knowledge+development

   1) The Book of Nature Is Written in the Language of Mathematics

   Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)

   2) Arranging Speech so as to Reply Appropriately

   It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)

   3) No Other Animal Has the Language Capacity of the Human

   It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)

   4) Human Beings Do Not Live Only in the World of Objects

   Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)

   5) Language Powerfully Conditions All Our Thinking

   It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)

   6) A List of Language Games

   [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]

   Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it

   Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another

   LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)

   7) Language Constrains Certain Modes of Interpretation

   We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)

   8) We Dissect Nature in Accordance with Our Native Languages

   We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.

   The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)

   9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language

   The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)

    10) The Analysis of Certain Types of Utterances

   It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)

    11) The Dictionary of a Language Is a System of Concepts

   In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)

    12) Talk about the Evolution of the Language Capacity is Beside the Point

   In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)

    13) The Development of Language

   [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)

    14) Sentential and Conceptual Levels in Language

   he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.

   The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)

    15) Linguistic Realities Have Not Yet Been Captured by Theoretical Models

   The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.

   But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)

    16) The Final Steps to Human Language

   The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)

    17) The Inadequacy of Formal Linguistic Models for Ordinary Language Usage

    t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)

    18) When a Language Is an Abstract Machine

   A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)

    19) Metaphor and Metonymy Underpin the Formation of Linguistic Signs

   Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)

    20) Language and the Analysis of Nature

   It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)

    21) Correspondence Rules for Mapping Old Theory into Subsets of New Theory

   First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....

   Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)

    22) The Inclusion of Non- linguistic Factors in a Theory of Grammar

   If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)

    23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction

   Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)

    24) The Genetic Blueprints of Language

   By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)

    25) Languages Are Machines

   Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

1) (the extent or size of a flat surface: This garden is twelve square metres in area.) área, superficie

2) (a place; part (of a town etc): Do you live in this area?) zona

area n

1. área / superficie

2. zona / región

◊ área de castigo penalty area;

tr['eərɪə]

noun

1 (extent) área, superficie nombre femenino

■ calculate the area of this rectangle calcula el área de este rectángulo

■ the room has a floor area of 50 square metres la sala tiene una superficie de 50 metros cuadrados

2 (region) región nombre femenino; (of town) zona

■ we live in a quiet area vivimos en una zona tranquila

3 (field) campo

area ['æriə] n

1) surface: área f, superficie f

2) region: área f, región f, zona f

3) field: área f, terreno m, campo m (de conocimiento)

• latitud s.f.

• patio s.m.

• recinto s.m.

• región s.f.

• superficie s.f.

• zona (Telefónico) s.f.

• ámbito s.m.

• área (Matemática) s.f.

1)

a) ( geographical) zona f, área f‡, región f

b) ( urban) zona f

2) (part of room, building) zona f

3) (expanse, patch)

4) ( Math) superficie f, área f‡; (of room, land) superficie f

5) (field, sphere) terreno m; ( of knowledge) campo m, terreno m

6) ( Sport) ( penalty area) área f‡ (de castigo)

1. N

1) (=surface measure) superficie f, extensión f, área f

2) (=region) [of country] zona f, región f ; [of city] zona f ; (Admin, Pol) zona f, área f

3) (=extent, patch) zona f

4) (=space) zona f

5) (Sport) (also: penalty area) área f de penalti, área f de castigo; goal

6) (Brit) (=basement courtyard) patio m

7) (=sphere) [of knowledge] campo m, terreno m ; [of responsibility] esfera f

* * *

1)

a) ( geographical) zona f, área f‡, región f

b) ( urban) zona f

2) (part of room, building) zona f

3) (expanse, patch)

4) ( Math) superficie f, área f‡; (of room, land) superficie f

5) (field, sphere) terreno m; ( of knowledge) campo m, terreno m

6) ( Sport) ( penalty area) área f‡ (de castigo)

1) agr. campo m.

2) geogr. geol. distesa f., banco m.; (basin) bacino m.

3) sport campo m., terreno m. di gioco

4) + verbo sing. o pl. sport (athletes) concorrenti m.pl.; (horses) cavalli m.pl. in gara

5) (area of knowledge) campo m., settore m.

6) ling.

7) (real environment)

8) mil.

9) (range) campo m.

10) inform. mat. fis. campo m.

1) mil. [hospital, kitchen] da campo

2) (in real environment) [ study] sul campo; [ test] in condizioni reali di utilizzo

••

1) sport prendere (e rilanciare) [ ball]

2) (select) presentare [ candidate]; sport mettere in campo [team, player]

3) (respond to) rispondere (bene) a [ questions]

verbo intransitivo sport giocare in difesa

* * *

1) (a piece of land enclosed for growing crops, keeping animals etc: Our house is surrounded by fields.) campo

2) (a wide area: playing fields (= an area for games, sports etc).) campo, terreno

3) (a piece of land etc where minerals or other natural resources are found: an oil-field; a coalfield.) giacimento

4) (an area of knowledge, interest, study etc: in the fields of literature/economic development; her main fields of interest.) campo

5) (an area affected, covered or included by something: a magnetic field; in his field of vision.) campo

6) (an area of battle: the field of Waterloo; ( also adjective) a field-gun.) campo (di battaglia)

- field-glasses

* * *

1) agr. campo m.

2) geogr. geol. distesa f., banco m.; (basin) bacino m.

3) sport campo m., terreno m. di gioco

4) + verbo sing. o pl. sport (athletes) concorrenti m.pl.; (horses) cavalli m.pl. in gara

5) (area of knowledge) campo m., settore m.

6) ling.

7) (real environment)

8) mil.

9) (range) campo m.

10) inform. mat. fis. campo m.

1) mil. [hospital, kitchen] da campo

2) (in real environment) [ study] sul campo; [ test] in condizioni reali di utilizzo

••

1) sport prendere (e rilanciare) [ ball]

2) (select) presentare [ candidate]; sport mettere in campo [team, player]

3) (respond to) rispondere (bene) a [ questions]

verbo intransitivo sport giocare in difesa

    The Question of the Validity and Justification of Metaphysics

   There have been many opponents of metaphysics from the Greek sceptics to the empiricists of the nineteenth century. Criticisms of very diverse kinds have been set forth. Many have declared that the doctrine of metaphysics is false, since it contradicts our empirical knowledge. Others have believed it to be uncertain, on the ground that its problems transcend the limits of human knowledge. Many anti-metaphysicians have declared that occupation with metaphysical questions is sterile. Whether or not these questions can be answered, it is at any rate unnecessary to worry about them; let us devote ourselves entirely to the practical tasks which confront active men every day of their lives!

   The development of modern logic has made it possible to give a new and sharper answer to the question of the validity and justification of metaphysics. The researchers of applied logic or the theory of knowledge, which aim at clarifying the cognitive content of scientific statements and thereby the meanings of the terms that occur in the statements, by means of logical analysis, lead to a positive and to a negative result. The positive result is worked out in the domain of empirical science; the various concepts of the various branches of science are clarified; their formal, logical and epistemological connections are made explicit.

   In the domain of metaphysics, including all philosophy of value and normative theory, logical analysis yields the negative result that the al leged statements in this domain are entirely meaningless. Therewith a radical elimination of metaphysics is attained, which was not yet possible from the earlier anti-metaphysical standpoints. (Carnap, 1959, p. 60)

1) оружие; вооружение

2) средство

•

- abolition of nuclear weapons

- chemical weapons

- cleared of nuclear weapons

- nonproliferation of nuclear weapons

- non-use of nuclear weapons

- nuclear weapons

- spread of nuclear weapons

- stationing of nuclear weapons

regular one-to-one coaching for leaders, designed as part of a management development program to provide knowledge and skills in a particular area. Executive coaching involves giving feedback to a leader and assisting in the creation of a development plan, often using 360 degree appraisal. It can include in-depth development coaching conducted by colleagues, superiors, or specialist trainers, lasting perhaps six to twelve months.

SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology, Automotive engineering, Land transport

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The credit for the first design of sheep shears lies with James Higham, who patented the idea in 1868. However, its practical and commercial success lay in the work of a number of people, to each of whom Frederick Wolseley provides the connecting link.

One of three brothers, he emigrated to Australia in 1854 and worked in New South Wales for five years. In 1867 he produced a working model of mechanical sheep shears, but it took a further five years before he actually produced a machine, whilst working as Manager of a sheep station in Victoria. In the intervening period it is possible that he visited America and Britain. On returning to Australia in 1872 he and Robert Savage produced another working model in a workshop in Melbourne. Four years later, by which time Wolseley had acquired the "Euroka" sheep station at Walgett, they tested the model and in 1877 acquired joint patent rights. The machine was not successful, and in 1884 another joint patent, this time with Robert Pickup, was taken out on a cog-gear universal joint. Development was to take several more years, during which a highly skilled blacksmith by the name of George Gray joined the team. It is likely that he was the first person to remove a fleece from a sheep mechanically. Finally, the last to be involved in the development of the shears was another Englishman, John Howard, who emigrated to Australia in 1883 with the intention of developing a shearing machine based on his knowledge of existing horse clippers. Wolseley purchased Howard's patent rights and gave him a job. The first public demonstration of the shears was held at the wool stores of Goldsborough \& Co. of Melbourne. Although the hand shearers were faster, when the three sheep that had been clipped by them were re-shorn using the mechanical machine, a further 2 lb (900 g) of wool was removed.

Wolseley placed the first manufacturing order with A.P.Parks, who employed a young Englishman by the name of Herbert Austin. A number of improvements to the design were suggested by Austin, who acquired patents and assigned them to Wolseley in 1895 in return for shares in the company. Austin returned to England to run the Wolseley factory in Birmingham. He also built there the first car to carry the Wolseley name, and subsequently opened a car factory carrying his own name.

Wolseley resigned as Managing Director of the company in 1894 and died five years later.

[br]

сокр. mgr

1) упр. менеджер, управляющий, руководитель, директор, заведующий (лицо, осуществляющее руководство людьми, управление процессами, распоряжение имуществом и т. п.; первоначально термин использовался в основном в частном секторе, однако позже стал применяться и в области государственного управления)

2) комп. администратор; менеджер; распорядитель; диспетчер (компьютерная программа либо устройство, предназначенное для автоматической организации данных, управления другими устройствами или программами)

3) фин., банк. банк-организатор займа*, управляющий банк* (банк, входящий в группу организаторов размещения нового выпуска ценных бумаг или синдицированного кредита; может быть главным организатором или одним из организаторов)

* * *

1) (cultivated) Feld, das; Acker, der; (for grazing) Weide, die; (meadow) Wiese, die

2) (area rich in minerals etc.) Lagerstätte, die

3) (battlefield) Schlachtfeld, das; (fig.) Feld, das

4) (playing field) Sportplatz, der; (ground marked out for game) Platz, der; [Spiel]feld, das

5) (competitors in sports event) Feld, das; (fig.) Teilnehmerkreis, der

6) (area of operation, subject area, etc.) Fach, das; [Fach]gebiet, das

7) (Phys.)

(Cricket, Baseball, etc.) als Fänger spielen

1) (Cricket, Baseball, etc.) (stop) fangen [Ball]; (stop and return) auffangen und zurückwerfen

2) (put into field) aufstellen, aufs Feld schicken [Mannschaft, Spieler]

3) (fig.): (deal with) fertig werden mit; parieren [Fragen]

* * *

1) (a piece of land enclosed for growing crops, keeping animals etc: Our house is surrounded by fields.) das Feld

2) (a wide area: playing fields (= an area for games, sports etc).) das Feld

3) (a piece of land etc where minerals or other natural resources are found: an oil-field; a coalfield.) das Feld

4) (an area of knowledge, interest, study etc: in the fields of literature/economic development; her main fields of interest.) das Gebiet

5) (an area affected, covered or included by something: a magnetic field; in his field of vision.) das (blick)Feld

6) (an area of battle: the field of Waterloo; ( also adjective) a field-gun.) das Schlachtfeld, Feld-...

- academic.ru/116115/field-glasses">field-glasses

* * *

I. n

1. (meadow) Wiese f; (pasture) Weide f; (for crops) Feld nt, Acker m

to cut across the \fields quer über die Felder gehen

2. (for sports) Spielfeld nt, Platz m

to take the \field einlaufen

3. (expanse) [weite] Fläche

ice/snow \field Eis-/Schneefläche f

4. of deposits Feld nt

coal \field Kohleflöz m

gas/oil \field Gas-/Ölfeld

5. (battlefield) Schlachtfeld nt; (scene)

\field of battle Kriegsschauplatz m

to take the \field ins Feld ziehen

in the \field an der Front

6. (working area) Arbeitsbereich m, Einsatzgebiet nt

\field of activity Tätigkeitsgebiet nt, Tätigkeitsfeld nt

7. (area of knowledge) Arbeitsfeld nt, Gebiet nt, Bereich m

to be first in the \field der/die Beste auf dem Gebiet sein

to be outside sb's \field außerhalb jds Kompetenzbereich liegen, nicht mehr in jds Ressort nt fallen

8. COMPUT Datenfeld nt fachspr

9. + sing/pl vb (contestants) [Teilnehmer]feld nt

once again Jones finished ahead of the \field wieder einmal gewann Jones vor dem Rest des Feldes

we have a strong \field this afternoon wir haben heute Nachmittag eine starke Besetzung

10. (side in cricket) Fängerpartei f; (player) Fänger(in) m(f)

11. PHYS Feld nt

gravitational \field Schwerefeld nt fachspr, Gravitationsfeld nt fachspr

magnetic \field Magnetfeld nt

12. MATH Feld nt

▶ to leave the \field clear for sb jdm das Feld überlassen

John's transfer left the \field clear for Judy to get the job weil John versetzt wurde, konnte sich Judy um seinen Job bewerben

II. n modifier Feld-

\field interview Befragung f

\field observations Freilandbeobachtungen pl, Feldbeobachtungen pl

III. vi als Fänger spielen m

IV. vt

1. (stop)

to \field the ball den Ball fangen

2. (have playing)

to \field a team ein Team aufs Feld schicken; ( fig)

to \field a group of experts eine Expertengruppe zusammenstellen

3. (offer as candidate)

▪ to \field sb jdn aufstellen

4. (display)

to \field an army eine Armee aufmarschieren lassen

5. (handle)

to \field questions Fragen abblocken [o parieren]

to \field telephone calls Telefonanrufe abweisen

* * *

1. n

1) (AGR) Feld nt, Acker m; (= area of grass) Wiese f; (for cows, horses etc) Weide f

2) (= coalfield, icefield, oilfield etc) Feld nt

3) (for football etc = ground) Platz m

4) (MIL) Feld nt

5) (of study, work etc) Gebiet nt, Feld nt

6) (= area of practical observation or operation) Praxis f

7) (PHYS, OPT) Feld nt

8) (SPORT: competitors) Feld nt; (CRICKET, BASEBALL) Fängerpartei f

9) (COMPUT) Datenfeld nt; (on punch card) Feld nt

10) (on flag HER) Feld nt, Grund m

11)

2. vt

1) (CRICKET, BASEBALL ETC) ball auffangen und zurückwerfen; (fig) question etc abblocken, abwehren

2) team, side aufs Feld or auf den Platz schicken

3) (POL) candidate aufstellen

3. vi (CRICKET, BASEBALL ETC)

* * *

field [fiːld]

A s

1. AGR Feld n:

in the field auf dem Feld;

field of barley Gerstenfeld

2. MINER

a) (Gold- etc) Feld n

b) (Gruben)Feld n, Revier n, (Kohlen) Flöz n

3. fig Bereich m, (Sach-, Fach)Gebiet n:

in the field of art auf dem Gebiet der Kunst;

in his field auf seinem Gebiet, in seinem Fach;

field of activity Arbeitsgebiet, Tätigkeitsbereich;

field of application Anwendungsbereich;

field of law Rechtsgebiet

4. a) (weite) Fläche

b) MATH, PHYS Feld n:

field of force Kraftfeld;

field of vision Blick- oder Gesichtsfeld, fig Gesichtskreis m, Horizont m

c) (elektrisches oder magnetisches) Feld

5. Heraldik: Feld n, Grundfläche f

6. SPORT

a) (Sport) Platz m:

field (of play) Spielfeld n, -fläche f;

take the field einlaufen, auf den Platz kommen ( → A 7);

play the field umg sich nicht festlegen (wollen); alle gebotenen Chancen wahrnehmen, engS. nichts anbrennen lassen umg (sich keine Chancen bei Jungen bzw Mädchen entgehen lassen)

b) Feld n (geschlossene Gruppe von Läufern etc):

finish down the field im geschlagenen Feld enden

c) Teilnehmer(feld) pl(n), Besetzung f, fig Wettbewerbsteilnehmer pl:

good field starke Besetzung;

fair field and no favo(u)r gleiche Bedingungen für alle

7. MIL

a) meist poet Schlachtfeld n, (Feld)Schlacht f

b) Feld n, Front f:

the field of hono(u)r das Feld der Ehre;

in the field im Felde, an der Front;

hold ( oder keep) the field sich oder das Feld behaupten;

take the field ins Feld rücken, den Kampf eröffnen ( → A 6 a);

win the field den Sieg davontragen

8. → airfield

9. MED Operationsfeld n

10. TV Feld n, Rasterbild n

11. besonders PSYCH, SOZIOL Praxis f, Wirklichkeit f

12. WIRTSCH Außendienst m, (praktischer) Einsatz:

agent in the field Vertreter(in) im Außendienst

B v/t

1. a) SPORT eine Mannschaft aufs Feld schicken, einen Spieler auch bringen

b) einen Kandidaten etc ins Rennen schicken

2. eine Frage etc kontern

* * *

1) (cultivated) Feld, das; Acker, der; (for grazing) Weide, die; (meadow) Wiese, die

2) (area rich in minerals etc.) Lagerstätte, die

3) (battlefield) Schlachtfeld, das; (fig.) Feld, das

4) (playing field) Sportplatz, der; (ground marked out for game) Platz, der; [Spiel]feld, das

5) (competitors in sports event) Feld, das; (fig.) Teilnehmerkreis, der

6) (area of operation, subject area, etc.) Fach, das; [Fach]gebiet, das

7) (Phys.)

(Cricket, Baseball, etc.) als Fänger spielen

1) (Cricket, Baseball, etc.) (stop) fangen [Ball]; (stop and return) auffangen und zurückwerfen

2) (put into field) aufstellen, aufs Feld schicken [Mannschaft, Spieler]

3) (fig.): (deal with) fertig werden mit; parieren [Fragen]

* * *

Acker -Ä m. (military) n.

Einsatzgebiet n. n.

Feld -er n.

Gebiet -e n.

Körper - (Mathematik) m.

1) (thought) idea f.

2) (notion) concetto m., idea f.

3) (impression) impressione f.

4) (knowledge) idea f.

5) (theory) idea f.

6) (aim) scopo m.

7) (gist)

••

* * *

1) (opinion; belief: I have an idea that it won't work.) idea

2) (a plan: I've an idea for solving this problem.) idea

3) (mental picture: This will give you an idea of what I mean.) idea

* * *

sigla

(GB, Improvement and Development Agency /for local government/) Agenzia per il risanamento e lo sviluppo (per le amministrazioni locali) ( ente di supporto alla Local Government Association).

* * *

1) (thought) idea f.

2) (notion) concetto m., idea f.

3) (impression) impressione f.

4) (knowledge) idea f.

5) (theory) idea f.

6) (aim) scopo m.

7) (gist)

••

1) (acquire) acquisire [ knowledge]; contrarre [ illness]; prendere [ habit]; presentare, manifestare [ symptom]

2) (evolve) sviluppare, ampliare [plan, project]; sviluppare, mettere a punto [technique, invention]; sviluppare [theory, argument]

3) comm. ind. creare [ market]; stabilire [ links]

4) (expand, build up) sviluppare [mind, physique]; comm. sviluppare, ampliare [business, market]

5) (improve) valorizzare [land, site]; risanare [ city centre]

6) fot. sviluppare

1) (evolve) [child, society, country, plot, play] svilupparsi

2) (come into being) [friendship, difficulty] nascere; [crack, hole] formarsi, prodursi; [ illness] manifestarsi

3) (progress, advance) [ friendship] svilupparsi; [ difficulty] accrescersi; [crack, fault] accentuarsi; [war, illness] aggravarsi; [game, story] svolgersi

4) (in size, extent) [town, business] svilupparsi

* * *

1) (to (cause to) grow bigger or to a more advanced state: The plan developed slowly in his mind; It has developed into a very large city.) sviluppare, svilupparsi

2) (to acquire gradually: He developed the habit of getting up early.) acquisire

3) (to become active, visible etc: Spots developed on her face.) manifestarsi

4) (to use chemicals to make (a photograph) visible: My brother develops all his own films.) sviluppare

•

- development

* * *

1) (acquire) acquisire [ knowledge]; contrarre [ illness]; prendere [ habit]; presentare, manifestare [ symptom]

2) (evolve) sviluppare, ampliare [plan, project]; sviluppare, mettere a punto [technique, invention]; sviluppare [theory, argument]

3) comm. ind. creare [ market]; stabilire [ links]

4) (expand, build up) sviluppare [mind, physique]; comm. sviluppare, ampliare [business, market]

5) (improve) valorizzare [land, site]; risanare [ city centre]

6) fot. sviluppare

1) (evolve) [child, society, country, plot, play] svilupparsi

2) (come into being) [friendship, difficulty] nascere; [crack, hole] formarsi, prodursi; [ illness] manifestarsi

3) (progress, advance) [ friendship] svilupparsi; [ difficulty] accrescersi; [crack, fault] accentuarsi; [war, illness] aggravarsi; [game, story] svolgersi

4) (in size, extent) [town, business] svilupparsi

[ˈsɪstɪm]

accept system система акцептования accounting information system вчт. бухгалтерская информационная система accounting system система бухгалтерского учета accounting system система счетов adaptive system вчт. адаптивная система administrative system административная система alarm system система сигнализации analysis system система анализа application visualization system вчт. прикладная система изображения asset quality rating system система квалификации активов asymptotically stable system асимптотически устойчивая система automated control system асу, автоматизированная система управления axiomatic system аксиоматическая система backup system вчт. дублирующая система banking system банковская система belief system система доверия bicameral system двухпалатная система bicameral system парл. двухпалатная система bipartite system парл. двухпартийная система block system =blocking bonus system премиальная система buddy system метод близнецов bulk-service system система с групповым обслуживанием business system экономическая система cad system вчт. система автоматизированного проектирования call-reply system вчт. запрсно-ответная система certification system система сертификации closed queueing system замкнутая система массового обслуживания closed system замкнутая система code-dependent system вчт. система зависящая от данных code-independent system вчт. система не зависящая от данных code-insensitive system вчт. система не зависящая от данных code-sensitive system вчт. система зависящая от данных code-transparent system вчт. система не зависящая от данных coinage system монетная система column system система бухгалтерского учета по колонкам commission system система комиссионных вознаграждений computer system вычислительная система computer system вчт. вычислительная система computer system вычислительный комплекс computer system система вычислительных машин computer-aided control system автоматизированная система управления computer-to-plate system система создания печатных форм на компьютере computerized information system информационная система на базе ЭВМ concealment system система маскировки concession system система концессий constrained system вчт. система с ограничениями consulting system вчт. консультирующая система control system система управления control system вчт. система управления cooperative system система кооперации cooptation system система кооптации costing system система калькуляции себестоимости court system судебная система, система судопроизводства credit system кредитная система criminal reestablishment system система восстановления личности преступника crisis alert system система предупреждения о кризисе cross system вчт. кросс-система cyclical response system вчт. система циклических реакций data base management system вчт. система управления базой данных data handling system вчт. система обработки данных data processing system вчт. система обработки данных data system вчт. информационная система database system вчт. система баз данных decimal system десятичная система dedicated system специализированная система deductive system дедуктивная система delay system система с ожиданием desktop system система непосредственного взаимодействия direct debit system система прямого дебета direct system целевая система directional system система управления disk operating system вчт. дисковая операционная система, ДОС distributed file system вчт. распределенная файловая система distributed system вчт. распределенная система distribution system система распределения distributive system распределительная система DP system (data processing system) система обработки данных dynamic system динамическая система educational system система образования educational system система обучения election system избирательная система electronic book-entry system вчт. электронная система бухгалтерского учета electronic full-page makeup system вчт. электронная система верстки полос enclave system анклавная группа; полузащищенная группа (работающих под специальным наблюдением в обычных рабочих условиях инвалидов) equilibrium system равновесная система evolutionary system развиваемая система executive system вчт. операционная система expand a system вчт. расширять комплект оборудования системы expert system вчт. экспертная система explanatory system вчт. система объяснений fail-soft system вчт. система с амортизацией отказов federal system федеральная система fee system система вознаграждений feedback system система с обратной связью file system вчт. файловая система filing system система регистрации документов filing system система хранения документов financial system финансовая система fiscal system система финансов fixed price system система с фиксированной ценой flat-rate guarantee system система гарантий с фиксированной ставкой formal system формальная система fractional reserve system система частичных резервов frame system вчт. система фреймов functional information system вчт. функциональный информационная система giro system система жиросчетов governmental system правительственная система grading system система сортировки guarantee system система гарантий guidance system вчт. система -путеводитель hard disk system вчт. система с жестким диском help system вчт. справочник hire system =hire-purchase historical cost system выч. калькуляция на основе фактических издержек производства homogeneous system однородная система host system вчт. базисная система host system вчт. централизованная система imprest system система авансирования imputation system система условного начисления indexing system система индексации inductive system вчт. индуктивная система information system вчт. информационная система instruction system вчт. обучающая система integrated system вчт. интегрированная система intelligent system вчт. интеллектуальная система interactive system вчт. диалоговая система interactive system вчт. интерактивная система interest system система ставок процента international monetary system международная валютная система judicial system система судебных органов judicial system судебная система, система судебных органов judicial system судебная система jury system система суда присяжных knowledge base management system вчт. система управления базой знаний knowledge representation system вчт. система представления знаний land registration system система регистрации земельного участка learning system вчт. самообучаемая система licensing system система лицензирования linear programming system система линейного программирования linear system линейная система loadable system вчт. загружаемая система loan limit system система предельных размеров кредита loose-leaf system полигр. издание с отрывными или вкладными листами loss system система с потерями mail system вчт. электронная почта management information system (MIS) управленческая информационная система manual system система ручного управления many-server system вчт. многоканальная система mapped system вчт. система с управлением памятью market system рыночная система market system рыночная экономика market system страна с рыночной экономикой marketing information system система маркетинговой информации markov system марковская система markovian system марковская система master-slave system несимметричная система match system система выравнивания курсов militia system система милиции minimum price system система минимальных цен minimum wage system система минимальной заработной платы ministerial system правительственная система mixed price system смешанная ценовая система mixed system смешанная система modeless system вчт. система с однородным интерфейсом monetary system денежная система monetary system финансовая система monitoring system система мониторинга monitoring system система текущего контроля multi-user system вчт. многопользовательская система multiprocessing system вчт. многопроцессорная система multiprogramming system вчт. система, работающая в мультипрограммном режиме multiserver system вчт. многоканальная система multistation system вчт. многопунктовая система multitasking system вчт. многозадачная система multiuser system система коллективного пользования multivariable system вчт. многомерная система municipal system муниципальная система non-markovian system вчт. немарковская система nonstop system вчт. безостановочный компьютер normative system нормативная система number system система счисления numeration system система счисления off-line system вчт. автономная система on-demand system вчт. система без ожидания on-line system вчт. неавтономная система on-line system вчт. система, работающая в реальном масштабе времени on-line system вчт. система реального времени one-party system однопартийная система open learning system гибкая система обучения open system вчт. открытая система open-item system система с незакрытыми статьями баланса operating system действующая система operating system вчт. операционная система organized banking system организованная банковская система page system вчт. страничная система parliamentary system парламентская система partial cost system система калькуляции издержек производства с использованием нормативов party system партийная система patent system система патентования pay-as-you-go system система выплаты выходных пособий при увольнении payments system система платежей penal system пенитенциарная система periodic reordering system вчт. система с периодической подачей заказов pilot system вчт. прототип системы system система, устройство; political system государственный строй portable system вчт. мобильная система preferential system система преференций premium system премиальная система price control system система регулирования цен price support system система гарантирования цен price system система цен priority system вчт. система приоритетов priority system вчт. система с приоритетами probabilistic system вероятностная система process cost system система исчисления производственных издержек production system продукционная система productions system система продукций program development system вчт. система разработки программ programming system вчт. система программирования progressive taxation system система прогрессивного налогообложения proportional taxation system система пропорционального налогообложения protection system вчт. система защиты prototyping system макет системы public health system система здравоохранения quality system система критериев качества quality system система проверки качества quata system система квот question-answering system вчт. вопросно-ответная система queueing system система массового обслуживания queueing system вчт. система массового обслуживания quota system система иммиграционных квот quota system система квот quota system система контингентов real time system вчт. система реального времени reasoning system вчт. разумная система redundant system вчт. избыточная система reliable system надежная система report system система отчетности reporting system система отчетности reporting system система сбора информации reporting system система учета representation system система представления reservation system система резервирования resident system вчт. резидентная система retrieval system док. система внесения исправлений retrieval system вчт. система поиска revision control system вчт. система управления версиями risk control system система контроля рисков salary adjustment system система регулирования заработной платы salary system система заработной платы scalable system вчт. расширяемая система school system школьная система segment system вчт. система с сегментной организацией self-assessment tax system система самообложения налогом self-contained system замкнутая система serving system вчт. система обслуживания setting up the system вчт. начальная установка системы short-term support system система краткосрочной поддержки simulation system имитационная система single-channel system вчт. одноканальная система single-server system вчт. одноканальная система slave system подчиненная система stable system устойчивая система standard pay system система нормативной заработной платы standby system резервная система static-priority system вчт. система со статическими приоритетами stationary system стационарная система stochastic system стохастическая система support system вчт. исполняющая система system метод system мир, вселенная system организм system сеть (дорог и т. п.) system геол. система, формация system система, устройство; political system государственный строй system система, устройство system система, метод system система; метод; system of axes система координат; what system do you go on? какому методу вы следуете? system comp. система system устройство system for medium-term financial assistance программа среднесрочной финансовой помощи system система; метод; system of axes система координат; what system do you go on? какому методу вы следуете? system of commands система команд system of deductions система выводов system of financial contributions система финансовых взносов system of import control система контроля за импортом system of monitoring balance sheet growth система контроля за ростом статей баланса system of reimbursement система возмещения расходов system of remuneration система вознаграждения system of state государственное устройство system of taxation система налогообложения target system вчт. целевая система tax system налоговая система tax-at-source system система удержания налога из общей суммы доходов taxation system система налогообложения tender system система торгов terminal system вчт. система терминалов test system вчт. испытательная система text-retrieval system вчт. документальная информационная система thin-route system вчт. малоканальная система tightly-coupled system вчт. система с сильной связью time sharing system вчт. система разделения времени time-sharing system вчт. система разделения времени time-sharing system вчт. система с разделением времени timecard system система табельного учета totting-up system система зачетов trade support system система поддержки торговли trading system система торговли transaction-oriented system вчт. диалоговая система обработки запросов truck system система оплаты труда натурой truck system система оплаты труда товарами truck: truck = truck system system attr.: system system оплата труда товарами вместо денег; Truck Acts ист. законы, ограничивающие систему оплаты труда товарами turnkey system вчт. готовая система two-channel system вчт. двухканальная система two-party system двухпартийная система unicameral system однопалатная система unitary tax system единая система налогообложения unmapped system вчт. система без управления памятью up system исправная система virgin system вчт. исходная система voluntary labelling system система добровольного снабжения продукта этикеткой wage system система оплаты труда waiting system вчт. система с ожиданием watch system бирж. система наблюдения weighting system система весов system система; метод; system of axes система координат; what system do you go on? какому методу вы следуете? windowing system вчт. система управления окнами word processing system вчт. система обработки текстов work-space system вчт. система с рабочим состоянием

   1) Grammar as Analogous to a Scientific Theory

   I think that the failure to offer a precise account of the notion "grammar" is not just a superficial defect in linguistic theory that can be remedied by adding one more definition. It seems to me that until this notion is clarified, no part of linguistic theory can achieve anything like a satisfactory development.... I have been discussing a grammar of a particular language here as analogous to a particular scientific theory, dealing with its subject matter (the set of sentences of this language) much as embryology or physics deals with its subject matter. (Chomsky, 1964, p. 213)

   2) Native Speakers and Their Grammar

   Obviously, every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. This is not to say that he is aware of the rules of grammar or even that he can become aware of them, or that his statements about his intuitive knowledge of his language are necessarily accurate. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 8)

   3) The Reduction of Transformation Rules In a Science of Grammar

   Much effort has been devoted to showing that the class of possible transformations can be substantially reduced without loss of descriptive power through the discovery of quite general conditions that all such rules and the representations they operate on and form must meet.... [The] transformational rules, at least for a substantial core grammar, can be reduced to the single rule, "Move alpha" (that is, "move any category anywhere"). (Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 21)

   4) The Relationship of Transformational Grammar to Semantics and to Human Performance

   he implications of assuming a semantic memory for what we might call "generative psycholinguistics" are: that dichotomous judgments of semantic well-formedness versus anomaly are not essential or inherent to language performance; that the transformational component of a grammar is the part most relevant to performance models; that a generative grammar's role should be viewed as restricted to language production, whereas sentence understanding should be treated as a problem of extracting a cognitive representation of a text's message; that until some theoretical notion of cognitive representation is incorporated into linguistic conceptions, they are unlikely to provide either powerful language-processing programs or psychologically relevant theories.

   Although these implications conflict with the way others have viewed the relationship of transformational grammars to semantics and to human performance, they do not eliminate the importance of such grammars to psychologists, an importance stressed in, and indeed largely created by, the work of Chomsky. It is precisely because of a growing interdependence between such linguistic theory and psychological performance models that their relationship needs to be clarified. (Quillian, 1968, p. 260)

   5) The Terminologies of Formal Grammar

   here are some terminological distinctions that are crucial to explain, or else confusions can easily arise. In the formal study of grammar, a language is defined as a set of sentences, possibly infinite, where each sentence is a string of symbols or words. One can think of each sentence as having several representations linked together: one for its sound pattern, one for its meaning, one for the string of words constituting it, possibly others for other data structures such as the "surface structure" and "deep structure" that are held to mediate the mapping between sound and meaning. Because no finite system can store an infinite number of sentences, and because humans in particular are clearly not pullstring dolls that emit sentences from a finite stored list, one must explain human language abilities by imputing to them a grammar, which in the technical sense is a finite rule system, or programme, or circuit design, capable of generating and recognizing the sentences of a particular language. This "mental grammar" or "psychogrammar" is the neural system that allows us to speak and understand the possible word sequences of our native tongue. A grammar for a specific language is obviously acquired by a human during childhood, but there must be neural circuitry that actually carries out the acquisition process in the child, and this circuitry may be called the language faculty or language acquisition device. An important part of the language faculty is universal grammar, an implementation of a set of principles or constraints that govern the possible form of any human grammar. (Pinker, 1996, p. 263)

   6) The Theory of Grammar

   A grammar of language L is essentially a theory of L. Any scientific theory is based on a finite number of observations, and it seeks to relate the observed phenomena and to predict new phenomena by constructing general laws in terms of hypothetical constructs.... Similarly a grammar of English is based on a finite corpus of utterances (observations), and it will contain certain grammatical rules (laws) stated in terms of the particular phonemes, phrases, etc., of English (hypothetical constructs). These rules express structural relations among the sentences of the corpus and the infinite number of sentences generated by the grammar beyond the corpus (predictions). (Chomsky, 1957, p. 49)

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1) инженер

2) конструктор; разработчик || конструировать; проектировать; разрабатывать

3) механик, слесарь-механик; наладчик

4) оператор машины; машинист

5) строить; сооружать

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- advanced engineer

1) инструмент; орудие, орудие производства

2) резец; инструмент, режущий инструмент; черновой резец ( зубострогального станка)

3) приспособление; оснастка

4) pl инструментарий; средства; совокупность инструментов

5) обрабатывать инструментом

6) налаживать ( станок)

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