Перевод: со всех языков на все языки

со всех языков на все языки

the+english+civil+war

  • 1 civil

    civil ['sɪvəl]
    (c) (polite) poli, courtois, civil;
    ∎ she was very civil to me elle s'est montrée très aimable avec moi;
    ∎ keep a civil tongue in your head! restez poli!
    ►► American formerly Civil Aeronautics Authority = organisme américain de contrôle des compagnies aériennes;
    American formerly Civil Aeronautics Board = organisme américain de réglementation de l'aviation civile;
    civil aircraft appareil m de l'aviation civile;
    civil aviation aviation f civile;
    Civil Aviation Authority = organisme de contrôle des compagnies aériennes;
    Law civil court tribunal m civil;
    Law civil death mort f civile;
    Military civil defence protection f civile;
    civil disobedience résistance f passive (à la loi);
    civil disturbance émeute f;
    civil engineer ingénieur m des travaux publics;
    civil engineering génie m civil;
    civil engineering firm entreprise f de travaux publics;
    civil law droit m civil;
    civil libertarian défenseur m des droits du citoyen;
    civil liberties libertés fpl civiques;
    British Civil List liste f civile (allouée à la famille royale britannique);
    civil marriage mariage m civil;
    Civil and Public Services Association = syndicat de la fonction publique;
    civil rights droits mpl civils ou civiques;
    American Civil Rights Commission = organisme gouvernemental qui veille au respect des droits civiques;
    the civil rights movement la lutte pour les droits civils ou civiques;
    Administration civil servant fonctionnaire mf;
    Administration civil service fonction f publique, administration f;
    ∎ to be in the civil service être fonctionnaire ou dans l'administration ou dans la fonction publique;
    civil service exam concours m administratif;
    Civil Service Union = syndicat britannique de la fonction publique;
    civil strife conflit m interne ou intestin;
    civil war guerre f civile;
    the American Civil War la guerre de Sécession;
    the English Civil War la guerre civile anglaise;
    civil wedding mariage m civil;
    ∎ we had a civil wedding nous nous sommes mariés à la mairie
    ⓘ THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR Déclenchée par l'élection d'Abraham Lincoln, attisée par les différences sociales et économiques, la guerre de Sécession opposa, de 1861 à 1865, le sud esclavagiste (les "Confédérés", qui voulaient faire sécession) au nord abolitionniste (les "Fédéraux", qui voulaient préserver l'union). Le conflit se termina par la victoire du camp nordiste, supérieur en hommes et en moyens.
    ⓘ THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR Ce conflit (1642-51) fut provoqué par la révolte du Parlement contre le roi Charles Ier. La victoire fut remportée par l'armée de Cromwell, qui fit exécuter le roi en 1649.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > civil

  • 2 civil

    'sivl
    1) (polite, courteous.) cortés, educado
    2) (of the state or community: civil rights.) civil
    3) (ordinary; not military or religious: civil life.) civil
    4) (concerned with law cases which are not criminal.) civil
    •
    - civility
    - civilly
    - civil defence
    - civil disobedience
    - civil engineer
    - civil liberties/rights
    - civil servant
    - civil service
    - civil war


    civil adjetivo
    a) ‹derechos/responsabilidades› civil
    casarse por lo civil or (Per, RPl, Ven) sólo por civil or (Chi, Méx) por el civil to be married in a civil ceremony (AmE), to have a registry office wedding (BrE) ■ sustantivo masculino y femenino
    civil
    I adjetivo
    1 civil: se casaron por lo civil, they got married in the registry office
    2 Mil civilian
    II mf civilian: el policía iba de civil, the policeman was in plain clothes ' civil' also found in these entries: Spanish: administración - aviación - aviador - aviadora - benemérita - casarse - código - estado - funcionaria - funcionario - guerra - ingeniera - ingeniero - machetazo - paisana - paisano - protección - reflejar - sociedad - umbral - venir - amotinar - burócrata - empleado - estar - guardia - ingeniería - juicio - matrimonio - notaría - paisanaje - prefecto - registro - reo - rojo - ser English: CAA - civil - civil engineer - civil liberties - civil rights - civil servant - civil service - civil war - civilian - clear-cut - disobedience - injure - marital status - registrar - registry office - status - civic - county - defendant - load - marital - Ms - plain - wedding
    tr['sɪvəl]
    2 (polite) cortés,-esa, educado,-a
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    civil defence defensa civil
    civil disobedience resistencia pasiva, desobediencia civil
    civil engineer ingeniero,-a de caminos, canales y puertos
    civil engineering ingeniería civil
    civil law derecho civil
    civil servant funcionario,-a
    the civil service (government departments) la administración nombre femenino pública 2 (employees) el funcionariado, los funcionarios nombre masculino plural
    civil war guerra civil
    civil ['sɪvəl] adj
    1) : civil
    civil law: derecho civil
    2) polite: civil, cortés
    adj.
    • civil adj.
    • comedido, -a adj.
    • cortés adj.
    'sɪvəl, 'sɪvḷ
    1)
    a) (of society, citizens) civil

    civil unrest — malestar m social

    b) ( not military) civil
    c) ( Law) civil
    2) ( polite) cortés
    ['sɪvl]
    1. ADJ
    1) (=societal) [strife, conflict] civil; [unrest] social
    2) (=not military) [aviation, ship] civil
    3) (=not religious) [ceremony, service, marriage] civil
    4) (Jur) (=not criminal) [case, action, proceedings, charge] civil; [penalty] por infracción de la ley; [court] de lo Civil
    5) (=polite) [person] cortés, atento; [behaviour] cortés

    to be civil to sb — ser cortés or atento con algn

    tongue
    2.
    CPD

    civil defence, civil defense (US) N — defensa f civil

    civil engineer N — ingeniero(-a) m / f civil, ingeniero(-a) m / f de caminos (canales y puertos) (Sp)

    civil engineering N — ingeniería f civil, ingeniería f de caminos (canales y puertos) (Sp)

    civil law N — derecho m civil

    civil list N — (Brit) presupuesto de la casa real aprobado por el parlamento

    civil marriage N — matrimonio m civil

    civil partner N — pareja f civil (del mismo sexo)

    civil partnership N — unión f de parejas civiles (del mismo sexo)

    civil rights N — derechos mpl civiles

    civil rights leader — defensor(a) m / f de los derechos civiles

    civil rights movement N — movimiento m pro derechos civiles

    civil servant N — funcionario(-a) m / f (del Estado)

    Civil Service N — administración f pública

    civil status N — estado m civil

    civil war N — guerra f civil

    civil wedding N — boda f civil

    * * *
    ['sɪvəl, 'sɪvḷ]
    1)
    a) (of society, citizens) civil

    civil unrest — malestar m social

    b) ( not military) civil
    c) ( Law) civil
    2) ( polite) cortés

    English-spanish dictionary > civil

  • 3 civil

    adj.
    civil.
    f. & m.
    civilian.
    * * *
    1 civil
    2 (no militar) civilian
    3 (no eclesiástico) lay, secular
    1 (de la Guardia Civil) civil guard, member of the Guardia Civil
    * * *
    adj.
    * * *
    1. ADJ
    1) (=no militar) [autoridad, aviación] civil; [vida, víctima, población] civilian

    va vestido de civil — he's wearing civilian clothes, he's in civilian clothes

    2) (=no religioso) civil

    matrimonio civil — civil wedding, registry office wedding

    casarse por lo civil — to have a civil wedding, have a registry office wedding, be married in a civil ceremony

    3) (Jur) [responsabilidad, desobediencia] civil
    código 1), derecho 3., 1), gobernador 2., guardia 1., protección, registro 5)
    2. SMF
    1) (=persona no militar) civilian
    2) (=guardia) civil guard
    * * *
    I
    a) <derechos/responsabilidades> civil
    b) ( no religioso) civil

    se casaron por lo civil or (Per, RPl, Ven) sólo por civil or (Chi, Méx) por el civil — they were married in a civil ceremony (AmE), they had a registry office wedding (BrE)

    c) ( no militar) civilian (before n)
    II
    masculino y femenino
    1)
    a) ( persona no militar) civilian
    b) (Esp) ( guardia civil) Civil Guard
    * * *
    = nonmilitary, civilian, civic.
    Ex. From Truman's approval for nuclear weapons testing in Nevada on 18 Dec 1950 the AEC adopted a four-pronged approach: inundating the public with positive information on nuclear power; emphasising defence needs; highlighting the nonmilitary benefits of testing; and reassuring the citizenry that testing was not hazardous to health.
    Ex. Israel is nation very interested in both the military and civilian applications of nuclear energy.
    Ex. Like many other civic facilities in the town, the public library is used by only a minority of the population.
    ----
    * abogado civil = people's lawyer.
    * anterior a la Guerra Civil = pre-Civil War.
    * año civil = calendar year.
    * autoridad civil = city authority.
    * boda civil = civil wedding.
    * código civil = civil code.
    * de civil = in plain clothes.
    * derechos civiles = civil rights, civil liberties.
    * edificio civil = civic building.
    * estatuto civil = civil statute.
    * guerra civil = civil war.
    * ingeniero civil = civil engineer.
    * litigio civil = civil litigation.
    * matrimonio civil = civil marriage.
    * mes civil = calendar month.
    * movimiento por los derechos civiles = civil rights movement.
    * persona civil = civilian.
    * personal civil = civilian staff.
    * pleito civil = civil litigation.
    * población civil = civilian.
    * población civil, la = civilian population, the.
    * procedimiento civil = civil proceedings.
    * unión civil = civil union.
    * vestido de civil = in plain clothes.
    * vestir de civil = wear + plain clothes, dress in + plain clothes.
    * vida civil = civic life.
    * * *
    I
    a) <derechos/responsabilidades> civil
    b) ( no religioso) civil

    se casaron por lo civil or (Per, RPl, Ven) sólo por civil or (Chi, Méx) por el civil — they were married in a civil ceremony (AmE), they had a registry office wedding (BrE)

    c) ( no militar) civilian (before n)
    II
    masculino y femenino
    1)
    a) ( persona no militar) civilian
    b) (Esp) ( guardia civil) Civil Guard
    * * *
    = nonmilitary, civilian, civic.

    Ex: From Truman's approval for nuclear weapons testing in Nevada on 18 Dec 1950 the AEC adopted a four-pronged approach: inundating the public with positive information on nuclear power; emphasising defence needs; highlighting the nonmilitary benefits of testing; and reassuring the citizenry that testing was not hazardous to health.

    Ex: Israel is nation very interested in both the military and civilian applications of nuclear energy.
    Ex: Like many other civic facilities in the town, the public library is used by only a minority of the population.
    * abogado civil = people's lawyer.
    * anterior a la Guerra Civil = pre-Civil War.
    * año civil = calendar year.
    * autoridad civil = city authority.
    * boda civil = civil wedding.
    * código civil = civil code.
    * de civil = in plain clothes.
    * derechos civiles = civil rights, civil liberties.
    * edificio civil = civic building.
    * estatuto civil = civil statute.
    * guerra civil = civil war.
    * ingeniero civil = civil engineer.
    * litigio civil = civil litigation.
    * matrimonio civil = civil marriage.
    * mes civil = calendar month.
    * movimiento por los derechos civiles = civil rights movement.
    * persona civil = civilian.
    * personal civil = civilian staff.
    * pleito civil = civil litigation.
    * población civil = civilian.
    * población civil, la = civilian population, the.
    * procedimiento civil = civil proceedings.
    * unión civil = civil union.
    * vestido de civil = in plain clothes.
    * vestir de civil = wear + plain clothes, dress in + plain clothes.
    * vida civil = civic life.

    * * *
    1 ‹derechos/responsabilidades› civil estado, guerra, registro
    una boda civil a civil marriage
    se casaron por lo civil or (Per, RPl, Ven) por civil or (Chi, Méx) por el civil they were married in a civil ceremony ( AmE), they had a registry office wedding ( BrE)
    3 (no militar) civilian ( before n)
    la población civil the civilian population
    iba (vestido) de civil he was in civilian clothes o dress
    A
    2 ( Esp) (guardia civil) Civil Guard
    B
    * * *

     

    civil adjetivo
    a) ‹derechos/responsabilidades› civil


    casarse por lo civil or (Per, RPl, Ven) sólo por civil or (Chi, Méx) por el civil to be married in a civil ceremony (AmE), to have a registry office wedding (BrE)


    ■ sustantivo masculino y femenino


    civil
    I adjetivo
    1 civil: se casaron por lo civil, they got married in the registry office
    2 Mil civilian
    II mf civilian: el policía iba de civil, the policeman was in plain clothes
    ' civil' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    administración
    - aviación
    - aviador
    - aviadora
    - benemérita
    - casarse
    - código
    - estado
    - funcionaria
    - funcionario
    - guerra
    - ingeniera
    - ingeniero
    - machetazo
    - paisana
    - paisano
    - protección
    - reflejar
    - sociedad
    - umbral
    - venir
    - amotinar
    - burócrata
    - empleado
    - estar
    - guardia
    - ingeniería
    - juicio
    - matrimonio
    - notaría
    - paisanaje
    - prefecto
    - registro
    - reo
    - rojo
    - ser
    English:
    CAA
    - civil
    - civil engineer
    - civil liberties
    - civil rights
    - civil servant
    - civil service
    - civil war
    - civilian
    - clear-cut
    - disobedience
    - injure
    - marital status
    - registrar
    - registry office
    - status
    - civic
    - county
    - defendant
    - load
    - marital
    - Ms
    - plain
    - wedding
    * * *
    ♦ adj
    1. [derecho, sociedad, arquitectura] civil
    2. [no militar] civilian;
    ir vestido de civil to be in civilian clothes
    3. [no religioso] civil;
    una boda civil a civil marriage;
    casarse por lo civil to get married in a Br registry office o US civil ceremony
    ♦ nmf
    1. [no militar, no religioso] civilian
    2. Esp Fam [Guardia Civil] = member of the “Guardia Civil”
    ♦ nm
    RP [boda] civil marriage ceremony;
    ¿fueron al civil? – no, sólo nos invitaron a la iglesia did you go to the registry office ceremony? – no, we were only invited to the church ceremony
    * * *
    I adj civil;
    casarse por lo civil have a civil wedding
    II m/f civilian
    III m civil guard
    * * *
    civil adj
    1) : civil
    2) : civilian
    civil nmf
    : civilian
    * * *
    civil1 adj
    1. (en general) civil
    2. (no militar) civilian
    civil2 n civilian

    Spanish-English dictionary > civil

  • 4 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

  • 5 Blith, Walter

    [br]
    b. Seventeenth century Warwickshire, England
    d. Seventeenth century England
    [br]
    [br]
    Blith was the son of a cereal and dairy farmer from the Forest of Arden. He wrote a treatise on farming which was of contemporary value in its description of drainage and water meadows, both subjects of particular relevance in the mid-seventeenth century. The book, The English Improver, contains illustrations of agricultural equipment which have become an almost obligatory inclusion in any book on agricultural history. His understanding of the plough is apparent from the text and illustrations, and his was an important step in the understanding of the scientific principles to be applied to its later design. The introduction to the book is addressed to both Houses of Parliament, and is very much an attempt to highlight and seek solutions to the problems of the agriculture of the day. In it he advocates the passing of legislation to improve agricultural practice, whether this be for the destruction of moles or for the compulsory planting of trees to replace those felled.
    Blith himself became a captain in the Roundhead Army during the English Civil War, and even added a dedication to Cromwell in the introduction to his second book, The English Improver Improved, published in 1652. This book contains additional information on both practice and crops, an expansion in knowledge which presumably owes something to Blith's employment as a surveyor of Crown lands between 1649 and 1650. He himself bought and farmed such land in Northamptonshire. His advice on the choice of land for particular crops and the implements of best use for that land expressed ideas in advance of their times, and it was to be almost a century before his writings were taken up and developed.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1649, The English Improver; or, A New Survey of Husbandry Discovering to the Kingdom That Some Land, Both Arable and Pasture May be Advance Double or Treble, and Some five or Tenfold.
    1652, The English Improver Improved.
    Further Reading
    J.Thirsk (ed.), 1985, The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. II (deals with Blith and the agriculture of his time).
    AP

    Biographical history of technology > Blith, Walter

  • 6 chronicler

    ˈkrɔnɪklə сущ.
    1) хроникер Syn: news reporter
    2) летописец the chronicler of the English civil war ≈ составитель летописи гражданской войны в Англии Syn: annalist летописец историк( какого-л периода) chronicler летописец ~ хроникер

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > chronicler

  • 7 chronicler

    ['krɔnɪklə]
    сущ.
    Syn:

    Англо-русский современный словарь > chronicler

  • 8 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 9 guerra

    f.
    declarar la guerra to declare war
    en guerra at war
    guerra sin cuartel all-out war
    guerra atómica nuclear war
    guerra civil civil war
    guerra fría cold war
    guerra de guerrillas guerrilla warfare
    guerra mundial world war
    guerra de nervios war of nerves
    guerra nuclear nuclear war
    guerra psicológica psychological warfare
    guerra química chemical warfare
    guerra santa Holy War
    guerra sucia dirty war
    * * *
    1 war
    \
    dar guerra familiar to cause problems, cause trouble
    declarar la guerra a to declare war on
    en guerra at war
    ser de antes de la guerra familiar to be donkey's years old
    guerra bacteriológica / guerra biológica germ warfare
    guerra civil civil war
    guerra comercial trade war
    guerra de Cuba Spanish-American War
    guerra de la Independencia Spanish War of Independence
    guerra de los Treinta Años Thirty Years' War
    guerra de nervios war of nerves
    guerra fría cold war
    guerra mundial world war
    guerra nuclear nuclear war
    guerra psicológica psychological warfare
    guerra química chemical warfare
    guerra santa holy war
    guerra total all-out war
    la Primer Guerra Mundial World War I, the First World War, World War I
    la Segunda Guerra Mundial World War II, the Second World War
    * * *
    noun f.
    1) war
    * * *
    SF
    1) (Mil, Pol) war; (=arte) warfare

    de guerra — military, war antes de s

    Ministerio de Guerra — Ministry of War, War Office, War Department (EEUU)

    guerra bacteriana, guerra bacteriológica — germ warfare

    guerra caliente — hot war, shooting war

    guerra de agotamiento, guerra de desgaste — war of attrition

    Guerra de la Independencia — LAm War of Independence; Esp Peninsular War

    guerra relámpago — blitzkrieg, lightning war (EEUU)

    guerra santa — holy war, crusade

    declarar 1., 1)
    2) (=problemas)

    dar guerra — [gen] to be a nuisance (a to)

    make trouble (a for) [niño] to carry on

    pedir o querer guerra — [gen] to look for trouble; [sexualmente] * to feel randy o horny *

    3) (=juego) billiards
    GUERRA CIVIL ESPAÑOLA Spain's political climate was extremely volatile in the 1930s. The elections of February 1936 were won by a coalition of socialist and anarchist groups known as the Frente Popular or FP, and were followed by a period of social disorder. On July 18 of that year, General Francisco Franco led a military coup. In the ensuing war Franco's side was known as the Nacionales and the government forces as the Republicanos. Neither army was well-equipped, so foreign support was a decisive factor: the USSR sent aid to the Republicans and volunteers from all over Europe formed Brigadas Internacionales (International Brigades) to fight for the Republican side. Fascist Italy and Germany sent troops and weapons to Franco. The fighting was bitter and protracted, and the Nationalists' superior firepower finally triumphed. The war ended officially on April 1, 1939, when Franco proclaimed himself Jefe del Estado, a position he held for the next 36 years.
    See:
    * * *
    1) (Mil, Pol) war
    2) (fam) ( problemas) trouble, hassle (colloq)
    * * *
    = war, warfare.
    Ex. For example, at Woking, the stock has been split into about thirty sections, such as Health and welfare, war and warfare, retaining the Dewey sequence within each section.
    Ex. For example, at Woking, the stock has been split into about thirty sections, such as Health and welfare, War and warfare, retaining the Dewey sequence within each section.
    ----
    * amenaza de guerra = threat of war.
    * anterior a la guerra = pre-war [prewar], antebellum.
    * anterior a la Guerra Civil = pre-Civil War.
    * arrasado por la guerra = war-torn.
    * arte de la guerra = warfare.
    * avezado en la guerra = battle-hardened.
    * baja de guerra = war casualty.
    * barco de guerra = warship, naval ship, war vessel.
    * botín de guerra = war booty.
    * botín de guerra, el = spoils of war, the, victor's spoils.
    * buque de guerra = warship.
    * causar una guerra = precipitate + war.
    * centro social para veteranos de guerra = Veterans' centre.
    * comienzo de la guerra = outbreak of the war, breakout of + the war.
    * consejo de guerra = courts-martial, court martial.
    * corresponsal de guerra = war correspondent, war journalist, war reporter.
    * crímen de guerra = war crime.
    * criminal de guerra = war criminal.
    * danza de guerra = war dance.
    * dar guerra = act up, play up.
    * de antes de la guerra = pre-war [prewar].
    * declaración de guerra = declaration of war.
    * declarar la guerra = break out into + declared war, go to + war, take up + arms.
    * declarar la guerra a = declare + war on.
    * declarar la guerra a muerte a = declare + open season on.
    * declararse en guerra = go to + war.
    * de la guerra = wartime [wart-time].
    * desatar una guerra = precipitate + war.
    * desenterrar el hacha de guerra = take up + the tomahawk, dig up + the tomahawk, dig up + the hatchet, dig up + the war axe.
    * despojos de la guerra, los = spoils of war, the.
    * destrozado por la guerra = war-ravaged.
    * devastado por la guerra = war-torn.
    * disturbio ocasionado por la guerra = war riot.
    * durante la guerra = during wartime, wartime [wart-time], war years, the.
    * efecto de la guerra = effect of war.
    * embates de la guerra, los = ravages of war, the.
    * en contra de la guerra = antiwar [anti-war].
    * en épocas de guerra = in time(s) of war.
    * en guerra = war-torn, at war.
    * en pie de guerra = on the warpath.
    * en son de guerra = on the warpath.
    * enterrar el hacha de guerra = bury + the hatchet, bury + the tomahawk, bury + the war axe.
    * en tiempo de guerra = wartime [wart-time].
    * en tiempos de guerra = in time(s) of war.
    * escenario de la guerra = theatre [theater, -USA], theatre of war.
    * estar en guerra con = be at war with.
    * estragos de la guerra, los = ravages of war, the.
    * frente de guerra, el = war front, the.
    * ganar una guerra = win + war.
    * grito de guerra = battle cry, war cry.
    * guerra árabe-israelí, la = Arab Israeli war, the.
    * guerra asimétrica = asymmetric war, asymmetric warfare.
    * guerra a través de la red = netwar.
    * guerra civil = civil war.
    * guerra contra el despilfarro = war on waste.
    * guerra contra el terrorismo = war on terror, war on terrorism, war against terrorism.
    * guerra contra las drogas = war on drugs.
    * guerra cósmica = cosmic war.
    * guerra de almohadas = pillow fight.
    * guerra de Bosnia, la = Bosnian War, the.
    * guerra de desgaste = war of attrition.
    * guerra de guerrillas = guerrilla warfare, guerrilla war.
    * Guerra de la Independencia = War of Independence.
    * guerra de la información = information warfare.
    * guerra de las estrellas = battle of the stars.
    * Guerra de las Galaxias = Star Wars.
    * Guerra del Golfo, la = Gulf War, the.
    * Guerra del Golfo Persa, la = Persian Gulf War, the.
    * Guerra de los Boers, la = Anglo-Boer War, the.
    * guerra de nervios = war of nerves.
    * guerra de precios = pricing competition, price war.
    * guerra en red = netwar.
    * Guerra entre España y los Estados Unidos, la = Spanish-American War, the, Spanish-American War, the.
    * guerra + estallar = war + break out.
    * guerra fría, la = cold war, the.
    * guerra fronteriza = border war.
    * guerra legal = legal battle.
    * guerra mundial = world war.
    * guerra nuclear = nuclear warfare, nuclear war.
    * guerra religiosa = religious war.
    * Guerras Médicas, las = Persian Wars, the.
    * guerra sucia = dirty war.
    * guerra tribal = tribal war.
    * Guerra Zulú, la = Zulu War, the.
    * hacer estallar un guerra = ignite + war.
    * hacer la guerra = make + war.
    * hacha de guerra = tomahawk.
    * héroe de guerra = fallen hero, war hero.
    * ir a la guerra = go to + war.
    * juego de guerra = war game [wargame].
    * juzgar en consejo de guerra = court-martial.
    * libro trofeo de guerra = trophy book.
    * los avatares de la guerra = the tides of war.
    * males de la guerra, los = evils of war, the.
    * Marina de Guerra = Royal Navy.
    * misión de guerra = wartime mission.
    * nave de guerra = naval ship.
    * navío de guerra = warship.
    * ocasionar una guerra = precipitate + war.
    * pasión por la guerra = rage militaire.
    * perder una guerra = lose + war.
    * perro de guerra = dog of war, war dog.
    * ponerse en pie de guerra = dig up + the tomahawk, dig up + the hatchet, dig up + the war axe.
    * Primera Guerra Mundial = First World War (World War I), World War I [First World War].
    * prisionero de guerra = prisoner of war, war prisoner.
    * provocar una guerra = ignite + war, precipitate + war.
    * reportero de guerra = war journalist, war correspondent, war reporter.
    * Segunda Guerra Mundial = 2nd World War, World War II [Second World War], Second World War [World War II].
    * tras las guerra = in the postwar period.
    * tribunal de guerra = court martial.
    * veterano de guerra = war veteran.
    * víctima de guerra = casualty of war, war casualty.
    * viuda de guerra = war widow.
    * zona de guerra = war zone.
    * * *
    1) (Mil, Pol) war
    2) (fam) ( problemas) trouble, hassle (colloq)
    * * *
    = war, warfare.

    Ex: For example, at Woking, the stock has been split into about thirty sections, such as Health and welfare, war and warfare, retaining the Dewey sequence within each section.

    Ex: For example, at Woking, the stock has been split into about thirty sections, such as Health and welfare, War and warfare, retaining the Dewey sequence within each section.
    * amenaza de guerra = threat of war.
    * anterior a la guerra = pre-war [prewar], antebellum.
    * anterior a la Guerra Civil = pre-Civil War.
    * arrasado por la guerra = war-torn.
    * arte de la guerra = warfare.
    * avezado en la guerra = battle-hardened.
    * baja de guerra = war casualty.
    * barco de guerra = warship, naval ship, war vessel.
    * botín de guerra = war booty.
    * botín de guerra, el = spoils of war, the, victor's spoils.
    * buque de guerra = warship.
    * causar una guerra = precipitate + war.
    * centro social para veteranos de guerra = Veterans' centre.
    * comienzo de la guerra = outbreak of the war, breakout of + the war.
    * consejo de guerra = courts-martial, court martial.
    * corresponsal de guerra = war correspondent, war journalist, war reporter.
    * crímen de guerra = war crime.
    * criminal de guerra = war criminal.
    * danza de guerra = war dance.
    * dar guerra = act up, play up.
    * de antes de la guerra = pre-war [prewar].
    * declaración de guerra = declaration of war.
    * declarar la guerra = break out into + declared war, go to + war, take up + arms.
    * declarar la guerra a = declare + war on.
    * declarar la guerra a muerte a = declare + open season on.
    * declararse en guerra = go to + war.
    * de la guerra = wartime [wart-time].
    * desatar una guerra = precipitate + war.
    * desenterrar el hacha de guerra = take up + the tomahawk, dig up + the tomahawk, dig up + the hatchet, dig up + the war axe.
    * despojos de la guerra, los = spoils of war, the.
    * destrozado por la guerra = war-ravaged.
    * devastado por la guerra = war-torn.
    * disturbio ocasionado por la guerra = war riot.
    * durante la guerra = during wartime, wartime [wart-time], war years, the.
    * efecto de la guerra = effect of war.
    * embates de la guerra, los = ravages of war, the.
    * en contra de la guerra = antiwar [anti-war].
    * en épocas de guerra = in time(s) of war.
    * en guerra = war-torn, at war.
    * en pie de guerra = on the warpath.
    * en son de guerra = on the warpath.
    * enterrar el hacha de guerra = bury + the hatchet, bury + the tomahawk, bury + the war axe.
    * en tiempo de guerra = wartime [wart-time].
    * en tiempos de guerra = in time(s) of war.
    * escenario de la guerra = theatre [theater, -USA], theatre of war.
    * estar en guerra con = be at war with.
    * estragos de la guerra, los = ravages of war, the.
    * frente de guerra, el = war front, the.
    * ganar una guerra = win + war.
    * grito de guerra = battle cry, war cry.
    * guerra árabe-israelí, la = Arab Israeli war, the.
    * guerra asimétrica = asymmetric war, asymmetric warfare.
    * guerra a través de la red = netwar.
    * guerra civil = civil war.
    * guerra contra el despilfarro = war on waste.
    * guerra contra el terrorismo = war on terror, war on terrorism, war against terrorism.
    * guerra contra las drogas = war on drugs.
    * guerra cósmica = cosmic war.
    * guerra de almohadas = pillow fight.
    * guerra de Bosnia, la = Bosnian War, the.
    * guerra de desgaste = war of attrition.
    * guerra de guerrillas = guerrilla warfare, guerrilla war.
    * Guerra de la Independencia = War of Independence.
    * guerra de la información = information warfare.
    * guerra de las estrellas = battle of the stars.
    * Guerra de las Galaxias = Star Wars.
    * Guerra del Golfo, la = Gulf War, the.
    * Guerra del Golfo Persa, la = Persian Gulf War, the.
    * Guerra de los Boers, la = Anglo-Boer War, the.
    * guerra de nervios = war of nerves.
    * guerra de precios = pricing competition, price war.
    * guerra en red = netwar.
    * Guerra entre España y los Estados Unidos, la = Spanish-American War, the, Spanish-American War, the.
    * guerra + estallar = war + break out.
    * guerra fría, la = cold war, the.
    * guerra fronteriza = border war.
    * guerra legal = legal battle.
    * guerra mundial = world war.
    * guerra nuclear = nuclear warfare, nuclear war.
    * guerra religiosa = religious war.
    * Guerras Médicas, las = Persian Wars, the.
    * guerra sucia = dirty war.
    * guerra tribal = tribal war.
    * Guerra Zulú, la = Zulu War, the.
    * hacer estallar un guerra = ignite + war.
    * hacer la guerra = make + war.
    * hacha de guerra = tomahawk.
    * héroe de guerra = fallen hero, war hero.
    * ir a la guerra = go to + war.
    * juego de guerra = war game [wargame].
    * juzgar en consejo de guerra = court-martial.
    * libro trofeo de guerra = trophy book.
    * los avatares de la guerra = the tides of war.
    * males de la guerra, los = evils of war, the.
    * Marina de Guerra = Royal Navy.
    * misión de guerra = wartime mission.
    * nave de guerra = naval ship.
    * navío de guerra = warship.
    * ocasionar una guerra = precipitate + war.
    * pasión por la guerra = rage militaire.
    * perder una guerra = lose + war.
    * perro de guerra = dog of war, war dog.
    * ponerse en pie de guerra = dig up + the tomahawk, dig up + the hatchet, dig up + the war axe.
    * Primera Guerra Mundial = First World War (World War I), World War I [First World War].
    * prisionero de guerra = prisoner of war, war prisoner.
    * provocar una guerra = ignite + war, precipitate + war.
    * reportero de guerra = war journalist, war correspondent, war reporter.
    * Segunda Guerra Mundial = 2nd World War, World War II [Second World War], Second World War [World War II].
    * tras las guerra = in the postwar period.
    * tribunal de guerra = court martial.
    * veterano de guerra = war veteran.
    * víctima de guerra = casualty of war, war casualty.
    * viuda de guerra = war widow.
    * zona de guerra = war zone.

    * * *
    Guerra Civil (↑ guerra a1), Guerras de Independencia (↑ guerra a1)
    A ( Mil, Pol) war
    nos declararon la guerra they declared war on us
    están en guerra they are at war
    hacerle la guerra a algn to wage war on o against sb
    cuando estalló la guerra when war broke out
    los soldados se iban a la guerra the soldiers were going off to war o to fight in the war
    los niños jugaban a la guerra the children were playing soldiers
    le tienen declarada la guerra a la pornografía they've declared war on pornography
    Compuestos:
    open warfare
    fight to the death
    asymmetrical warfare
    ● guerra bacteriológica or biológica
    germ o biological warfare
    civil war
    trade war
    conventional warfare
    (Arg, Chi) pillow fight
    low intensity warfare
    war of attrition
    guerrilla war
    Hundred Years' War
    Six Day War
    war of nerves
    price war
    war of religion, religious war
    American Civil War
    War of Spanish Succession
    trench warfare
    cold war
    just war
    world war
    la Primera/Segunda Guerra Mundial the First/Second World War
    nuclear war
    psychological warfare
    chemical warfare
    blitzkrieg
    holy war
    all-out war
    fpl Persian Wars (pl)
    fpl Punic Wars (pl)
    dirty war
    total war
    B ( fam) (problemas) trouble, hassle ( colloq)
    estos niños me dan mucha guerra these kids give me a lot of hassle o trouble
    quieren/buscan guerra they're looking for trouble
    * * *

     

    guerra sustantivo femenino
    1 (Mil, Pol) war;

    estar en guerra to be at war;
    hacerle la guerra a algn to wage war on o against sb;
    guerra bacteriológica or biológica germ o biological warfare;
    guerra civil civil war;
    guerra fría cold war;
    guerra mundial world war;
    guerra nuclear nuclear war;
    guerra química chemical warfare
    2 (fam) ( problemas) trouble, hassle (colloq);

    guerra sustantivo femenino war: nos declararon la guerra, they declared war on us
    estamos en guerra, we are at war
    guerra bacteriológica, germ warfare
    guerra civil/mundial, civil/world war
    guerra fría, cold war
    ♦ Locuciones: familiar dar guerra, (dar problemas, trabajo) to give problems
    (dar la lata) to be a pain
    enterrar el hacha de guerra, to bury the hatchet
    en pie de guerra, on the warpath
    nombre de guerra, nom de guerre
    ' guerra' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    adscribirse
    - bacteriológica
    - bacteriológico
    - buque
    - cuando
    - declararse
    - desastre
    - desnaturalizar
    - durante
    - enterrar
    - estado
    - estallido
    - fantasma
    - guerrilla
    - haber
    - hacer
    - hornada
    - intensificación
    - ración
    - sangrienta
    - sangriento
    - secuela
    - umbral
    - unirse
    - venir
    - vencedor
    - vencedora
    - asolar
    - barco
    - borde
    - botín
    - caído
    - consejo
    - continuar
    - corresponsal
    - crimen
    - crucero
    - declaración
    - declarar
    - desencadenar
    - durar
    - embromar
    - entrar
    - estallar
    - estragos
    - ganar
    - horror
    - lisiado
    - marina
    - miseria
    English:
    act up
    - alleged
    - assume
    - atrocity
    - badly
    - battle-cry
    - blissful
    - brink
    - capture
    - ceasefire
    - civil war
    - cold war
    - court martial
    - danger
    - declaration
    - declare
    - diminish
    - drag on
    - ensue
    - escalate
    - fight
    - flatten
    - for
    - full-scale
    - germ warfare
    - go on
    - guerilla
    - guerrilla
    - in
    - intervene
    - long
    - monstrosity
    - monument
    - neutrality
    - nuclear war
    - orphan
    - outbreak
    - over
    - P.O.W.
    - pen name
    - play up
    - prewar
    - prisoner
    - ravage
    - refugee
    - shell-shocked
    - shellshock
    - start
    - stem
    - through
    * * *
    guerra nf
    [conflicto] war; [referido al tipo de conflicto] warfare; [pugna] struggle, conflict; [de intereses, ideas] conflict;
    nombre de guerra nom de guerre;
    declarar la guerra to declare war;
    Fig
    le tiene declarada la guerra a García he's at daggers drawn with García, he really has it in for García;
    en guerra at war;
    ir a la guerra to go to war;
    dar guerra to be a pain, to be annoying;
    los niños han estado todo el día dando guerra the children have been misbehaving all day;
    ¡la guerra que da este niño! this child is such a handful!;
    Fam
    de antes de la guerra ancient, prehistoric;
    buscar o [m5] pedir guerra [problemas] to look for trouble;
    Fam [sexualmente] to be looking to get laid, Br to be up for it guerra abierta open warfare;
    guerra atómica nuclear war;
    guerra bacteriológica germ warfare;
    la Guerra de los Cien Años the Hundred Years War;
    guerra de cifras war of numbers;
    guerra civil civil war;
    la Guerra Civil española the Spanish Civil War;
    guerra comercial trade war;
    guerra convencional conventional warfare;
    la Guerra de Crimea the Crimean War;
    guerra sin cuartel all-out war;
    guerra espacial star wars;
    la guerra del fletán the halibut war [between Spain and Canada over halibut fishing in the North Atlantic];
    guerra fría cold war;
    la guerra del Golfo the Gulf War;
    guerra de guerrillas guerrilla warfare;
    las guerras médicas the Persian Wars;
    guerra mundial world war;
    guerra de nervios war of nerves;
    guerra nuclear nuclear war;
    guerra de precios price war;
    guerra psicológica psychological warfare;
    las guerras púnicas the Punic Wars;
    guerra química chemical warfare;
    guerra relámpago blitzkrieg;
    guerra santa Holy War;
    la Guerra de Secesión the American Civil War;
    la Guerra de los Seis Días the Six Day War;
    la Guerra de Sucesión the War of (the) Spanish Succession;
    guerra sucia dirty war;
    la Guerra de los Treinta Años the Thirty Years War;
    la Guerra de Troya the Trojan War;
    la Guerra de Vietnam the Vietnam War
    * * *
    f war;
    dar guerra a alguien fam give s.o. trouble
    * * *
    guerra nf
    1) : war
    declarar la guerra: to declare war
    guerra sin cuartel: all-out war
    2) : warfare
    3) lucha: conflict, struggle
    * * *
    guerra n war
    dar guerra a alguien to give somebody trouble / to be a handful

    Spanish-English dictionary > guerra

  • 10 zona

    f.
    1 zone, area (espacio).
    ¿vives por la zona? do you live around here? (por aquí)
    ésta es la zona de copas de la ciudad this is the center of the city's nightlife
    zona catastrófica disaster area
    zona comercial shopping area
    zona erógena erogenous zone
    zona de exclusión exclusion zone
    zona euro euro zone
    zona de guerra war zone
    zona de libre comercio free-trade zone
    zona peatonal pedestrian precinct
    zona residencial residential area
    zona verde park, green area; (grande) lawn (pequeña)
    2 key.
    3 zona.
    * * *
    1 area
    2 (fronteriza, militar) zone
    1 MEDICINA (herpes) shingles
    \
    zona azul parking meter zone
    zona edificada built-up area
    zona fronteriza border zone
    zona glacial frigid zone
    zona templada temperate zone
    zona tórrida torrid zone
    zona verde green zone
    * * *
    noun f.
    area, district, zone
    * * *
    SF
    1) [en país, región] area

    las zonas más ricas/remotas/deprimidas del país — the richest/remotest/most depressed areas o parts of the country

    la zona norte/sur/este/oeste de la isla — the northern/southern/eastern/western part of the island

    comimos en uno de los restaurantes típicos de la zona — we ate in a restaurant typical of the area, we ate in a typical local restaurant

    • zonas costeras — coastal areas

    • zona montañosa o de montaña — mountainous area, mountainous region

    • zonas rurales — rural areas

    • zonas urbanas — urban areas

    zona de conflicto — (Mil) conflict zone

    zona de libre comercio — free-trade zone, free-trade area

    zona de peligro — danger zone, danger area

    zona fronteriza — [gen] border area; (Mil) border zone

    zona militar — military zone, military area

    zona roja — Esp Republican territory

    2) [en ciudad] area

    zona azul — Esp (Aut) ≈ pay-and-display area

    • zona comercial — [para negocios en general] commercial district; [solo de tiendas] shopping area

    • zona de copas, ¿dónde está la zona de copas? — where do people go out to drink?

    zona marginada — CAm slum area

    zona roja — LAm red-light district

    zona rosa — Méx partly pedestrianized zone, so called because of its pink paving stones

    3) [en edificio, recinto] area

    zona ancha — (Dep) midfield

    zona de castigo — (Dep) sin bin

    zona de penumbra, zona de sombra — (lit) shaded area; (fig) area of secrecy

    zona oscura, las zonas oscuras de la personalidad — the hidden areas of the personality

    las zonas oscuras de la política — the shady o murky areas of politics

    4) (Geog) zone
    5) (Anat, Med) area
    6) (Baloncesto) free-zone lane
    * * *
    1) (área, región) area
    2) ( en baloncesto) free-throw lane, three-second area
    * * *
    = area, zone, bit, radius, area, service area, tract.
    Ex. The area in which standards for bibliographic description have had the most impact is in catalogues and catalogue record data bases.
    Ex. But now the traditional industrial zone is declining and a new 'technopolis' is proposed for the area.
    Ex. The assistant in charge of a section will see that their bit is kept tidy and will keep an eye open for thieves.
    Ex. The fact that the library can only attract people within a relatively small radius means that it has no alternative but to serve whoever lives -- or works -- in that radius.
    Ex. Libraries usually arrange separate areas where current periodicals, maps, government publications, early printed books and manuscripts are housed.
    Ex. The study examined the relative use of different service areas of the library = El estudio analizó al uso relativo de las diferentes zonas de la biblioteca.
    Ex. Protecting the remaining large tracts of tropical forests is not a financially impossible task.
    ----
    * biblioteca de la zona ártica = arctic library.
    * biblioteca de zona rural = rural library.
    * ciencia de las zonas polares = polar science.
    * de la zona de entre mareas = intertidal.
    * dividir en zonas = zone.
    * en la zona de = in the land of.
    * en + Posesivo + zona = in + Posesivo + neck of the woods.
    * ser zona prohibida = be off limits.
    * una zona de = a stretch of.
    * usar sobre la zona afectada = use + topically.
    * zona abierta = open area.
    * zona activa = hot spot.
    * zona alejada = reaches.
    * zona alveolar = alveolar region.
    * zona bélica = war zone.
    * zona béntica, la = benthic zone, the.
    * zona central = midsection [mid-section].
    * zona central de un Lugar = heartland.
    * zona cero = ground zero.
    * zona climática = climatic zone.
    * zona comercial = business district, shopping area, shopping district.
    * zona con aparatos electrónicos = equipment area.
    * zona con césped = grassy area.
    * zona costera = seafront, coastal area.
    * zona de amortiguamiento = buffer zone.
    * zona de aterrizaje = landing site, landing area, landing area.
    * sitio de aterrizaje = landing area.
    * zona de bienestar = comfort zone.
    * zona de captación = catchment area.
    * zona de carga = loading dock, loading bay.
    * zona de columpios y pistas deportivas = playground.
    * zona de comodidad = comfort zone.
    * zona de confort = comfort zone.
    * zona de cultivo del trigo = wheatbelt.
    * zona de descanso = rest area.
    * zona de desempleo = pocket of unemployment.
    * zona de estudio = study area, study facilities.
    * zona de exclusión aérea = no-fly zone.
    * zona de guerra = war zone.
    * zona del centro = midsection [mid-section].
    * zona del euro, la = euro zone, the, euro zone, the, euro area, the.
    * zona del interior = hinterland.
    * zona de los tres estados = tristate area.
    * zona de no fumadores = non-smoking area.
    * zona de ocio = leisure facilities.
    * zona de ocupación = zone of occupation, occupation zone.
    * zona de pasto = feeding ground, grazing area.
    * zona deprimida del centro de la ciudad = inner city.
    * zona de producción de trigo = wheatbelt.
    * zona de recogida de lo sobrante = overflow area.
    * zona de recreo = playground.
    * zona desnuclearizada = nuclear-free zone, nuclear-free.
    * zona despejada = open area.
    * zona de transición = buffer zone.
    * zona dolorida = sore point, sore spot.
    * zona entre mareas = intertidal zone.
    * zona geográfica = geographical area.
    * zona gris = grey area [gray area].
    * zona habitable = living area.
    * zona húmeda = wetland.
    * zona industrial = industrial area.
    * zona interior despoblada = backcountry.
    * zona junto a la playa = beachfront.
    * zona libre de humo = smoke-free zone, smoke-free area.
    * zona limítrofe = fringe area.
    * zona marginada = deprived area.
    * zona menos favorecida = less favoured area.
    * zona neutral = buffer zone.
    * zona pantanosa = marshland, marsh, marshy area, fen.
    * zona para casas móviles = mobile home park, trailer park.
    * zona para sentarse = seating area.
    * zona peligrosa = no-go area.
    * zona penumbrosa = twilight zone.
    * zona problemática = problem area.
    * zona prohibida = no-go area.
    * zona protegida = safe haven, safe harbour, protected area.
    * zona pública = public area.
    * zona residencial = residential area, suburban area, estate.
    * zona rural = country, rural area, hinterland, countryside, rural region.
    * zona sin cultivar = wildland.
    * zonas inhabitadas del interior = back country.
    * zonas más alejadas = outlying areas.
    * zonas salvajes del interior = back country.
    * zona suburbana = suburban area.
    * zona tampón = buffer zone.
    * zona tectónica = fault zone.
    * zona templada, la = temperate zone, the.
    * zona tórrida, la = torrid zone, the.
    * zona urbana = urban area.
    * zona verde = parkland area, grassy area.
    * * *
    1) (área, región) area
    2) ( en baloncesto) free-throw lane, three-second area
    * * *
    = area, zone, bit, radius, area, service area, tract.

    Ex: The area in which standards for bibliographic description have had the most impact is in catalogues and catalogue record data bases.

    Ex: But now the traditional industrial zone is declining and a new 'technopolis' is proposed for the area.
    Ex: The assistant in charge of a section will see that their bit is kept tidy and will keep an eye open for thieves.
    Ex: The fact that the library can only attract people within a relatively small radius means that it has no alternative but to serve whoever lives -- or works -- in that radius.
    Ex: Libraries usually arrange separate areas where current periodicals, maps, government publications, early printed books and manuscripts are housed.
    Ex: The study examined the relative use of different service areas of the library = El estudio analizó al uso relativo de las diferentes zonas de la biblioteca.
    Ex: Protecting the remaining large tracts of tropical forests is not a financially impossible task.
    * biblioteca de la zona ártica = arctic library.
    * biblioteca de zona rural = rural library.
    * ciencia de las zonas polares = polar science.
    * de la zona de entre mareas = intertidal.
    * dividir en zonas = zone.
    * en la zona de = in the land of.
    * en + Posesivo + zona = in + Posesivo + neck of the woods.
    * ser zona prohibida = be off limits.
    * una zona de = a stretch of.
    * usar sobre la zona afectada = use + topically.
    * zona abierta = open area.
    * zona activa = hot spot.
    * zona alejada = reaches.
    * zona alveolar = alveolar region.
    * zona bélica = war zone.
    * zona béntica, la = benthic zone, the.
    * zona central = midsection [mid-section].
    * zona central de un Lugar = heartland.
    * zona cero = ground zero.
    * zona climática = climatic zone.
    * zona comercial = business district, shopping area, shopping district.
    * zona con aparatos electrónicos = equipment area.
    * zona con césped = grassy area.
    * zona costera = seafront, coastal area.
    * zona de amortiguamiento = buffer zone.
    * zona de aterrizaje = landing site, landing area, landing area.
    * sitio de aterrizaje = landing area.
    * zona de bienestar = comfort zone.
    * zona de captación = catchment area.
    * zona de carga = loading dock, loading bay.
    * zona de columpios y pistas deportivas = playground.
    * zona de comodidad = comfort zone.
    * zona de confort = comfort zone.
    * zona de cultivo del trigo = wheatbelt.
    * zona de descanso = rest area.
    * zona de desempleo = pocket of unemployment.
    * zona de estudio = study area, study facilities.
    * zona de exclusión aérea = no-fly zone.
    * zona de guerra = war zone.
    * zona del centro = midsection [mid-section].
    * zona del euro, la = euro zone, the, euro zone, the, euro area, the.
    * zona del interior = hinterland.
    * zona de los tres estados = tristate area.
    * zona de no fumadores = non-smoking area.
    * zona de ocio = leisure facilities.
    * zona de ocupación = zone of occupation, occupation zone.
    * zona de pasto = feeding ground, grazing area.
    * zona deprimida del centro de la ciudad = inner city.
    * zona de producción de trigo = wheatbelt.
    * zona de recogida de lo sobrante = overflow area.
    * zona de recreo = playground.
    * zona desnuclearizada = nuclear-free zone, nuclear-free.
    * zona despejada = open area.
    * zona de transición = buffer zone.
    * zona dolorida = sore point, sore spot.
    * zona entre mareas = intertidal zone.
    * zona geográfica = geographical area.
    * zona gris = grey area [gray area].
    * zona habitable = living area.
    * zona húmeda = wetland.
    * zona industrial = industrial area.
    * zona interior despoblada = backcountry.
    * zona junto a la playa = beachfront.
    * zona libre de humo = smoke-free zone, smoke-free area.
    * zona limítrofe = fringe area.
    * zona marginada = deprived area.
    * zona menos favorecida = less favoured area.
    * zona neutral = buffer zone.
    * zona pantanosa = marshland, marsh, marshy area, fen.
    * zona para casas móviles = mobile home park, trailer park.
    * zona para sentarse = seating area.
    * zona peligrosa = no-go area.
    * zona penumbrosa = twilight zone.
    * zona problemática = problem area.
    * zona prohibida = no-go area.
    * zona protegida = safe haven, safe harbour, protected area.
    * zona pública = public area.
    * zona residencial = residential area, suburban area, estate.
    * zona rural = country, rural area, hinterland, countryside, rural region.
    * zona sin cultivar = wildland.
    * zonas inhabitadas del interior = back country.
    * zonas más alejadas = outlying areas.
    * zonas salvajes del interior = back country.
    * zona suburbana = suburban area.
    * zona tampón = buffer zone.
    * zona tectónica = fault zone.
    * zona templada, la = temperate zone, the.
    * zona tórrida, la = torrid zone, the.
    * zona urbana = urban area.
    * zona verde = parkland area, grassy area.

    * * *
    A (área, región) area
    ¿por qué zona viven? what area do they live in?
    en la zona fronteriza in the border area o zone
    zonas montañosas mountainous areas o regions
    por esa zona no hay servicio de autobuses there is no bus service in that area
    fue declarada zona neutral it was declared a neutral zone
    zona de influencia sphere of influence
    [ S ] zona de carga y descarga loading and unloading only
    Compuestos:
    ( Esp) limited-time parking zone, pay-and-display area ( BrE)
    disaster area
    ground zero
    commercial district, business quarter o area
    penalty area
    combat zone o area
    crisis zone
    boarding area
    ( Esp) area of new development
    line of scrimmage
    exclusion zone
    no-fly zone
    war zone
    war zone
    free-trade zone
    maximum security zone o area
    danger area o zone
    test site, testing ground
    departure lounge o area
    nuclear-free zone o area
    red-light district
    erogenous zone
    eurozone
    duty-free zone
    industrial park, industrial estate ( BrE)
    military zone o area
    ( Esp) ( Hist) Nationalist-held territory
    nuclear-free zone o area
    buffer zone
    pedestrian precinct o zone o area
    ( AmL) (zona de prostitución) red-light district; ( Esp fam) (durante la guerra civil) Republican-held territory
    ( Telec) dead zone
    buffer zone
    temperate zone o region
    tropical zone o region
    park, green space
    B (en baloncesto) free-throw lane, three-second area
    * * *

     

    zona sustantivo femenino
    1 (área, región) area;


    ( on signs) zona de carga y descarga loading and unloading only;

    zona de castigo penalty area;
    zona industrial industrial park;
    zona peatonal pedestrian precinct;
    zona roja (AmL) ( zona de prostitución) red-light district;
    zona verde park, green space;
    zona cero ( en Nueva York) ground zero
    2 ( en baloncesto) free-throw lane, three-second area
    zona sustantivo femenino
    1 zone
    2 (de un territorio, gran extensión) area, region
    zona de obras, work area
    zona de operaciones, operational zone
    zona militar, military zone
    zona verde, park, green space
    3 Dep zone
    ' zona' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acampada
    - antinuclear
    - arrasar
    - barrio
    - cabaña
    - ciudad
    - comisionada
    - comisionado
    - concurrida
    - concurrido
    - construcción
    - contingente
    - deprimida
    - deprimido
    - desalojar
    - este
    - expolio
    - franca
    - franco
    - francófona
    - francófono
    - glacial
    - huerta
    - milimétrica
    - milimétrico
    - oasis
    - pacificar
    - peinar
    - peinada
    - peinado
    - rastrear
    - rastreo
    - riego
    - sombra
    - teatro
    - urbanización
    - vecindario
    - vinícola
    - apartado
    - azucarero
    - bajío
    - cabezón
    - campo
    - carga
    - cargue
    - combate
    - comercial
    - concreto
    - conflictivo
    - desértico
    English:
    area
    - belt
    - busing
    - clearance
    - coastal
    - compound
    - country
    - danger area
    - decline
    - demonstrate
    - disaster area
    - enclose
    - enclosure
    - enter
    - grey area
    - industrial area
    - local
    - pedestrianize
    - precinct
    - scour
    - seal off
    - smokeless zone
    - stricken
    - testing ground
    - unemployment
    - waterfront
    - well-known
    - zone
    - area code
    - around
    - canvass
    - catchment area
    - district
    - diverse
    - division
    - extreme
    - -free
    - green
    - ground
    - high
    - incoming
    - industrial
    - inner
    - locally
    - neighborhood
    - no-fly zone
    - off
    - out
    - pedestrian
    - red
    * * *
    zona nf
    1. [espacio, área] zone, area;
    una zona montañosa/turística a mountainous/tourist area;
    la zona norte/sur de la isla the northern/southern part of the island;
    en las zonas más aisladas/pobres in the most remote/poorest areas;
    ¿vives por la zona? [por aquí] do you live around here?;
    ésta es la zona de copas de la ciudad this is the centre of the city's nightlife
    zona azul [de estacionamiento] restricted parking zone;
    zona de carga y descarga loading bay o US zone;
    zona catastrófica disaster area;
    zona centro Br city centre, US downtown;
    zona cero [en Nueva York] ground zero;
    zona climática climatic zone;
    zona comercial shopping area;
    zona conflictiva trouble spot;
    zona de conflicto [en guerra] war zone, battle zone;
    zona edificada built-up area;
    zona erógena erogenous zone;
    zona euro euro zone;
    zona de exclusión exclusion zone;
    Com zona franca free-trade zone;
    zona de no fumadores no-smoking area;
    zona glacial glacial region;
    zona de guerra war zone;
    zona húmeda wetland area;
    zona intermareal intertidal zone;
    Meteo zona de inversión thermal o temperature inversion zone;
    zona de libre comercio free-trade zone;
    zona de marca [en rugby] in-goal area;
    zona militar military area o zone;
    Esp zona nacional [en la guerra] = the area controlled by Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War;
    zona peatonal pedestrian area o precinct;
    zona protegida [natural] conservation area;
    zona residencial residential area;
    zona roja Esp [en la guerra] = term used by Nationalists to refer to Republican-controlled areas during the Spanish Civil War;
    Am [de prostitución] red-light district;
    Zona Rosa [en México DF] = elegant tourist and shopping area in Mexico City;
    zona de seguridad [entre países] buffer zone;
    zona templada temperate zone;
    Am Anticuado zona de tolerancia red-light district;
    zona tórrida tropics, Espec torrid zone;
    zona de urgente reindustrialización = region given priority status for industrial investment, Br ≈ enterprise zone;
    zona verde [grande] park, green area;
    [pequeña] lawn
    2. [en baloncesto] [área] key
    3. [en baloncesto] [violación] three-seconds violation
    * * *
    f
    1 area, zone
    2 en baloncesto: parte del campo key; violación three-seconds violation
    * * *
    zona nf
    : zone, district, area
    * * *
    zona n
    1. (área) area
    2. (militar, geográfica) zone

    Spanish-English dictionary > zona

  • 11 nacional

    adj.
    national (equipo, moneda, monumento).
    f. & m.
    national, citizen.
    * * *
    1 national
    2 (producto, mercado) domestic
    3 (vuelo) domestic; (noticias) national
    * * *
    1. adj. 2. noun mf.
    * * *
    1.
    ADJ (=de la nación) national; (Econ, Com) domestic, home antes de s

    páginas de nacional — (Prensa) home news pages

    carretera, fiesta 2), moneda 2)
    2. SMF
    1) LAm (=ciudadano) national
    2)

    los nacionales — [en la guerra civil española] the Franco forces

    * * *
    I
    a) ( de la nación) <deuda/reservas> national
    b) ( no internacional) < vuelo> domestic
    c) ( no extranjero) < industria> national

    compre productos nacionales — ≈buy Spanish (o Argentinian etc)

    la ginebra nacional es muy buena — Spanish (o Argentinian etc) gin is very good

    II
    masculino y femenino (frml) ( ciudadano) national
    * * *
    = countrywide [country-wide], domestic, home, national, state-owned, nationwide [nation-wide], all-nation, state-operated, state-run.
    Ex. There is an urgent need for a survey of private libraries on a countrywide scale.
    Ex. Results indicate that bibliographers at these libraries depend on inadequate reviewing sources and domestic approval plans for developing these literatures.
    Ex. Exports of school texts seem to do well, with a total contribution of 7.34 per cent to total turnover compared to 9.21 per cent from the home sales.
    Ex. National agencies creating MARC records use national standards within their own country, and re-format records to UNIMARC for international exchange.
    Ex. We are state-owned and in a monopolistic situation because of our size, status and/or the uniqueness of our collection.
    Ex. Most of the packaging for cassettes provided by commercial vendors that are known nationwide is lousy, falls apart, looks bad, and so on.
    Ex. The article 'New Czechoslovak database centres on the first all-nation level' describes the services offered by these centres and presents the results of a survey.
    Ex. All state-operated colleges of arts and science in New York state were given funds in fiscal year 1987-88 for collection preparation and barcoding.
    Ex. The nucleus of the system is composed of state-run information centres.
    ----
    * agencia nacional bibliográfica = national bibliographic agency.
    * a nivel nacional = nationally, countrywide [country-wide].
    * Archivo Nacional Americano = United States National Archives.
    * Asociación Nacional para Adquisiciones (NAG) = National Acquisitions Group (NAG).
    * Audiencia Nacional, la = High Court, the.
    * bibliografía nacional = national bibliography.
    * Bibliografía Nacional Británica (BNB) = British National Bibliography (BNB).
    * biblioteca nacional = national library.
    * Biblioteca Nacional Central = National Central Library.
    * Biblioteca Nacional de Alemania = Deutsche Bibliothek.
    * Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina (NLM) = National Library of Medicine (NLM).
    * Biblioteca Nacional Francesa = Bibliotheque Nationale.
    * Catálogo Colectivo Nacional = National Union Catalog, NUC.
    * catálogo nacional = national catalogue.
    * catástrofe nacional = national disaster.
    * Centro Nacional de Préstamos = National Lending Centre.
    * Comité Nacional de Asesoramiento (NACO) = National Advisory Committee (NACO).
    * Consejo Nacional de Profesores de Inglés = National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE).
    * de alcance nacional = nationwide [nation-wide].
    * desarrollo de la identidad nacional = nation building.
    * deuda nacional, la = national debt, the.
    * Federación Nacional de Asesorías Independientes (FIAC) = National Federation of Independent Advice Centres (FIAC).
    * Fundación Nacional para las Humanidades (NEH) = National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH).
    * Guardia Nacional, la = National Guard, the.
    * himno nacional = national anthem.
    * idiosincracia nacional = national ethos.
    * Instituto Nacional de la Salud (INSALUD) = National Institutes of Health (NIH).
    * intercambio nacional = national exchange.
    * liberación nacional = national liberation.
    * MARC de la Bibliografía Nacional Británica = BNB MARC.
    * Matica Slovenca (Biblioteca Nacional de Yugoslavia) = Matica Slovenska.
    * mercado nacional = home market, domestic market.
    * moneda nacional = local currency.
    * monumento nacional = heritage site, national monument.
    * movimiento de liberación nacional = national liberation movement.
    * nacional socialista = National Socialist.
    * NASA (Administración Nacional para la Aeronáutica y el Espacio) = NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
    * NISTF (Grupo de Trabajo sobre los Sistemas Nacionales de Información de la A = NISTF (Society of American Archivists National Information Systems Task Force).
    * número de bibliografía nacional = national record number.
    * número de la bibliografía nacional = national bibliographic record number.
    * número nacional de identificación bibliográfica = national bibliography number.
    * orgullo nacional = national pride.
    * Partido Socialista Nacional, el = National Socialist Party, the.
    * patrimonio nacional = cultural heritage, heritage site.
    * política de información nacional = national information policy.
    * política nacional = national politics.
    * prioridad nacional = national priority.
    * SCONUL (Sociedad de Bibliotecas Nacionales y Universitarias) = SCONUL (Society of College, National and University Libraries).
    * seguridad nacional = homeland security.
    * servicio nacional = domestic service.
    * Sindicato Nacional de Agricultores (NFU) = National Farmers' Union (NFU).
    * tesoro nacional = national treasure.
    * universidad nacional de educación a distancia (UNED) = open university.
    * vuelo nacional = domestic flight.
    * * *
    I
    a) ( de la nación) <deuda/reservas> national
    b) ( no internacional) < vuelo> domestic
    c) ( no extranjero) < industria> national

    compre productos nacionales — ≈buy Spanish (o Argentinian etc)

    la ginebra nacional es muy buena — Spanish (o Argentinian etc) gin is very good

    II
    masculino y femenino (frml) ( ciudadano) national
    * * *
    = countrywide [country-wide], domestic, home, national, state-owned, nationwide [nation-wide], all-nation, state-operated, state-run.

    Ex: There is an urgent need for a survey of private libraries on a countrywide scale.

    Ex: Results indicate that bibliographers at these libraries depend on inadequate reviewing sources and domestic approval plans for developing these literatures.
    Ex: Exports of school texts seem to do well, with a total contribution of 7.34 per cent to total turnover compared to 9.21 per cent from the home sales.
    Ex: National agencies creating MARC records use national standards within their own country, and re-format records to UNIMARC for international exchange.
    Ex: We are state-owned and in a monopolistic situation because of our size, status and/or the uniqueness of our collection.
    Ex: Most of the packaging for cassettes provided by commercial vendors that are known nationwide is lousy, falls apart, looks bad, and so on.
    Ex: The article 'New Czechoslovak database centres on the first all-nation level' describes the services offered by these centres and presents the results of a survey.
    Ex: All state-operated colleges of arts and science in New York state were given funds in fiscal year 1987-88 for collection preparation and barcoding.
    Ex: The nucleus of the system is composed of state-run information centres.
    * agencia nacional bibliográfica = national bibliographic agency.
    * a nivel nacional = nationally, countrywide [country-wide].
    * Archivo Nacional Americano = United States National Archives.
    * Asociación Nacional para Adquisiciones (NAG) = National Acquisitions Group (NAG).
    * Audiencia Nacional, la = High Court, the.
    * bibliografía nacional = national bibliography.
    * Bibliografía Nacional Británica (BNB) = British National Bibliography (BNB).
    * biblioteca nacional = national library.
    * Biblioteca Nacional Central = National Central Library.
    * Biblioteca Nacional de Alemania = Deutsche Bibliothek.
    * Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina (NLM) = National Library of Medicine (NLM).
    * Biblioteca Nacional Francesa = Bibliotheque Nationale.
    * Catálogo Colectivo Nacional = National Union Catalog, NUC.
    * catálogo nacional = national catalogue.
    * catástrofe nacional = national disaster.
    * Centro Nacional de Préstamos = National Lending Centre.
    * Comité Nacional de Asesoramiento (NACO) = National Advisory Committee (NACO).
    * Consejo Nacional de Profesores de Inglés = National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE).
    * de alcance nacional = nationwide [nation-wide].
    * desarrollo de la identidad nacional = nation building.
    * deuda nacional, la = national debt, the.
    * Federación Nacional de Asesorías Independientes (FIAC) = National Federation of Independent Advice Centres (FIAC).
    * Fundación Nacional para las Humanidades (NEH) = National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH).
    * Guardia Nacional, la = National Guard, the.
    * himno nacional = national anthem.
    * idiosincracia nacional = national ethos.
    * Instituto Nacional de la Salud (INSALUD) = National Institutes of Health (NIH).
    * intercambio nacional = national exchange.
    * liberación nacional = national liberation.
    * MARC de la Bibliografía Nacional Británica = BNB MARC.
    * Matica Slovenca (Biblioteca Nacional de Yugoslavia) = Matica Slovenska.
    * mercado nacional = home market, domestic market.
    * moneda nacional = local currency.
    * monumento nacional = heritage site, national monument.
    * movimiento de liberación nacional = national liberation movement.
    * nacional socialista = National Socialist.
    * NASA (Administración Nacional para la Aeronáutica y el Espacio) = NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
    * NISTF (Grupo de Trabajo sobre los Sistemas Nacionales de Información de la A = NISTF (Society of American Archivists National Information Systems Task Force).
    * número de bibliografía nacional = national record number.
    * número de la bibliografía nacional = national bibliographic record number.
    * número nacional de identificación bibliográfica = national bibliography number.
    * orgullo nacional = national pride.
    * Partido Socialista Nacional, el = National Socialist Party, the.
    * patrimonio nacional = cultural heritage, heritage site.
    * política de información nacional = national information policy.
    * política nacional = national politics.
    * prioridad nacional = national priority.
    * SCONUL (Sociedad de Bibliotecas Nacionales y Universitarias) = SCONUL (Society of College, National and University Libraries).
    * seguridad nacional = homeland security.
    * servicio nacional = domestic service.
    * Sindicato Nacional de Agricultores (NFU) = National Farmers' Union (NFU).
    * tesoro nacional = national treasure.
    * universidad nacional de educación a distancia (UNED) = open university.
    * vuelo nacional = domestic flight.

    * * *
    1 (de la nación) ‹deuda/reservas› national
    en todo el territorio nacional throughout the country
    la bandera nacional the national flag
    el entrenador de la selección nacional the national team's coach, the Spanish ( o Colombian etc) team's coach
    2 (no regional) ‹prensa/comité› national
    carretera nacional ≈ Interstate (highway) ( AmE), ≈ A-road ( BrE)
    un programa de difusión nacional a program broadcast nationwide
    una campaña a nivel nacional a nationwide o countrywide o national campaign
    a escala nacional on a national scale
    3 (no internacional) ‹vuelo› domestic, internal; ‹mercado› home ( before n), domestic
    [ S ] salidas nacionales domestic departures
    4 (no extranjero) national
    proteger la industria nacional to protect national industry
    compre productos nacionales ≈ buy British ( o American etc)
    la ginebra nacional es muy buena Spanish ( o Argentinian etc) gin is very good
    1 ( frml) (ciudadano) national
    2
    * * *

    nacional adjetivo
    a) ( de la nación) ‹deuda/reservas/industria› national;


    un programa de difusión nacional a program broadcast nationwide
    b) ‹ vuelo› domestic

    ■ sustantivo masculino y femenino (frml) ( ciudadano) national
    nacional
    I adjetivo
    1 national
    un coche de fabricación nacional, a home-produced car
    2 (interior, no internacional) domestic: la nueva empresa está ganando terreno en el mercado nacional, the new company is gaining ground in the home market
    llegadas nacionales, domestic arrivals
    3 Hist el frente nacional, the national front
    II m pl los nacionales, the Nationalists
    dos nacionales vinieron en busca de reclutas, two Nationalists came looking for recruits
    ' nacional' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    ámbito
    - carretera
    - CNMV
    - dicotomía
    - DNI
    - documento
    - fiesta
    - himno
    - INEM
    - Insalud
    - INSERSO
    - mercado
    - parador
    - PNB
    - policía
    - salud
    - sanear
    - selección
    - territorio
    - UNED
    - canción
    - ejecutar
    - guardabosque
    - herencia
    - instituto
    - monumento
    - ONCE
    - patrimonio
    - RENFE
    - vuelo
    English:
    advertise
    - anthem
    - bank holiday
    - domestic
    - edge
    - GNP
    - Gross National Product
    - holiday
    - home
    - ID
    - legal holiday
    - NASA
    - national
    - national costume
    - National Health Service
    - national park
    - National Trust
    - nationally
    - nationwide
    - preclude
    - route
    - state-owned
    - country
    - gross
    - involve
    - major
    - star
    * * *
    ♦ adj
    1. [de la nación] national;
    el equipo nacional the national team;
    la moneda nacional the national currency;
    el ron es la bebida nacional rum is the national drink
    2. [del Estado] national;
    monumento/biblioteca nacional national monument/library
    3. [vuelo] domestic
    4. [mercado, noticias] domestic, home;
    una cadena de televisión de ámbito nacional a national television channel;
    consuma productos nacionales buy British/Spanish/ etc products
    5. Esp Hist
    las fuerzas nacionales the Nationalist forces
    ♦ nacionales nmpl
    Esp Hist
    los nacionales the Nationalists
    * * *
    adj national
    * * *
    : national
    ciudadano: national, citizen
    * * *
    1. (en general) national
    2. (producto, mercado, vuelo) domestic

    Spanish-English dictionary > nacional

  • 12 secesión

    f.
    secession.
    * * *
    1 secession
    * * *
    * * *
    femenino secession
    * * *
    Ex. This shifts in emphasis mirror the general balkanization of modern American society.
    * * *
    femenino secession
    * * *

    Ex: This shifts in emphasis mirror the general balkanization of modern American society.

    * * *
    secession
    la Guerra de Secesión the (American) Civil War
    * * *

    secesión f Pol secession
    ' secesión' also found in these entries:
    English:
    secession
    - civil
    * * *
    secession
    * * *
    f POL secession

    Spanish-English dictionary > secesión

  • 13 espectador

    f. & m.
    1 viewer.
    los espectadores the audience (de cine, teatro)
    2 onlooker.
    yo fui un mero espectador I was just an onlooker
    m.
    onlooker, beholder, bystander, looker-on.
    * * *
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 (de deportes) spectator
    2 (de obra, película) member of the audience; (de televisión) viewer
    1 (de obra, película) audience sing; (de programa televisivo) viewers
    * * *
    (f. - espectadora)
    noun
    * * *
    espectador, -a
    SM / F
    1) (Cine, Dep, Teat) spectator

    los espectadores — (Dep) the spectators; (Teat) the audience sing

    2) [de acontecimiento, accidente] onlooker
    * * *
    - dora masculino, femenino
    a) (Dep) spectator; (Espec) member of the audience
    b) ( observador) observer
    * * *
    = spectator, viewer, cinemagoer [cinema-goer], theatregoer [theatre-goer], moviegoer [movie-goer], bystander, member of the audience.
    Ex. This finding contradicts the general belief that spectators' cheering encourages better performance in a home team.
    Ex. No critics review issues of magazines or the weekly episodes of Crossroads or Coronation Street but women's magazines and these television serials all have readership and viewers numbered in millions.
    Ex. The complete James Bond has sold 60 million copies but is today more familiar to cinemagoers than readers.
    Ex. Unlike other works, it unusually allowed theatergoers the opportunity to consider issues of racism and slavery in an American setting at the beginning of the American Civil War.
    Ex. Surveys show that only 26% of the US population are regular moviegoers.
    Ex. High-speed chases are dangerous not only for police and suspects, but also for innocent bystanders.
    Ex. At least five members of the audience walked out during the bishop's address.
    * * *
    - dora masculino, femenino
    a) (Dep) spectator; (Espec) member of the audience
    b) ( observador) observer
    * * *
    = spectator, viewer, cinemagoer [cinema-goer], theatregoer [theatre-goer], moviegoer [movie-goer], bystander, member of the audience.

    Ex: This finding contradicts the general belief that spectators' cheering encourages better performance in a home team.

    Ex: No critics review issues of magazines or the weekly episodes of Crossroads or Coronation Street but women's magazines and these television serials all have readership and viewers numbered in millions.
    Ex: The complete James Bond has sold 60 million copies but is today more familiar to cinemagoers than readers.
    Ex: Unlike other works, it unusually allowed theatergoers the opportunity to consider issues of racism and slavery in an American setting at the beginning of the American Civil War.
    Ex: Surveys show that only 26% of the US population are regular moviegoers.
    Ex: High-speed chases are dangerous not only for police and suspects, but also for innocent bystanders.
    Ex: At least five members of the audience walked out during the bishop's address.

    * * *
    masculine, feminine
    1 ( Dep) spectator; ( Espec) member of the audience
    asistieron al estreno dos mil espectadores two thousand people attended the premiere, the premiere attracted an audience of two thousand people
    2 (testigo) observer
    fui como simple espectador I just went as an observer, I just went to watch
    * * *

    espectador
    ◊ - dora sustantivo masculino, femenino (Dep) spectator;


    (Espec) member of the audience;

    espectador,-ora sustantivo masculino y femenino
    1 Teat Cine member of the audience
    Dep spectator 2 los espectadores, the audience sing

    ' espectador' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    espectadora
    - curioso
    English:
    onlooker
    - spectator
    - member
    - on
    * * *
    espectador, -ora nm,f
    1. [de televisión] viewer;
    [de cine, teatro] member of the audience; [de espectáculo deportivo] spectator;
    los espectadores [de televisión] the viewers;
    [de cine, teatro] the audience; [de espectáculo deportivo] the spectators, the crowd
    2. [de suceso, discusión] onlooker;
    yo fui un mero espectador I was just an onlooker
    * * *
    1 en cine etc member of the audience; DEP spectator
    2 ( observador) on-looker, observer
    * * *
    : spectator, onlooker
    * * *
    1. (en el teatro, un concierto) member of the audience
    2. (en un partido) spectator

    Spanish-English dictionary > espectador

  • 14 republicano

    adj.
    republican.
    m.
    republican.
    * * *
    1 republican
    ► nombre masculino,nombre femenino
    1 republican
    * * *
    (f. - republicana)
    noun adj.
    * * *
    republicano, -a
    ADJ SM / F republican
    * * *
    - na adjetivo/masculino, femenino republican
    * * *
    = republican, loyalist, Republican.
    Nota: Nombre.
    Ex. Over the next 5 year period it is intended that a good efficient republican automatic information system should be developed.
    Ex. The writer questions the view that Hemingway became disillusioned in the late 1930s with left-wing causes, including the loyalist side in the Spanish Civil War.
    Ex. More than 1 third of the Times' headlines and stories were biased, and each time, they were biased in favour of the Republicans.
    * * *
    - na adjetivo/masculino, femenino republican
    * * *
    = republican, loyalist, Republican.
    Nota: Nombre.

    Ex: Over the next 5 year period it is intended that a good efficient republican automatic information system should be developed.

    Ex: The writer questions the view that Hemingway became disillusioned in the late 1930s with left-wing causes, including the loyalist side in the Spanish Civil War.
    Ex: More than 1 third of the Times' headlines and stories were biased, and each time, they were biased in favour of the Republicans.

    * * *
    adj/m,f
    republican
    * * *

    republicano
    ◊ -na adjetivo/ sustantivo masculino, femenino

    republican
    republicano,-a adjetivo & sustantivo masculino y femenino republican

    ' republicano' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    republicana
    English:
    GOP
    - IRA
    - republican
    * * *
    republicano, -a
    ♦ adj
    republican
    ♦ nm,f
    republican
    ♦ nm
    [ave] sociable weaver
    * * *
    I adj republican
    II m, republicana f republican
    * * *
    republicano, -na adj & n
    : republican
    * * *
    republicano adj n republican

    Spanish-English dictionary > republicano

  • 15 Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 8 July 1838 Konstanz, Germany
    d. 8 March 1917 Berlin, Germany
    [br]
    German designer of rigid airships, which became known as Zeppelins.
    [br]
    Zeppelin served in the German Army and retired with the rank of General in 1890. While in the army, he was impressed by the use of balloons in the American Civil War and during the Siege of Paris. By the time he retired, non-rigid airships were just beginning to make their mark. Zeppelin decided to build an airship with a rigid framework to support the gas bags. Plans were drawn up in 1893 with the assistance of Theodore Kober, an engineer, but the idea was rejected by the authorities. A company was founded in 1898 and construction began. The Luftschiff Zeppelin No. 1 (LZ1) made its first flight on 2 July 1900. Modifications were needed and the second flight took place in October. A reporter called Hugo Eckener covered this and later flights: his comments and suggestions so impressed Zeppelin that Eckener eventually became his partner, publicist, fund-raiser and pilot.
    The performance of the subsequent Zeppelins gradually improved, but there was limited military interest. In November 1909 a company with the abbreviated name DELAG was founded to operate passenger-carrying Zeppelins. The service was opened by LZ 7 Deutschland in mid-June 1910, and the initial network of Frankfurt, Baden- Baden and Düsseldorf was expanded. Eckener became a very efficient Director of Flight Operations, and by the outbreak of war in 1914 some 35,000 passengers had been carried without any fatalities. During the First World War many Zeppelins were built and they carried out air-raids on Britain. Despite their menacing reputation, they were very vulnerable to attack by fighters. Zeppelin, now in his seventies, turned his attention to large bombers, following the success of Sikorsky's Grand, but he died in 1917. Eckener continued to instruct crews and improve the Zeppelin designs. When the war ended Eckener arranged to supply the Americans with an airship as part of German reparations: this became the Los Angeles. In 1928 a huge new airship, the Graf Zeppelin, was completed and Eckener took command. He took the Graf Zeppelin on many successful flights, including a voyage around the world in 1929.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Further Reading
    There are many books on the history of airships, and on Graf von Zeppelin in particular. Of note are: H.Eckener, 1938, Count Zeppelin: The Man and His Work, London.
    ——1958, My Zeppelins, London.
    P.W.Brooks, 1992, Zeppelin: Rigid Airships 1893–1940, London.
    T.Nielson, 1955, The Zeppelin Story: The Life of Hugo Eckener, English edn, London (written as a novel in direct speech).
    M.Goldsmith, 1931, Zeppelin: A Biography, New York.
    W.R.Nitshe, 1977, The Zeppelin Story, New York.
    F.Gütschow, 1985, Das Luftschiff, Stuttgart (a record of all the airships).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von

  • 16 Tourism

       Although certain places in Portugal have attracted travelers since the 18th century, mass tourism did not begin until the 1960s. After 1780, English romantics such as Robert Southie, Lord Byron, and other foreign writers put the town of Sintra on the map of romantic places to visit. In the 1920s and 1930s, the town of Estoril, about 32 kilometers (18 miles) west of Lisbon, along the coast, began to be developed as a high-class resort town. During the 1930s, Estoril attracted wealthy Spaniards escaping from the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and, after World War II, displaced and dethroned ex-royalty from Europe. Tourism was encouraged in the late 1930s, when the Estado Novo began to restore Portuguese castles in connection with the Double Centenary Exposition of the Portuguese World in 1940, an event designed to attract visitors to Portugal. In the 1960s, the Estado Novo began to develop the infrastructure for a mass tourist industry. Hotels and golf courses were built, especially in the Algarve, and a national system of pousadas (government subsidized inns) was established in restored castles and other historic structures.
       During the 1960s, the number of tourists visiting Portugal reached 6 million per year. Tourists stayed away from Portugal during the turbulent years immediately after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, but returned during the 1980s, and the tourist industry has grown at a phenomenal rate ever since. The number of tourists rose from 7.3 million in 1981-82 to about 18.4 million in 1990. Expo '98, Portugal's worlds fair of 1998, attracted hundreds of thousands of additional visitors, mostly from Europe.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Tourism

  • 17 American

    American [ə'merɪkən]
    1 noun
    Américain(e) m,f
    américain
    (embassy, history) des États-Unis
    ►► American Association for Retired Persons = association américaine de retraités (constituant un groupe de pression);
    American Automobile Association = société de dépannage pour les automobilistes, ≃ Touring Club m de France;
    Law American Bar Association = association d'avocats américains qui sert de centre d'information et de formation continue à ses membres;
    Ornithology American bittern butor m d'Amérique;
    Zoology American black bear baribal m, ours m noir;
    Politics American Civil Liberties Union = ligue américaine des droits du citoyen;
    History the American Civil War la guerre de Sécession;
    Textiles American cloth toile f cirée;
    Ornithology American coot foulque f américaine;
    Ornithology American crow corneille f américaine;
    Finance American depositary receipt certificat m américain de dépôt;
    the American Dream le rêve américain;
    Ornithology Ameri-can eagle aigle m d'Amérique;
    American English (anglais m) américain m;
    Finance American Express ® American Express ®;
    ∎ to pay by Ameri-can Express payer par American Express ®;
    American Express ® card carte f American Express ®;
    British American football football m américain;
    American football player joueur(euse) m,f de football américain;
    Ornithology American golden plover pluvier m doré américain;
    American Indian Indien(enne) m,f d'Amérique, Amérindien(enne) m,f;
    Sport American League = l'une des deux ligues professionnelles de base-ball aux États-Unis;
    Music American organ harmonium m;
    American American plan (in hotel) pension f complète;
    Ornithology American redstart fauvette f flamboyante;
    Ornithology American robin merle m migrateur;
    Ameri-can Samoa Samoa fpl américaines;
    the American Way le mode de vie américain;
    Ornithology American wigeon canard m siffleur d'Amérique;
    Ornithology American woodcock bécasse f américaine

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > American

  • 18 rewolucj|a

    f (G pl rewolucji) 1. (przewrót) revolution
    - rewolucja proletariacka/socjalistyczna a proletarian/socialist revolution
    - bezkrwawa rewolucja a bloodless revolution
    - w Rosji wybuchła rewolucja a revolution broke out in Russia
    2. przen. (dramatyczna zmiana) revolution
    - rewolucja technologiczna/obyczajowa a technological/sexual revolution
    - rewolucja w medycynie/informatyce/modzie a revolution in medicine/information technology/fashion
    - w tej dziedzinie dokonała się prawdziwa rewolucja there’s been a real revolution in this area
    - to odkrycie przyniosło rewolucję w nauce this discovery brought about a revolution in science
    - tym wynalazkiem dokonał rewolucji his invention brought about a revolution
    - to była prawdziwa rewolucja w moim życiu this turned my life upside down
    3. żart. (zakłócenia) mayhem
    - rewolucja hormonalna hormonal mayhem
    - mieć rewolucje żołądkowe to have an upset stomach
    - □ rewolucja francuska the French Revolution
    - rewolucja kulturalna Cultural Revolution
    - rewolucja przemysłowa Industrial Revolution
    - aksamitna rewolucja velvet revolution
    - rewolucja angielska the English Revolution (the period of English Civil War, Commonwealth and Protectorate)
    - rewolucja pałacowa palace revolution
    - Rewolucja Październikowa October Revolution

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > rewolucj|a

  • 19 colegio

    m.
    1 school (escuela).
    colegio de monjas convent school
    colegio mixto mixed o coeducational school
    colegio nacional state primary school
    colegio de pago fee-paying school
    colegio de párvulos infant school
    colegio privado private school
    2 high school, school, academy, institute.
    3 association, body.
    4 professional association.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: colegiar.
    * * *
    1 (escuela) school
    2 (asociación) college, association
    3 (residencia) hall of residence, US dormitory
    \
    colegio de monjas convent school
    colegio electoral (votantes) electoral college 2 (lugar) polling station
    colegio mayor / colegio universitario hall of residence, US dormitory
    colegio privado / colegio de pago public school, US private school
    colegio público state school
    * * *
    noun m.
    * * *
    SM
    1) (Escol) school

    colegio mayor — (Univ) hall of residence; ( Hist) college

    colegio público — state school, public school (EEUU)

    2) (=corporación)
    3) (Pol)

    colegio electoral — (=lugar) polling station; (=electores) electoral college

    COLEGIO Uso del artículo A la hora de traducir expresiones como al colegio/ a la escuela o en el colegio/ en la escuela, desde el colegio/ desde la escuela {etc}, hemos de tener en cuenta el motivo por el que alguien acude al recinto o está allí: ► Se traduce al colegio/ a la escuela por to school, en el colegio {o} en la escuela por at school y desde el colegio {o} desde la escuela por from school cuando alguien va o está allí en calidad de alumno: El primer día que fui al colegio me pasé toda la mañana llorando The first day I went to school I spent the whole morning crying Juan todavía está en el colegio. Lo han castigado Juan's still at school. He's been given a detention ► Se traduce al colegio/ a la escuela por to the school, en el colegio/ en la escuela por at the school y desde el colegio/ desde la escuela por from the school cuando alguien va o está en el centro por otros motivos: Ayer fueron mis padres al colegio para hablar con el director Yesterday my parents went to the school to talk to the headmaster Podemos quedar en el colegio y luego ir a tomar algo We can meet at the school and then go for a drink Para otros usos y ejemplos ver la entrada
    * * *
    1) (Educ) school

    Colegio de Abogados — ≈Bar Association

    Colegio Oficial de Médicos — ≈Medical Association

    •
    * * *
    Ex. He graduated from library school a year and a half ago, and served a one year stint as an assistant media specialist in a middle school media center = El se graduó en biblioteconomía hace un año y medio y durante un año trabajó como auxiliar especialista en multimedia en un centro multimedia de una escuela secundaria.
    ----
    * Colegio de Abogados = Law Society.
    * colegio electoral = electoral college.
    * colegio invisible = invisible college.
    * colegio mayor = residence hall, dormitory [dorm, -abbr.], dorm, student residence.
    * colegio profesional = scholarly society.
    * colegio universitario = college.
    * colegio universitario estatal = junior college, state college, state college.
    * colegio universitario municipal = community college.
    * excursión del colegio = school trip.
    * viaje del colegio = school trip.
    * * *
    1) (Educ) school

    Colegio de Abogados — ≈Bar Association

    Colegio Oficial de Médicos — ≈Medical Association

    •
    * * *

    Ex: He graduated from library school a year and a half ago, and served a one year stint as an assistant media specialist in a middle school media center = El se graduó en biblioteconomía hace un año y medio y durante un año trabajó como auxiliar especialista en multimedia en un centro multimedia de una escuela secundaria.

    * Colegio de Abogados = Law Society.
    * colegio electoral = electoral college.
    * colegio invisible = invisible college.
    * colegio mayor = residence hall, dormitory [dorm, -abbr.], dorm, student residence.
    * colegio profesional = scholarly society.
    * colegio universitario = college.
    * colegio universitario estatal = junior college, state college, state college.
    * colegio universitario municipal = community college.
    * excursión del colegio = school trip.
    * viaje del colegio = school trip.

    * * *
    A ( Educ) school
    va a un colegio de monjas she goes to a convent school
    un colegio de curas a Catholic boys' school
    Compuestos:
    (en Esp) private school ( receiving state subsidy) colegio concertado (↑ colegio a1)
    ● colegio estatal or del estado
    public school ( AmE), state school ( BrE) colegio estatal (↑ colegio aa1)
    ( Esp) residence hall ( AmE), hall of residence ( BrE)
    fee-paying o private school colegio privado (↑ colegio aaaa1)
    public school ( AmE), state school ( BrE)
    University College
    B
    (de profesionales): Colegio de Abogados ≈ Bar Association, college of lawyers
    Colegio Oficial de Médicos ≈ Medical Association
    Compuestos:
    ● colegio cardenalicio or de cardenales
    College of Cardinals
    electoral college
    * * *

     

    Del verbo colegiar: ( conjugate colegiar)

    colegio es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    colegió es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    colegio sustantivo masculino
    a) (Educ) school;


    un colegio de monjas convent school;
    un colegio de curas a Catholic boys' school;
    colegio privado or de pago fee-paying o private school;
    colegio electoral electoral college;
    colegio estatal or público public school (AmE), state school (BrE)

    ◊ Ccolegio de Abogados ≈ Bar Association;

    Ccolegio Oficial de Médicos ≈ Medical Association
    colegio sustantivo masculino
    1 (escuela) school
    colegio privado, GB public o independent school, US private school
    colegio público, state school, US public school
    2 (clase, enseñanza) mañana no hay colegio, there is no school tomorrow
    3 (asociación profesional), college, association
    colegio de abogados, Bar Association
    colegio de médicos, Medical Association
    4 Pol colegio electoral, electoral college
    5 Univ colegio mayor o universitario, hall of residence, US dormitory
    ' colegio' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    aglomerarse
    - ambientarse
    - aula
    - campana
    - cerca
    - compañera
    - compañero
    - dirección
    - director
    - directora
    - dormitorio
    - electoral
    - espaldera
    - ir
    - hornada
    - internado
    - meter
    - patio
    - predominar
    - pública
    - público
    - subdirector
    - subdirectora
    - tarde
    - témpano
    - alumnado
    - alumno
    - bata
    - camarada
    - castigar
    - cátedra
    - catedrático
    - claustro
    - colegial
    - comedor
    - conserje
    - cuál
    - cuyo
    - dejar
    - descanso
    - después
    - distar
    - echar
    - egresado
    - egresar
    - egreso
    - elitista
    - estudiar
    - exalumno
    - exclusividad
    English:
    admission
    - after
    - argue
    - art
    - assembly
    - association
    - at
    - bar
    - become
    - board
    - boarder
    - caretaker
    - co-ed
    - consecutive
    - desk
    - dormitory
    - dyslexia
    - expel
    - grammar school
    - head
    - institute
    - polling station
    - pool
    - prep school
    - private
    - public school
    - residence
    - school
    - school trip
    - schooldays
    - scrap
    - senior
    - set back
    - single-sex
    - skive
    - sports day
    - all
    - any
    - bundle
    - canteen
    - catchment area
    - college
    - ferry
    - finishing
    - get
    - grammar
    - hall
    - high
    - junior
    - leave
    * * *
    1. [escuela] school;
    ir al colegio to go to school;
    mañana no hay colegio there's no school tomorrow;
    durante mis años de colegio while I was at school
    Esp colegio concertado state-subsidized (private) school;
    colegio de curas school run by priests, Catholic boys' school;
    colegio estatal Br state school, US public school;
    colegio homologado officially approved school;
    colegio de monjas convent school;
    colegio nacional Br state primary school, US public elementary school;
    colegio de pago fee-paying o private school;
    colegio de párvulos infant school;
    colegio privado private school;
    colegio público Br state school, US public school;
    2. [de profesionales]
    colegio (profesional) professional association
    colegio de abogados bar association;
    colegio cardenalicio college of cardinals;
    colegio de médicos medical association
    3. Pol colegio electoral [lugar] polling station;
    [votantes] ward
    4. Esp colegio mayor Br hall(s) of residence, US dormitory, US residence hall
    COLEGIO DE MÉXICO
    The Colegio de México is an institution dedicated to research and graduate teaching in the Social Sciences and Humanities, and has exercised a leading influence on intellectual and academic life in Mexico since its foundation in 1940. It developed from the “Casa de España”, which was set up in 1938 as a refuge for exiled Spanish academics during the Spanish Civil War, and of which the Mexican writer Alfonso Reyes was one of the first directors. The early work of the Colegio concentrated on historical, literary and linguistic research, but in time it grew to encompass economics, demographics and sociology, as well as Asian and African and International studies. Although it is a small institution compared with the large public universities, it has one of the most important libraries in Latin America (the Biblioteca Cosío Villegas), and publishes about 100 books a year.
    * * *
    m school
    * * *
    1) : school
    2) : college
    colegio electoral: electoral college
    3) : professional association
    * * *
    colegio n school

    Spanish-English dictionary > colegio

  • 20 Spencer, Christopher Miner

    [br]
    b. 10 June 1833 Manchester, Connecticut, USA
    d. 14 January 1922 Hartford, Connecticut, USA
    [br]
    American mechanical engineer and inventor.
    [br]
    Christopher M.Spencer served an apprenticeship from 1847 to 1849 in the machine shop at the silk mills of Cheney Brothers in his native town and remained there for a few years as a journeyman machinist. In 1853 he went to Rochester, New York, to obtain experience with machinery other than that used in the textile industry. He then spent some years with the Colt Armory at Hartford, Connecticut, before returning to Cheney Brothers, where he obtained his first patent, which was for a silk-winding machine.
    Spencer had long been interested in firearms and in 1860 he obtained a patent for a repeating rifle. The Spencer Repeating Rifle Company was organized for its manufacture, and before the end of the American Civil War about 200,000 rifles had been produced. He patented a number of other improvements in firearms and in 1868 was associated with Charles E.Billings (1835–1920) in the Roper Arms Company, set up at Amherst, Massachusetts, to manufacture Spencer's magazine gun. This was not a success, however, and in 1869 they moved to Hartford, Connecticut, and formed the Billings \& Spencer Company. There they developed the technology of the drop hammer and Spencer continued his inventive work, which included an automatic turret lathe for producing metal screws. The patent that he obtained for this in 1873 inexplicably failed to protect the essential feature of the machine which provided the automatic action, with the result that Spencer received no patent right on the most valuable feature of the machine.
    In 1874 Spencer withdrew from active connection with Billings \& Spencer, although he remained a director, and in 1876 he formed with others the Hartford Machine Screw Company. However, he withdrew in 1882 to form the Spencer Arms Company at Windsor, Connecticut, for the manufacture of another of his inventions, a repeating shotgun. But this company failed and Spencer returned to the field of automatic lathes, and in 1893 he organized the Spencer Automatic Machine Screw Company at Windsor, where he remained until his retirement.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.W.Roe, 1916, English and American Tool Builders, New Haven; reprinted 1926, New York, and 1987, Bradley, Ill. (briefly describes his career and his automatic lathes).
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1965, Tools for the Job, London; repub. 1986 (gives a brief description of Spencer's automatic lathes).
    RTS

    Biographical history of technology > Spencer, Christopher Miner

Страницы

См. также в других словарях:

  • (the) English Civil War — the English Civil War [the English Civil War] a war (1642–51) between the King of England, ↑Charles I, and his parliament. Its causes were both political and religious. It divided the people of England and caused great suffering. Charles I’s… …   Useful english dictionary

  • The English Civil War Society — is the umbrella organisation for the King s Army and the Roundhead Association. The purpose of the Society is to raise awareness of the conflict between King Charles I of England and his supporters and their opponents in Parliament and Scotland.… …   Wikipedia

  • Cornwall in the English Civil War — Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green), 1642 1645 Cornwall played a significant role in the English Civil War, being a Royalist enclave in the generally Parliamentarian south west. Contents …   Wikipedia

  • Worcestershire in the English Civil War — This is a timeline for the English Civil War in Worcestershire Usually, the Battle of Worcester has been taken as synonymous with the Civil War in the County, but it was quite an isolated incident, that did not occur until five years after the… …   Wikipedia

  • English Civil War (disambiguation) — The English Civil War was fought between the Royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads) between 1642 and 1651. For other meanings see: * Wars of the Three Kingdoms for an overview of this war. * List of English civil wars for other… …   Wikipedia

  • English Civil War — For other uses, see English Civil War (disambiguation). English Civil War An allegory of the English Civil War by Wi …   Wikipedia

  • English Civil War timeline — This is a timeline of events leading up to, culminating in, and resulting from the English Civil Wars.Events prior to the English Civil War:main|English Civil War *1625 Charles I of England accedes to the English throne, and shortly after marries …   Wikipedia

  • First English Civil War — The First English Civil War (1642–1646) was the first of three wars known as the English Civil War (or Wars ). The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and… …   Wikipedia

  • Third English Civil War — The Third English Civil War (1649 ndash;1651) was the last of the English Civil War (1642 ndash;1652), a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists.The Preston campaign of the Second Civil War was… …   Wikipedia

  • Second English Civil War — Infobox Military Conflict conflict= Second English Civil War partof= the English Civil War date= February, 1648 – 30 January, 1649 place= England and Wales casus= Failure of First English Civil War to provide a satisfactory long term settlement.… …   Wikipedia

  • Naming the American Civil War — The American Civil War has been known by a number of different names since it began in 1861. These names reflect the historical, political, and cultural sensitivities of different groups and regions.[1] The most common name, particularly in… …   Wikipedia

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»