (c) relever ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (b) augmenter ⇒ 2 (b) élever ⇒ 2 (c), 2 (d), 2 (i), 2 (j), 2 (l), 2 (r)
    1 noun
    (a) American (pay increase) augmentation f (de salaire);
    ∎ to get a raise être augmenté, avoir une augmentation
    (b) Cards (in bridge) enchère f; (in poker) relance f
    (a) (lift, move upwards → gen) lever; (→ burden, lid) soulever; (→ veil) relever; (→ weight) lever, soulever; (→ blind) remonter; (→ flag) hisser; (→ sunken ship) renflouer;
    ∎ to raise one's head (from lowered position) lever la tête; (hold erect) dresser la tête;
    ∎ she didn't raise her eyes from her book elle n'a pas levé les yeux de son livre;
    ∎ he tried to raise himself from the sofa il essaya de se lever du canapé;
    ∎ she raised herself to her full height elle se dressa de toute sa hauteur;
    ∎ to raise a patient to a sitting position soulever un malade pour l'asseoir;
    ∎ to raise one's glass (to sb) lever son verre (à la santé de qn);
    ∎ to raise one's glass to one's lips porter son verre à ses lèvres;
    ∎ to raise one's fist to sb menacer qn du poing;
    ∎ to raise sb's hackles hérisser qn;
    ∎ to raise one's hand to sb lever la main sur qn;
    ∎ to raise one's hat to sb soulever son chapeau pour saluer qn; figurative tirer son chapeau à qn;
    ∎ to raise a cloud of dust soulever un nuage de poussière;
    ∎ Military & figurative to raise one's sights viser plus haut
    (b) (increase → offer, price, tax, salaries) augmenter; (→ interest rates) relever; (→ temperature, tension) faire monter; (→ volume) augmenter;
    ∎ the speed limit has been raised to 150 km/h la limitation de vitesse est passée à 150 km/h;
    ∎ the age limit has been raised to 18 la limite d'âge a été repoussée à 18 ans;
    ∎ to raise the school-leaving age prolonger la scolarité;
    ∎ to raise a credit limit déplafonner un crédit;
    ∎ to raise the ceiling on wage increases augmenter le plafond des salaires;
    ∎ to raise production to a maximum porter la production au maximum;
    ∎ to raise the stakes faire monter les enjeux;
    ∎ to raise the pass mark élever le niveau requis;
    ∎ to raise (the level of) a wall rehausser ou surélever un mur;
    ∎ to raise the level of the ground rehausser le niveau du sol;
    ∎ to raise one's voice (speak more loudly) élever la voix; (speak in anger) hausser le ton;
    ∎ no one raised their voice (to answer or to speak) personne ne souffla mot
    (c) (boost, improve) remonter, élever;
    ∎ to raise standards (of education, morality) élever le niveau; (of cleanliness, safety) améliorer les conditions;
    ∎ to raise the standard of living améliorer le niveau de vie;
    ∎ our aim is to raise overall standards notre but est d'élever le niveau global;
    ∎ to raise sb's spirits remonter le moral à qn;
    ∎ to raise sb's hopes donner des espoirs à qn;
    ∎ to raise the tone or the level of the conversation élever le niveau de la conversation
    (d) (promote) élever, promouvoir;
    ∎ Military & figurative to raise sb from the ranks promouvoir qn;
    ∎ raised to the rank of colonel élevé au rang de colonel;
    ∎ the Queen raised him to the peerage la reine l'éleva à la pairie
    (e) (collect together → support) réunir; (→ army) lever;
    ∎ we have raised over a million signatures nous avons recueilli plus d'un million de signatures
    (f) (obtain → money) trouver, obtenir; (→ capital) mobiliser, procurer; (→ taxes) lever;
    ∎ he wanted a new motorbike but couldn't raise the money il voulait une moto neuve mais il n'a pas pu trouver l'argent nécessaire;
    ∎ we have to raise $10,000 by Friday il faut que nous trouvions 10 000 dollars d'ici vendredi;
    ∎ to raise funds (for) (for charity) collecter des fonds (pour ou au profit de); (for business, government programme) se procurer des fonds (pour ou au profit de);
    ∎ to raise a loan (on) (of government) émettre ou lancer un emprunt (sur); (of individual) faire un emprunt (sur)
    (g) (make, produce)
    ∎ they raised a cheer when she came in ils ont poussé des bravos quand elle est entrée;
    ∎ he managed to raise a smile when he saw us il a réussi à sourire en nous voyant
    (h) (cause as reaction → laugh, welt, blister, rebellion) provoquer;
    ∎ his jokes didn't even raise a smile ses plaisanteries n'ont même pas fait sourire;
    ∎ to raise a storm of laughter/protest déclencher ou soulever une tempête de rires/de protestations
    (i) (rear → children, family) élever
    (j) (breed → livestock) élever; (grow → crops) cultiver
    (k) (introduce, bring up → point, subject, question) soulever; (→ doubts) soulever, susciter;
    ∎ she raised several objections elle souleva plusieurs objections;
    ∎ this might raise doubts as to his competence ça pourrait soulever ou susciter des doutes quant à ses compétences;
    ∎ his attitude raises certain questions son attitude pose ou soulève certaines questions;
    ∎ his attitude raises questions about his loyalty son attitude remet en question sa loyauté
    (l) (erect) élever, ériger;
    ∎ to raise a statue to sb élever une statue à qn
    (m) (resuscitate) ressusciter; (evoke → spirit) évoquer;
    ∎ they were making enough noise to raise the dead ils faisaient un bruit à réveiller les morts
    (n) (end → ban, embargo, siege) lever
    (o) (contact) contacter;
    ∎ the radio officer was trying to raise Boston le radio essayait de contacter Boston
    (p) (in bridge) monter sur; (in poker) relancer;
    ∎ I'll raise you £5 je relance de 5 livres
    (q) Cookery (dough, bread) faire lever
    (r) Mathematics élever;
    ∎ to raise a number to the power of n élever un nombre à la puissance n
    ∎ to raise land arriver en vue de terre
    (t) (cheque) faire
    (in bridge) monter, enchérir; (in poker) relancer
    ∎ to raise oneself up se soulever;
    ∎ she raised herself up onto the chair elle se hissa sur la chaise

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > raise

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