Перевод: со всех языков на английский

с английского на все языки

too+formally+en

  • 1 seriedad

    f.
    1 seriousness (gravedad, importancia).
    viste con demasiada seriedad he dresses too formally
    2 sense of responsibility.
    ¡qué falta de seriedad! what an irresponsible way to behave!
    3 gravity, seriousness.
    * * *
    1 (gravedad) seriousness, gravity
    ■ ¡señores, un poco de seriedad, por favor! gentlemen, please be serious!
    2 (formalidad) reliability, dependability
    \
    con seriedad seriously
    falta de seriedad irresponsibility
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=calidad personal) seriousness
    2) (=responsabilidad) responsibility, sense of responsibility

    falta de seriedad — lack of responsibility, irresponsibility

    3) [de enfermedad, crisis, problema] seriousness
    4) (=fiabilidad) reliability, trustworthiness
    * * *
    a) ( falta de jocosidad) seriousness
    b) (sensatez, responsabilidad)

    un poco de seriedad! — come on, let's be serious now!

    c) (gravedad, importancia) seriousness
    * * *
    = earnestness, solemnity.
    Ex. The tone of voice should suggest that the inquirer's interest demonstrates something positive about the person -- if not charm, wit, or intelligence, then perhaps earnestness.
    Ex. Her diversified and highly committed authorship is characterized by disrespectful humour, clear-sighted solemnity and inconspicuous warmth.
    ----
    * dar la impresión de seriedad en el trabajo = appear + businesslike.
    * falta de seriedad = flippancy.
    * * *
    a) ( falta de jocosidad) seriousness
    b) (sensatez, responsabilidad)

    un poco de seriedad! — come on, let's be serious now!

    c) (gravedad, importancia) seriousness
    * * *
    = earnestness, solemnity.

    Ex: The tone of voice should suggest that the inquirer's interest demonstrates something positive about the person -- if not charm, wit, or intelligence, then perhaps earnestness.

    Ex: Her diversified and highly committed authorship is characterized by disrespectful humour, clear-sighted solemnity and inconspicuous warmth.
    * dar la impresión de seriedad en el trabajo = appear + businesslike.
    * falta de seriedad = flippancy.

    * * *
    1 (falta de jocosidad) seriousness
    2
    (sensatez, responsabilidad): se comportó con mucha seriedad she behaved very sensibly o responsibly
    ¡un poco de seriedad! come on, let's be serious now!
    es una falta de seriedad que nos tengan esperando así it's no way to treat people ( o to conduct business etc) keeping us waiting like this
    3 (gravedad, importancia) seriousness
    * * *

    seriedad sustantivo femenino

    b) (sensatez, responsabilidad):

    ◊ se comportó con mucha seriedad she behaved very sensibly o responsibly;

    ¡un poco de seriedad! come on, let's be serious now!
    seriedad sustantivo femenino
    1 seriousness
    2 (de una persona, empresa) reliability
    falta de seriedad, irresponsibility
    ' seriedad' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    cachondeo
    - formalidad
    - rasgo
    English:
    earnestly
    - muck about
    - muck around
    - reliability
    - responsibly
    - seriousness
    - sobriety
    * * *
    1. [gravedad, importancia] seriousness;
    viste con demasiada seriedad he dresses too formally
    2. [responsabilidad] sense of responsibility;
    [formalidad] reliability;
    ¡qué falta de seriedad! it's disgraceful!
    * * *
    f seriousness
    * * *
    1) : seriousness, earnestness
    2) : gravity, importance
    * * *
    seriedad n seriousness

    Spanish-English dictionary > seriedad

  • 2 poco

    adj.
    not much, a small amount of, a small quantity of, little.
    adv.
    little, not very, not much.
    m.
    little.
    * * *
    1 little (plural) few, not many
    1 little (en plural) not many
    1 little, not much
    ■ voy poco por allí I rarely go there, I go there very little
    1 a little, a bit
    ■ ¿me das un poco? could you give me a little?
    \
    a poco de shortly after
    dentro de poco soon, presently
    hace poco not long ago
    pocas veces rarely, not often, seldom
    poco a poco slowly, gradually, bit by bit
    poco antes shortly before
    poco después shortly afterwards
    poco después de shortly after
    poco más o menos more or less
    poco menos que almost, nearly
    por poco nearly
    por si fuera poco as if that weren't enough, to top it all, on top of everything
    ————————
    1 little (en plural) not many
    1 little, not much
    ■ voy poco por allí I rarely go there, I go there very little
    * * *
    1. adv.
    little, few
    - por poco 2. (f. - poca)
    pron.
    little, few
    3. (f. - poca)
    adj.
    little, few, not much
    * * *
    1. ADJ
    1) [en singular] little, not much

    tenemos poco tiempo — we have little time, we don't have much time

    hay muy poco queso — there's very little cheese, there's hardly any cheese

    con poco respeto — with little respect, with scant respect

    el provecho es poco — the gain is small, there isn't much to gain

    • poca cosa, no te preocupes por tan poca cosa — don't worry about such a little thing

    comemos, jugamos a cartas, leemos y poca cosa más — we eat, play cards, read and do little else o and that's about it

    es poca cosa — (=no mucho) it's not much; (=no importante) it's nothing much

    es muy guapa pero poca cosa — she's very pretty, but there isn't much to her

    • y por si fuera poco — and as if that weren't enough, and to cap it all

    2) [en plural] few, not many

    pocos niños saben que... — few o not many children know that...

    tiene pocos amigos — he has few friends, he hasn't got many friends

    2. PRON
    1) [en singular]
    a) (=poca cosa)
    b)

    • un poco — a bit, a little

    -¿tienes frío? -un poco — "are you cold?" - "a bit o a little"

    he bebido un poco, pero no estoy borracho — I've had a bit to drink, but I'm not drunk

    estoy un poco triste — I am rather o a little sad

    • un poco como, es un poco como su padre — he's rather o a bit like his father

    • un poco de, un poco de dinero — a little money

    ¡un poco de silencio! — let's have some quiet here!

    c) [referido a tiempo] not long

    tardaron poco en hacerlo — it didn't take them long to do it, they didn't take long to do it

    • a poco de — shortly after

    • cada poco — every so often

    • dentro de poco — shortly, soon

    • poco después — shortly after

    • hace poco — not long ago

    fuimos a verla hace poco — we visited her not long ago, we visited her quite recently

    la conozco desde hace poco — I haven't known her long, I've only known her for a short while

    2) [en plural] few

    pocos son los que... — there are few who...

    como hay pocos —

    3. ADV
    1) [con verbos] not much, little

    cuesta poco — it doesn't cost much, it costs very little

    vamos poco a Madrid — we don't go to Madrid much, we hardly ever go to Madrid

    lo estiman poco — they hardly value it at all, they value it very little

    2) [con adjetivos: se traduce a menudo por medio de un prefijo]

    poco inteligente — unintelligent, not very intelligent

    3) [otras locuciones]

    ¡poco a poco! — steady on!, easy does it!

    *

    ¿a poco? — never!, you don't say!

    ¡a poco no! — not much! *

    ¿a poco no? — (well) isn't it?

    ¿a poco crees que...? — do you really imagine that...?

    • de a poco — LAm gradually

    • tener en poco, tiene en poco a su jefe — she doesn't think much of her boss

    • por poco — almost, nearly

    por poco me ahogo — I almost o nearly drowned

    • a poco que, a poco que pueda — if at all possible

    a poco que corras, lo alcanzas — if you run now you'll catch it

    * * *
    I

    ... con lo poco que le gusta el arroz —... and he doesn't even like rice; para locs ver poco III 4)

    II
    - ca adjetivo ( con sustantivos no numerables) little; ( en plural) few

    qué poco sentido común tienes! — you don't have much common sense, do you?

    fue asombroso, todo lo que te pueda decir es poco — it was amazing, I can't (even) begin to tell you

    III
    - ca pronombre
    1) (poca cantidad, poca cosa)

    por poco que gane... — no matter how little o however little she earns...

    compra más lentejas, nos quedan muy pocas — buy some more lentils, we've hardly any left

    a poco de venir él — soon o shortly after he came

    poco antes de que... — a short while o shortly before...

    b)

    un poco de: un poco de pimienta/vino a little (bit of) pepper/wine; come un poco de jamón — have a bit of ham

    c)

    un poco + adj/adv: un poco caro/tarde — a bit o a little expensive/late

    a poco — (Méx)

    ¿a poco no lees los periódicos? — don't you read the newspapers?

    de a poco — (AmL) gradually

    en poco: en poco estuvo que no viniéramos we almost didn't come; tienen en poco la vida ajena they set little value on other people's lives; me tienes bien en poco si crees que... you can't think very highly o much of me if you think...; poco a poco gradually; poco más o menos approximately, roughly; poco menos que nearly; poco menos que la mata (fam) he almost killed her; poco menos que los echan a patadas (fam) they practically kicked them out; por poco — nearly

    * * *
    = little [less -comp., least -sup.], low [lower -comp., lowest -sup.], scant, trifle, tad, little in the way of.
    Ex. Explanatory references give a little more explanation as to why the link between two names is being made in the catalogue or index.
    Ex. Carlton Duncan discussed the difficulties built into the educational processes which led to under-performance at school and the resulting low representation in higher education and low entry into the professions.
    Ex. Scant attention is paid to evaluation and the needs of users.
    Ex. She had been a trifle nervous until it was formally announced that the position was hers.
    Ex. Williams is one of those rare poets who satisfies the yearning that many of us have for the memorable phrase we wish we had said were our perceptions a tad keener.
    Ex. Without any significant restructuring, the LIS programme in Iran will provide little in the way of riding out the rapid transition that the field is currently experiencing.
    ----
    * abultar poco = be skimpy.
    * acercarse poco a poco (a) = edge (toward(s)).
    * actuar con poca consideración hacia = play + fast and loose with.
    * agua poco profunda = shallow water.
    * aguas poco profundas = shallows.
    * alimentos poco saludables = unhealthy foods.
    * a poca distancia = not far behind.
    * a poca distancia andando = within walking distance, within an easy walk.
    * a poca distancia a pie = within an easy walk, within walking distance.
    * a pocos minutos andando = within walking distance, within easy walking distance, within an easy walk.
    * a pocos minutos a pie = within walking distance, within easy walking distance, within an easy walk.
    * avanzar poco a poco (hacia) = edge (toward(s)).
    * cada pocos años = every few years.
    * comida poco saludable = unhealthy foods.
    * comportamiento poco cívico = uncivic behaviour.
    * con muchos huesos y poca carne = bony [bonier -comp., boniest -sup.].
    * con muy poca antelación = at (a) very short notice.
    * con muy poca anticipación = at (a) very short notice.
    * con muy poca frecuencia = all too seldom.
    * con muy pocas excepciones = with few exceptions.
    * con muy pocos medios = on a shoestring (budget).
    * con poca claridad = indistinctly.
    * con poca exactitud = loosely.
    * con poca experiencia = inexperienced.
    * con poca iluminación = dimly illuminated.
    * con poca imaginación = unimaginatively.
    * con poca naturalidad = stiltedly.
    * con poca población = thinly populated.
    * con pocas habilidades = poor-ability.
    * con poca visión de futuro = short-sighted [shortsighted].
    * con poco dinero = on the cheap.
    * con poco entusiasmo = half-heartedly.
    * con pocos recursos = under-resourced.
    * con pocos recursos económicos = low-budget.
    * consumir poco a poco = eat away at.
    * con tan poca antelación = at such short notice.
    * con tan poca anticipación = at such short notice.
    * correr poco a poco = eat away at.
    * cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].
    * de forma poco ética = unethically.
    * de forma poco imaginativa = unimaginatively.
    * de forma poco profesional = unprofessionally.
    Ex. When the security services carry out acts of terror, they employ patsies who often are petty criminals or people who are mentally backward or mentally unstable.
    ----
    * de manera poco ética = unethically.
    * de manera poco profesional = unprofessionally.
    * demasiado poco común = all too rare.
    * de modo poco imaginativo = unimaginatively.
    * dentro de poco = before long.
    * de población poco densa = sparsely populated.
    * de poca importancia = menial, small-time.
    * de poca monta = hack, small-time.
    * de pocas luces = dim [dimmer -comp., dimmest -sup.], dim-witted [dimwitted].
    * de poco impacto = low impact [low-impact].
    * de poco peso = pat, feeble.
    * de poco provecho = fruitless.
    * de poco uso = low-use.
    * de poco valor = a dime a dozen.
    * desaparecer poco a poco = fade into + the sunset.
    * de todo un poco = about this and that and everything else, about this and that.
    * de un modo poco constructivo = unconstructively.
    * de un modo poco económico = wastefully.
    * de un modo poco natural = unnaturally.
    * donde cabe mucho también cabe poco = what holds a lot will hold a little.
    * durar poco = be short term.
    * echar poco a poco = dribble.
    * el que mucho abarca poco aprieta = jack of all trades, master of none.
    * en el caso poco probable de que = in the unlikely case (that).
    * en muy poco tiempo = before long.
    * en pocas palabras = simply put, in brief, to say the least, to put it (quite) simply, in short, to cut a long story short, bottom line, the, put simply, to make a long story short, the short story + be, simply stated.
    * en poco tiempo = before very long, in quite a short time, in a short time, in a short span of time.
    * en unos pocos años = within a few years.
    * estar poco dispuesto = be reluctant.
    * estar poco representado = underrepresent [under-represent].
    * estar un poco anticuado = be some years old.
    * excusa poco convincente = lame excuse.
    * faltar poco (para) = have + a short way to go (before).
    * faltar un poco = be some way off.
    * gente de poca importancia = small fry, the.
    * haber poca duda de que = there + be + little doubt that.
    * hace muy poco tiempo = a short time ago.
    * hace poco tiempo = a short time ago.
    * hacer poca distinción entre... y... = make + little distinction between... and....
    * hacer poco = do + little.
    * hacer que sea poco probable = render + unlikely.
    * hace unos pocos años = a few years ago.
    * hace unos pocos días = a few days ago.
    * hasta hace muy poco = until recently, up until recently.
    * hasta hace relativamente poco tiempo = until relatively recently.
    * horas de poca actividad = slack hours.
    * horas de poco movimiento = slack hours.
    * introducirse poco a poco = ease + Reflexivo + in.
    * ir poco más allá de + Infinitivo = go little further than + Gerundio.
    * llegar poco a poco = dribble in.
    * lo poco común = rarity, rareness.
    * mucho ruido para pocas nueces = much ado about nothing.
    * mucho ruido y pocas nueces = storm in a teacup, Posesivo + bark is worse than + Posesivo + bite.
    * muchos jefes y pocos trabajadores = too many chiefs and not enough Indians.
    * muy poco = minimally.
    * ofrecer poco = low-ball.
    * operación de poca monta = one-room, one-person operation.
    * pagando un poco más = at additional cost.
    * parece tener poco sentido que = there + seem + little point in.
    * pasar poco a poco = slide into.
    * período de poca actividad = slack time.
    * perro ladrador, poco mordedor = barking dogs seldom bite, Posesivo + bark is worse than + Posesivo + bite.
    * poca cantidad = trickle.
    * poca cosa = small fry, the.
    * poca iluminación = poor lighting.
    * poca importancia = unimportance, low profile.
    * poca notoriedad = low profile.
    * poca probabilidad = slim chance.
    * poca severidad = lenience, leniency.
    * pocas expectativas = low expectation.
    * poca utilidad = unhelpfulness.
    * poco abundante = light [lighter -comp., lightest -sup.].
    * poco accesible = unapproachable.
    * poco acertado = clumsy [clumsier -comp., clumsiest -sup.], injudicious.
    * poco acogedor = inhospitable.
    * poco aconsejable = unwise, inadvisable.
    * poco adecuado = unsuited, unsuitable, inapt.
    * poco + Adjetivo = slightly + Adjetivo, less than + Adjetivo.
    * poco afortunado = unhappy, ill-favoured [ill-favored, -USA].
    * poco agraciado = ill-favoured [ill-favored, -USA].
    * poco amable = off-putting, surly [surlier -comp., surliest -sup.], crusty [crustier -comp., crustiest -sup.], unkind.
    * poco americano = un-American.
    * poco amistoso = off-putting, unfriendly.
    * poco antes de + Fecha = shortly before + Fecha.
    * poco a poco = gradually, piecemeal, slowly, incrementally, at a snail's pace, little by little, bit by bit.
    * poco apreciado = unappreciated.
    * poco apropiado = unsuited, unsuitable, inapt.
    * poco apto = inapt.
    * poco arriesgado = low-risk.
    * poco asequible = unapproachable.
    * poco atractivo = off-putting, unattractive, unglamorous, uninviting, unappealing.
    * poco atrevido = unadventurous.
    * poco audaz = unadventurous.
    * poco aventurero = unadventurous.
    * poco cabelleroso = ungentlemanlike.
    * poco cálido = lukewarm.
    * poco científico = hit-or-miss, unscientific.
    * poco cívico = uncivic.
    * poco claro = confusing, fuzzy [fuzzier - comp., fuzziest -sup.], indistinct, obscure, unclear, untidy, hazy, inconclusive, slurred, clouded, blurry [blurrier -comp., blurriest -sup.], undistinguished, uncleared, indistinctive, bleary [blearier -comp., bleariest -sup.].
    * poco colaborador = unresponsive.
    * poco comercial = uncommercial.
    * poco competitivo = uncompetitive.
    * poco complicado = uncomplicated, uncomplicatedly.
    * poco comprensivo = unsympathetic.
    * poco común = rare, unfamiliar, unusual, uncommon, unordinary, out of the ordinary.
    * poco comunicativo = uncommunicative, reserved.
    * poco confortable = uncomfortable.
    * poco conocido = obscure, little known.
    * poco convencido = unconvinced.
    * poco convencional = unconventional.
    * poco convincente = unconvincing, inconclusive, pat, feeble.
    * poco convincentemente = unconvincingly.
    * poco correcto = ungentlemanlike.
    * poco cortés = impolite, ungentlemanlike.
    * poco culto = unenlightened.
    * poco decidido = half-hearted [halfhearted].
    * poco definido = blurry [blurrier -comp., blurriest -sup.], bleary [blearier -comp., bleariest -sup.].
    * poco denso = rarefied.
    * poco deportivo = unsportsmanlike.
    * poco después = soon afterwards, shortly afterwards, shortly after, not long after.
    * poco después de = soon after (that), shortly after.
    * poco después de que = shortly after.
    * poco diestro = poor-ability.
    * poco diplomático = indiscreet.
    * poco dispuesto = disinclined.
    * poco dispuesto a colaborar = uncooperative.
    * poco ducho en las nuevas tecnologías = technologically challenged.
    * poco económico = uneconomical.
    * poco efectivo = ineffectual.
    * poco eficaz = non-efficient.
    * poco elegante = inelegant, awkward, dowdy [dowdier -comp., dowdiest -sup.].
    * poco embarazoso = unembarrassing.
    * poco entusiasta = half-hearted [halfhearted], lukewarm.
    * poco envidiable = unenviable.
    * poco estable = unsettled.
    * poco estético = unaesthetic.
    * poco estimulador = unchallenging.
    * poco estimulante = unexciting, uninspiring, unmoving.
    * poco estricto = lax.
    * poco ético = unethical.
    * poco evidente = unnoticed, unnoted.
    * poco exigente = untaxing, undemanding.
    * poco favorable = unpromising.
    * poco favorecedor = unflattering.
    * poco fiable = unreliable, undependable, flaky [flakey].
    * poco firme = tenuous, rocky [rockier -comp., rockiest -sup.].
    * poco flexible = monolithic, inelastic.
    * poco frecuente = infrequent.
    * poco fructífero = unfruitful.
    * poco gratificante = unrewarding, unsatisfying.
    * poco grato = unwelcome.
    * poco hábil = poor-ability.
    * poco habitual = unaccustomed.
    * poco halagador = unflattering.
    * poco halagüeño = unflattering.
    * poco hospitalario = inhospitable.
    * poco idóneo = unsuited, unsuitable, inapt.
    * poco iluminado = dimly illuminated.
    * poco imaginativo = unimaginative.
    * poco importante = menial, small-time.
    * poco impresionado = unimpressed.
    * poco informativo = uninformative.
    * poco intelectual = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * poco inteligente = unintelligent.
    * poco intenso = light [lighter -comp., lightest -sup.].
    * poco interesante = dull, jackdaw, uninteresting, uninspiring, unremarkable.
    * poco juicioso = injudicious.
    * poco justificado = ill-justified.
    * poco listo = underprepared.
    * poco maduro = underripe.
    * poco más = little else.
    * poco materialista = unworldly.
    * poco memorable = forgettable.
    * poco mundano = unwordly.
    * poco natural = unnatural, stilted.
    * poco nítido = untidy.
    * poco normal = unnatural, unordinary, out of the ordinary.
    * poco novedoso = trite.
    * poco original = unoriginal.
    * poco ortodoxo = unorthodox.
    * poco poblado = thinly populated.
    * poco práctico = impractical, awkward.
    * poco preparado = underprepared.
    * poco probable = unlikely, far-fetched [farfetched].
    * poco productivo = unproductive.
    * poco profesional = amateurish, unprofessional.
    * poco profundo = shallow [shallower -comp., shallowest -sup.].
    * poco prometedor = bleak, unpromising.
    * poco propicio = unpromising, unpromising.
    * poco provechoso = fruitless, unrewarding.
    * poco prudente = ill-advised, ill-judged.
    * poco pulido = unpolished.
    * poco razonable = unreasonable.
    * poco realista = unrealistic, unreal, unwordly, way out in left field, airy-fairy.
    * poco recomendable = inadvisable.
    * poco refinado = unrefined, unpolished.
    * poco rentable = uneconomical.
    * poco representativo = unrepresentative.
    * poco romántico = unromantic.
    * poco sabido = little known.
    * poco saludable = unwholesome, insalubrious.
    * poco sano = unwholesome, insalubrious.
    * poco seguro = dicey [dicier -comp., diciest -sup.].
    * poco sensato = ill-advised, injudicious, ill-judged.
    * poco sentimental = unsentimental.
    * poco serio = flippant.
    * poco sincero = insincere.
    * poco sistemático = sloppy [sloppier -comp., sloppiest -sup.].
    * poco social = unsocial.
    * poco sofisticado = elementary, unsophisticated, corn-fed.
    * poco sólido = insubstantial.
    * poco tiempo = short while, short time.
    * poco tiempo después = shortly afterwards.
    * poco tradicional = untraditional.
    * poco unido = loosely knit.
    * poco uniforme = patchy [patchier -comp., patchiest -sup.].
    * poco usado = little-used.
    * poco usual = unusual.
    * poco útil = clumsy [clumsier -comp., clumsiest -sup.], unhelpful.
    * poquito a poco = little by little.
    * por mencionar sólo unos pocos = to name but a few.
    * por mencionar uno pocos = just to name a few.
    * por nombrar sólo unos pocos = to name but a few.
    * por nombrar unos pocos = to name a few.
    * por poco dinero = cheaply.
    * por poco o nada = at little or no extra cost.
    * por si era poco = for good measure.
    * por si fuera poco = to boot, for good measure, to add insult to injury, to add salt to injury, to rub salt in the wound.
    * prestar poca atención a = give + little thought to.
    * pretexto poco convincente = lame excuse.
    * quedar poco (para) = have + a short way to go (before).
    * quedar un poco = be some way off.
    * quedar un poco perjudicado = be a little worse prepared, be a little worse off.
    * que ocupa poco espacio = space-saving.
    * qué poco común = how odd.
    * quien mucho abarca poco aprieta = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * reducirse poco a poco = dribble off.
    * resultar poco fructífero = prove + unfruitful.
    * roer poco a poco = eat away at.
    * saber un poco de todo y mucho de nada = jack of all trades, master of none.
    * sacar poco a poco = tease out.
    * salir un poco perjudicado = be a little worse prepared, be a little worse off.
    * sangre poco espesa = thin blood.
    * ser algo muy poco frecuente = be a rare occurrence.
    * ser algo poco común = be the exception rather than the rule.
    * ser algo poco conocido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * ser algo poco frecuente = be a rare occurrence.
    * ser algo poco sabido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * ser de poco valor = be of little use, be of little value.
    * ser muy poco probable = be remote.
    * ser poco = be under-provided.
    * ser poco agradecido = be thankless.
    * ser poco eficaz = do + little.
    * ser poco reconocido = be thankless.
    * ser pocos = be few in number, be small in number.
    * ser un hecho poco conocido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * ser un hecho poco sabido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * servir de poco = be of little use.
    * servir de poco o nada = be of little or no avail.
    * solución poco real = pie in the sky solution.
    * tener poca información = be information poor.
    * tener pocas luces = as thick as a brick, as thick as two (short) planks, as daft as a brush, knucklehead.
    * tener pocas posibilidades de = have + little recourse.
    * tener poco que ver = have + little to do.
    * tener poco valor = be of little value.
    * trabajo de poca monta = odd-job.
    * un hombre de pocas palabras = a man of few words.
    * unos pocos elegidos = a select few.
    * un poco = a bit, somewhat, slightly, something of, a little bit, kinda [kind of].
    * un poco áspero = roughish.
    * un poco como = kind of like.
    * un poco de = a measure of, a touch (of), a bit of, a piece of, a spot of, a splash of, a hint of.
    * un poco + Nombre = a shade + Nombre.
    * un poco obscuro = dusky.
    * un poco perdido = a bit at sea.
    * un poco rugoso = roughish.
    * usado con poca frecuencia = seldom used [seldom-used].
    * usuario que hace poco uso del préstamo = light borrower.
    * utilizar poco = underutilise/under-utilise [underutilize/under-utilize, -USA].
    * vivienda poco digna = poor housing.
    * y poco más = and little more.
    * * *
    I

    ... con lo poco que le gusta el arroz —... and he doesn't even like rice; para locs ver poco III 4)

    II
    - ca adjetivo ( con sustantivos no numerables) little; ( en plural) few

    qué poco sentido común tienes! — you don't have much common sense, do you?

    fue asombroso, todo lo que te pueda decir es poco — it was amazing, I can't (even) begin to tell you

    III
    - ca pronombre
    1) (poca cantidad, poca cosa)

    por poco que gane... — no matter how little o however little she earns...

    compra más lentejas, nos quedan muy pocas — buy some more lentils, we've hardly any left

    a poco de venir él — soon o shortly after he came

    poco antes de que... — a short while o shortly before...

    b)

    un poco de: un poco de pimienta/vino a little (bit of) pepper/wine; come un poco de jamón — have a bit of ham

    c)

    un poco + adj/adv: un poco caro/tarde — a bit o a little expensive/late

    a poco — (Méx)

    ¿a poco no lees los periódicos? — don't you read the newspapers?

    de a poco — (AmL) gradually

    en poco: en poco estuvo que no viniéramos we almost didn't come; tienen en poco la vida ajena they set little value on other people's lives; me tienes bien en poco si crees que... you can't think very highly o much of me if you think...; poco a poco gradually; poco más o menos approximately, roughly; poco menos que nearly; poco menos que la mata (fam) he almost killed her; poco menos que los echan a patadas (fam) they practically kicked them out; por poco — nearly

    * * *
    = little [less -comp., least -sup.], low [lower -comp., lowest -sup.], scant, trifle, tad, little in the way of.

    Ex: Explanatory references give a little more explanation as to why the link between two names is being made in the catalogue or index.

    Ex: Carlton Duncan discussed the difficulties built into the educational processes which led to under-performance at school and the resulting low representation in higher education and low entry into the professions.
    Ex: Scant attention is paid to evaluation and the needs of users.
    Ex: She had been a trifle nervous until it was formally announced that the position was hers.
    Ex: Williams is one of those rare poets who satisfies the yearning that many of us have for the memorable phrase we wish we had said were our perceptions a tad keener.
    Ex: Without any significant restructuring, the LIS programme in Iran will provide little in the way of riding out the rapid transition that the field is currently experiencing.
    * abultar poco = be skimpy.
    * acercarse poco a poco (a) = edge (toward(s)).
    * actuar con poca consideración hacia = play + fast and loose with.
    * agua poco profunda = shallow water.
    * aguas poco profundas = shallows.
    * alimentos poco saludables = unhealthy foods.
    * a poca distancia = not far behind.
    * a poca distancia andando = within walking distance, within an easy walk.
    * a poca distancia a pie = within an easy walk, within walking distance.
    * a pocos minutos andando = within walking distance, within easy walking distance, within an easy walk.
    * a pocos minutos a pie = within walking distance, within easy walking distance, within an easy walk.
    * avanzar poco a poco (hacia) = edge (toward(s)).
    * cada pocos años = every few years.
    * comida poco saludable = unhealthy foods.
    * comportamiento poco cívico = uncivic behaviour.
    * con muchos huesos y poca carne = bony [bonier -comp., boniest -sup.].
    * con muy poca antelación = at (a) very short notice.
    * con muy poca anticipación = at (a) very short notice.
    * con muy poca frecuencia = all too seldom.
    * con muy pocas excepciones = with few exceptions.
    * con muy pocos medios = on a shoestring (budget).
    * con poca claridad = indistinctly.
    * con poca exactitud = loosely.
    * con poca experiencia = inexperienced.
    * con poca iluminación = dimly illuminated.
    * con poca imaginación = unimaginatively.
    * con poca naturalidad = stiltedly.
    * con poca población = thinly populated.
    * con pocas habilidades = poor-ability.
    * con poca visión de futuro = short-sighted [shortsighted].
    * con poco dinero = on the cheap.
    * con poco entusiasmo = half-heartedly.
    * con pocos recursos = under-resourced.
    * con pocos recursos económicos = low-budget.
    * consumir poco a poco = eat away at.
    * con tan poca antelación = at such short notice.
    * con tan poca anticipación = at such short notice.
    * correr poco a poco = eat away at.
    * cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].
    * de forma poco ética = unethically.
    * de forma poco imaginativa = unimaginatively.
    * de forma poco profesional = unprofessionally.
    Ex: When the security services carry out acts of terror, they employ patsies who often are petty criminals or people who are mentally backward or mentally unstable.
    * de manera poco ética = unethically.
    * de manera poco profesional = unprofessionally.
    * demasiado poco común = all too rare.
    * de modo poco imaginativo = unimaginatively.
    * dentro de poco = before long.
    * de población poco densa = sparsely populated.
    * de poca importancia = menial, small-time.
    * de poca monta = hack, small-time.
    * de pocas luces = dim [dimmer -comp., dimmest -sup.], dim-witted [dimwitted].
    * de poco impacto = low impact [low-impact].
    * de poco peso = pat, feeble.
    * de poco provecho = fruitless.
    * de poco uso = low-use.
    * de poco valor = a dime a dozen.
    * desaparecer poco a poco = fade into + the sunset.
    * de todo un poco = about this and that and everything else, about this and that.
    * de un modo poco constructivo = unconstructively.
    * de un modo poco económico = wastefully.
    * de un modo poco natural = unnaturally.
    * donde cabe mucho también cabe poco = what holds a lot will hold a little.
    * durar poco = be short term.
    * echar poco a poco = dribble.
    * el que mucho abarca poco aprieta = jack of all trades, master of none.
    * en el caso poco probable de que = in the unlikely case (that).
    * en muy poco tiempo = before long.
    * en pocas palabras = simply put, in brief, to say the least, to put it (quite) simply, in short, to cut a long story short, bottom line, the, put simply, to make a long story short, the short story + be, simply stated.
    * en poco tiempo = before very long, in quite a short time, in a short time, in a short span of time.
    * en unos pocos años = within a few years.
    * estar poco dispuesto = be reluctant.
    * estar poco representado = underrepresent [under-represent].
    * estar un poco anticuado = be some years old.
    * excusa poco convincente = lame excuse.
    * faltar poco (para) = have + a short way to go (before).
    * faltar un poco = be some way off.
    * gente de poca importancia = small fry, the.
    * haber poca duda de que = there + be + little doubt that.
    * hace muy poco tiempo = a short time ago.
    * hace poco tiempo = a short time ago.
    * hacer poca distinción entre... y... = make + little distinction between... and....
    * hacer poco = do + little.
    * hacer que sea poco probable = render + unlikely.
    * hace unos pocos años = a few years ago.
    * hace unos pocos días = a few days ago.
    * hasta hace muy poco = until recently, up until recently.
    * hasta hace relativamente poco tiempo = until relatively recently.
    * horas de poca actividad = slack hours.
    * horas de poco movimiento = slack hours.
    * introducirse poco a poco = ease + Reflexivo + in.
    * ir poco más allá de + Infinitivo = go little further than + Gerundio.
    * llegar poco a poco = dribble in.
    * lo poco común = rarity, rareness.
    * mucho ruido para pocas nueces = much ado about nothing.
    * mucho ruido y pocas nueces = storm in a teacup, Posesivo + bark is worse than + Posesivo + bite.
    * muchos jefes y pocos trabajadores = too many chiefs and not enough Indians.
    * muy poco = minimally.
    * ofrecer poco = low-ball.
    * operación de poca monta = one-room, one-person operation.
    * pagando un poco más = at additional cost.
    * parece tener poco sentido que = there + seem + little point in.
    * pasar poco a poco = slide into.
    * período de poca actividad = slack time.
    * perro ladrador, poco mordedor = barking dogs seldom bite, Posesivo + bark is worse than + Posesivo + bite.
    * poca cantidad = trickle.
    * poca cosa = small fry, the.
    * poca iluminación = poor lighting.
    * poca importancia = unimportance, low profile.
    * poca notoriedad = low profile.
    * poca probabilidad = slim chance.
    * poca severidad = lenience, leniency.
    * pocas expectativas = low expectation.
    * poca utilidad = unhelpfulness.
    * poco abundante = light [lighter -comp., lightest -sup.].
    * poco accesible = unapproachable.
    * poco acertado = clumsy [clumsier -comp., clumsiest -sup.], injudicious.
    * poco acogedor = inhospitable.
    * poco aconsejable = unwise, inadvisable.
    * poco adecuado = unsuited, unsuitable, inapt.
    * poco + Adjetivo = slightly + Adjetivo, less than + Adjetivo.
    * poco afortunado = unhappy, ill-favoured [ill-favored, -USA].
    * poco agraciado = ill-favoured [ill-favored, -USA].
    * poco amable = off-putting, surly [surlier -comp., surliest -sup.], crusty [crustier -comp., crustiest -sup.], unkind.
    * poco americano = un-American.
    * poco amistoso = off-putting, unfriendly.
    * poco antes de + Fecha = shortly before + Fecha.
    * poco a poco = gradually, piecemeal, slowly, incrementally, at a snail's pace, little by little, bit by bit.
    * poco apreciado = unappreciated.
    * poco apropiado = unsuited, unsuitable, inapt.
    * poco apto = inapt.
    * poco arriesgado = low-risk.
    * poco asequible = unapproachable.
    * poco atractivo = off-putting, unattractive, unglamorous, uninviting, unappealing.
    * poco atrevido = unadventurous.
    * poco audaz = unadventurous.
    * poco aventurero = unadventurous.
    * poco cabelleroso = ungentlemanlike.
    * poco cálido = lukewarm.
    * poco científico = hit-or-miss, unscientific.
    * poco cívico = uncivic.
    * poco claro = confusing, fuzzy [fuzzier - comp., fuzziest -sup.], indistinct, obscure, unclear, untidy, hazy, inconclusive, slurred, clouded, blurry [blurrier -comp., blurriest -sup.], undistinguished, uncleared, indistinctive, bleary [blearier -comp., bleariest -sup.].
    * poco colaborador = unresponsive.
    * poco comercial = uncommercial.
    * poco competitivo = uncompetitive.
    * poco complicado = uncomplicated, uncomplicatedly.
    * poco comprensivo = unsympathetic.
    * poco común = rare, unfamiliar, unusual, uncommon, unordinary, out of the ordinary.
    * poco comunicativo = uncommunicative, reserved.
    * poco confortable = uncomfortable.
    * poco conocido = obscure, little known.
    * poco convencido = unconvinced.
    * poco convencional = unconventional.
    * poco convincente = unconvincing, inconclusive, pat, feeble.
    * poco convincentemente = unconvincingly.
    * poco correcto = ungentlemanlike.
    * poco cortés = impolite, ungentlemanlike.
    * poco culto = unenlightened.
    * poco decidido = half-hearted [halfhearted].
    * poco definido = blurry [blurrier -comp., blurriest -sup.], bleary [blearier -comp., bleariest -sup.].
    * poco denso = rarefied.
    * poco deportivo = unsportsmanlike.
    * poco después = soon afterwards, shortly afterwards, shortly after, not long after.
    * poco después de = soon after (that), shortly after.
    * poco después de que = shortly after.
    * poco diestro = poor-ability.
    * poco diplomático = indiscreet.
    * poco dispuesto = disinclined.
    * poco dispuesto a colaborar = uncooperative.
    * poco ducho en las nuevas tecnologías = technologically challenged.
    * poco económico = uneconomical.
    * poco efectivo = ineffectual.
    * poco eficaz = non-efficient.
    * poco elegante = inelegant, awkward, dowdy [dowdier -comp., dowdiest -sup.].
    * poco embarazoso = unembarrassing.
    * poco entusiasta = half-hearted [halfhearted], lukewarm.
    * poco envidiable = unenviable.
    * poco estable = unsettled.
    * poco estético = unaesthetic.
    * poco estimulador = unchallenging.
    * poco estimulante = unexciting, uninspiring, unmoving.
    * poco estricto = lax.
    * poco ético = unethical.
    * poco evidente = unnoticed, unnoted.
    * poco exigente = untaxing, undemanding.
    * poco favorable = unpromising.
    * poco favorecedor = unflattering.
    * poco fiable = unreliable, undependable, flaky [flakey].
    * poco firme = tenuous, rocky [rockier -comp., rockiest -sup.].
    * poco flexible = monolithic, inelastic.
    * poco frecuente = infrequent.
    * poco fructífero = unfruitful.
    * poco gratificante = unrewarding, unsatisfying.
    * poco grato = unwelcome.
    * poco hábil = poor-ability.
    * poco habitual = unaccustomed.
    * poco halagador = unflattering.
    * poco halagüeño = unflattering.
    * poco hospitalario = inhospitable.
    * poco idóneo = unsuited, unsuitable, inapt.
    * poco iluminado = dimly illuminated.
    * poco imaginativo = unimaginative.
    * poco importante = menial, small-time.
    * poco impresionado = unimpressed.
    * poco informativo = uninformative.
    * poco intelectual = lowbrow [low-brow].
    * poco inteligente = unintelligent.
    * poco intenso = light [lighter -comp., lightest -sup.].
    * poco interesante = dull, jackdaw, uninteresting, uninspiring, unremarkable.
    * poco juicioso = injudicious.
    * poco justificado = ill-justified.
    * poco listo = underprepared.
    * poco maduro = underripe.
    * poco más = little else.
    * poco materialista = unworldly.
    * poco memorable = forgettable.
    * poco mundano = unwordly.
    * poco natural = unnatural, stilted.
    * poco nítido = untidy.
    * poco normal = unnatural, unordinary, out of the ordinary.
    * poco novedoso = trite.
    * poco original = unoriginal.
    * poco ortodoxo = unorthodox.
    * poco poblado = thinly populated.
    * poco práctico = impractical, awkward.
    * poco preparado = underprepared.
    * poco probable = unlikely, far-fetched [farfetched].
    * poco productivo = unproductive.
    * poco profesional = amateurish, unprofessional.
    * poco profundo = shallow [shallower -comp., shallowest -sup.].
    * poco prometedor = bleak, unpromising.
    * poco propicio = unpromising, unpromising.
    * poco provechoso = fruitless, unrewarding.
    * poco prudente = ill-advised, ill-judged.
    * poco pulido = unpolished.
    * poco razonable = unreasonable.
    * poco realista = unrealistic, unreal, unwordly, way out in left field, airy-fairy.
    * poco recomendable = inadvisable.
    * poco refinado = unrefined, unpolished.
    * poco rentable = uneconomical.
    * poco representativo = unrepresentative.
    * poco romántico = unromantic.
    * poco sabido = little known.
    * poco saludable = unwholesome, insalubrious.
    * poco sano = unwholesome, insalubrious.
    * poco seguro = dicey [dicier -comp., diciest -sup.].
    * poco sensato = ill-advised, injudicious, ill-judged.
    * poco sentimental = unsentimental.
    * poco serio = flippant.
    * poco sincero = insincere.
    * poco sistemático = sloppy [sloppier -comp., sloppiest -sup.].
    * poco social = unsocial.
    * poco sofisticado = elementary, unsophisticated, corn-fed.
    * poco sólido = insubstantial.
    * poco tiempo = short while, short time.
    * poco tiempo después = shortly afterwards.
    * poco tradicional = untraditional.
    * poco unido = loosely knit.
    * poco uniforme = patchy [patchier -comp., patchiest -sup.].
    * poco usado = little-used.
    * poco usual = unusual.
    * poco útil = clumsy [clumsier -comp., clumsiest -sup.], unhelpful.
    * poquito a poco = little by little.
    * por mencionar sólo unos pocos = to name but a few.
    * por mencionar uno pocos = just to name a few.
    * por nombrar sólo unos pocos = to name but a few.
    * por nombrar unos pocos = to name a few.
    * por poco dinero = cheaply.
    * por poco o nada = at little or no extra cost.
    * por si era poco = for good measure.
    * por si fuera poco = to boot, for good measure, to add insult to injury, to add salt to injury, to rub salt in the wound.
    * prestar poca atención a = give + little thought to.
    * pretexto poco convincente = lame excuse.
    * quedar poco (para) = have + a short way to go (before).
    * quedar un poco = be some way off.
    * quedar un poco perjudicado = be a little worse prepared, be a little worse off.
    * que ocupa poco espacio = space-saving.
    * qué poco común = how odd.
    * quien mucho abarca poco aprieta = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * reducirse poco a poco = dribble off.
    * resultar poco fructífero = prove + unfruitful.
    * roer poco a poco = eat away at.
    * saber un poco de todo y mucho de nada = jack of all trades, master of none.
    * sacar poco a poco = tease out.
    * salir un poco perjudicado = be a little worse prepared, be a little worse off.
    * sangre poco espesa = thin blood.
    * ser algo muy poco frecuente = be a rare occurrence.
    * ser algo poco común = be the exception rather than the rule.
    * ser algo poco conocido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * ser algo poco frecuente = be a rare occurrence.
    * ser algo poco sabido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * ser de poco valor = be of little use, be of little value.
    * ser muy poco probable = be remote.
    * ser poco = be under-provided.
    * ser poco agradecido = be thankless.
    * ser poco eficaz = do + little.
    * ser poco reconocido = be thankless.
    * ser pocos = be few in number, be small in number.
    * ser un hecho poco conocido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * ser un hecho poco sabido que = it + be + a little known fact that.
    * servir de poco = be of little use.
    * servir de poco o nada = be of little or no avail.
    * solución poco real = pie in the sky solution.
    * tener poca información = be information poor.
    * tener pocas luces = as thick as a brick, as thick as two (short) planks, as daft as a brush, knucklehead.
    * tener pocas posibilidades de = have + little recourse.
    * tener poco que ver = have + little to do.
    * tener poco valor = be of little value.
    * trabajo de poca monta = odd-job.
    * un hombre de pocas palabras = a man of few words.
    * unos pocos elegidos = a select few.
    * un poco = a bit, somewhat, slightly, something of, a little bit, kinda [kind of].
    * un poco áspero = roughish.
    * un poco como = kind of like.
    * un poco de = a measure of, a touch (of), a bit of, a piece of, a spot of, a splash of, a hint of.
    * un poco + Nombre = a shade + Nombre.
    * un poco obscuro = dusky.
    * un poco perdido = a bit at sea.
    * un poco rugoso = roughish.
    * usado con poca frecuencia = seldom used [seldom-used].
    * usuario que hace poco uso del préstamo = light borrower.
    * utilizar poco = underutilise/under-utilise [underutilize/under-utilize, -USA].
    * vivienda poco digna = poor housing.
    * y poco más = and little more.

    * * *
    es muy poco agradecido he is very ungrateful, he isn't at all grateful
    es un autor muy poco conocido he is a very little-known author
    me resultó poco interesante I didn't find it very interesting, I found it rather uninteresting
    habla poco he doesn't say much o a lot
    duerme poquísimo she sleeps very little, she doesn't sleep very much
    viene muy poco por aquí he hardly ever comes around
    poco y nada me ayudaron they hardly helped me at all
    … con lo poco que le gusta el arroz … and he doesn't even like rice
    para locs ver poco3 pron D. (↑ poco (3))
    poco2 -ca
    muy poco vino very little wine
    muy pocos niños very few children
    hemos tenido muy poca suerte we've been very unlucky, we've had very little luck
    ¡qué poco sentido común tienes! you don't have much common sense, do you?
    tengo muy poca ropa I have hardly any clothes, I have very few clothes
    a poca gente se le presenta esa oportunidad not many people get that opportunity
    hay muy pocas mujeres en el gremio there are very few women in the trade
    éramos demasiado pocos there were too few of us, there weren't enough of us
    fue asombroso, todo lo que te pueda decir es poco it was amazing, I can't begin to tell you
    a esta mujer todo le parece poco this woman is never satisfied
    me he olvidado del poco francés/de las pocas palabras que sabía I've forgotten the little French/the few words I knew
    le dio unos pocos pesos she gave him a few pesos
    poco3 -ca
    A
    (poca cantidad, poca cosa): le serví sopa pero comió poca I gave her some soup but she only ate a little o she didn't eat much
    sírvele poco, desayunó muy tarde don't give him (too) much, he had a late breakfast
    por poco que gane, siempre es otro sueldo no matter how little o however little she earns o even if she doesn't earn much, it's still another salary coming in
    se conforma con poco he's easily satisfied
    poco y nada saqué en limpio de lo que dijo what he said made little or no sense to me
    lo poco que gana se lo gasta en vino he spends the little o what little he earns on wine
    compra más lentejas, nos quedan muy pocas buy some more lentils, we've hardly any left o we have very few left
    es un profesor como pocos there aren't many teachers like him
    pocos pueden permitirse ese lujo not many people can afford to do that
    B
    poco (refiriéndose a tiempo): lo vi hace poco I saw him recently o not long ago
    hace muy poco que lo conoce she hasn't known him for very long, she's only known him a little while
    tardó poco en pintar la cocina it didn't take him long to paint the kitchen
    falta poco para las navidades it's not long till Christmas, Christmas isn't far off
    a poco de terminar el bombardeo soon o shortly after the bombing stopped
    dentro de poco sale otro tren there'll be another train soon o shortly
    poco antes de que ella se fuera a short while o shortly before she left
    C
    ¿te sirvo un poco? would you like a little o some?
    descansemos un poco let's rest for a while, let's have a little rest
    espera un poquito wait a little while
    todavía le duele un poquitín or poquitito it still hurts him a little
    2
    un poco de: ponle un poco de pimienta/vino add a little (bit of) pepper/wine
    tiene un poco de fiebre he has a slight fever, he has a bit of a temperature o a slight temperature ( BrE)
    come un poco de jamón have a bit of o some o a little ham
    3
    un poco (hasta cierto punto): es un poco lo que está pasando en Japón it's rather like what's happening in Japan
    un poco porque me dio lástima partly because I felt sorry for him
    4 un poco + ADJ/ADV:
    un poco caro/tarde a bit o a little expensive/late
    me queda un poco corto it's a bit short o a little short o slightly too short (for me)
    habla un poco más fuerte speak up a bit o a little
    D ( en locs):
    a poco ( Méx): ¿a poco no lees los periódicos? don't you read the newspapers?
    ¡a poco no está fabuloso Acapulco! isn't Acapulco just fantastic!
    ¡a poco ganaron! don't tell me they won!
    nos sacamos el gordo de la lotería — ¡a poco ! we won the big lottery prize — you didn't!
    de a poco ( AmL); gradually
    agrégale la leche de a poquito add the milk gradually o a little at a time
    de a poquito se lo fue comiendo little by little o slowly she ate it all up
    en poco: en poco estuvo que nos ganaran they came very close to beating us, they very nearly beat us
    en poco estuvo que no viniéramos we almost didn't come
    tienen en poco la vida ajena they set little value on other people's lives
    me tienes bien en poco si me crees capaz de eso you can't think very highly o much of me if you think I could do such a thing
    poco a poco or ( Méx) a poquito gradually
    poco a poco la fueron arreglando they gradually fixed it up, they fixed it up little by little
    poco más o menos approximately, roughly
    habrán gastado unos dos millones, poco más o menos they must have spent in the neighborhood o ( BrE) region of two million
    es poco menos que imposible it's well-nigh o almost o very nearly impossible
    le pegó una paliza que poco menos que la mata ( fam); he gave her such a beating he almost o nearly killed her
    poco menos que los echan a patadas ( fam); they practically kicked them out
    por poco nearly
    por poco nos descubren we were nearly found out
    * * *

     

    poco 1 adverbio:
    ◊ habla poco he doesn't say much o a lot;

    es muy poco agradecido he is very ungrateful;
    un autor muy poco conocido a very little-known author;
    viene muy poco por aquí he hardly ever comes around;
    para locs ver poco 2 4
    poco 2 -ca adjetivo ( con sustantivos no numerables) little;

    ( en plural) few;

    muy pocos niños very few children;
    había poquísimos coches there were hardly any cars
    ■ pronombre
    1 (poca cantidad, poca cosa):

    por poco que gane … no matter how little o however little she earns …;
    se conforma con poco he's easily satisfied;
    todo le parece poco she is never satisfied;
    pocos quisieron ayudar few were willing to help;
    pocos pueden permitirse ese lujo not many people can afford to do that
    2
    ◊ poco ( refiriéndose a tiempo): lo vi hace poco I saw him recently o not long ago;

    hace muy poco que lo conoce she hasn't known him for very long;
    tardó poco en hacerlo it didn't take him long to do it;
    falta poco para las navidades it's not long till Christmas;
    a poco de venir él soon o shortly after he came;
    dentro de poco soon;
    poco antes de que … a short while o shortly before …
    3
    ◊ un poco


    ( refiriéndose a tiempo) a while;
    ◊ dame un poco I'll have some o a little;

    espera un poco wait a while
    b)


    c) un poco + adj/adv:

    ◊ un poco caro/tarde a bit o a little expensive/late

    4 ( en locs)
    ◊ a poco (Méx): ¡a poco no está fabuloso Acapulco! isn't Acapulco just fantastic!;

    ¡a poco ganaron! don't tell me they won!;
    de a poco (AmL) gradually, little by little;
    poco a poco gradually;
    poco más o menos approximately, roughly;
    por poco nearly
    poco,-a
    I adjetivo
    1 (con el sustantivo en singular) not much, little: tengo poco apetito, I haven't got much appetite
    2 (con el sustantivo en plural) not many, few: conozco pocos lugares de Italia, I don't know many places in Italy
    II pron (singular) little, not much
    (plural) (objetos) few, not many
    (personas) few people, not many people ➣ Ver nota en few
    III adverbio
    1 (con verbo) not (very) much, little: entiendo poco del tema, I don't understand much about the issue
    2 (con adjetivo) not very: está poco claro, it's not very clear
    3 (de tiempo) hace poco que nos conocemos, we met a short time ago
    IV sustantivo masculino
    1 (acompañado de adjetivo o adverbio) lo noté un poco molesto, I thought he was a bit annoyed
    tendré que hacerlo un poco después, I'll have to do it a little later
    2 (acompañando a un sustantivo) dame un poco de agua, give me a little water ➣ Ver nota en little
    ♦ Locuciones: a poco de, shortly after
    dentro de poco, soon
    poco a poco, little by little, gradually
    poco antes/después, shortly before/afterwards
    por poco, almost
    ' poco' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abreviar
    - aclimatarse
    - adelgazar
    - aguantar
    - ahora
    - alcornoque
    - alentador
    - alentadora
    - algo
    - antes
    - apercibirse
    - bagatela
    - baja
    - bajo
    - brusca
    - brusco
    - bruta
    - bruto
    - buscar
    - calentar
    - cargada
    - cargado
    - cascada
    - cascado
    - cerebral
    - chapucera
    - chapucero
    - chispa
    - clara
    - claro
    - común
    - cruda
    - crudo
    - cualquiera
    - de
    - dentro
    - descuidada
    - descuidado
    - descuidarse
    - desigual
    - desmoronada
    - desmoronado
    - despatarrarse
    - despistada
    - despistado
    - despreciable
    - después
    - desvaído
    - disipar
    - dudosa
    English:
    accomplice
    - add to
    - adjust
    - aerial
    - after
    - afterwards
    - along
    - aloof
    - amateurish
    - balding
    - bark
    - belly
    - bit
    - black
    - blind
    - blow up
    - boot
    - by
    - can
    - careless
    - chat
    - comedown
    - confusing
    - cowboy
    - degree
    - derivative
    - desultory
    - disagreement
    - disingenuous
    - diving
    - do
    - dodgy
    - doubtful
    - dowdy
    - earthy
    - easy-going
    - edge
    - effect
    - element
    - evasion
    - exist
    - expect
    - fall apart
    - far-fetched
    - fine
    - flippant
    - forge
    - furnish
    - fuzzy
    - gradually
    * * *
    poco, -a
    ♦ adj
    (singular) little, not much; (plural) few, not many;
    de poca importancia of little importance;
    poca agua not much water;
    pocas personas lo saben few o not many people know it;
    hay pocos árboles there aren't many trees;
    tenemos poco tiempo we don't have much time;
    hace poco tiempo not long ago;
    dame unos pocos días give me a few days;
    esto ocurre pocas veces this rarely happens, this doesn't happen often;
    tengo pocas ganas de ir I don't really o much feel like going;
    poca sal me parece que le estás echando I don't think you're putting enough salt in, I think you're putting too little salt in;
    con lo poco que le gusta la ópera, y la han invitado a La Traviata it's ironic, considering how she dislikes opera, that they should have invited her to see La Traviata
    ♦ pron
    1. [escasa cantidad] (singular) little, not much;
    * * *
    I adj sg little, not much; pl few, not many;
    un poco de a little;
    unos pocos a few
    II adv little;
    trabaja poco he doesn’t work much;
    ahora se ve muy poco it’s seldom seen now;
    estuvo poco por aquí he wasn’t around much;
    poco conocido little known;
    poco a poco little by little;
    dentro de poco soon, shortly;
    hace poco a short time ago, not long ago;
    desde hace poco (for) a short while;
    por poco nearly, almost;
    ¡a poco no lo hacemos! Méx don’t tell me we’re not doing it;
    de a poco me fui tranquilizando Rpl little by little I calmed down;
    por si fuera poco as if that weren’t o wasn’t enough
    III m
    :
    un poco a little, a bit
    * * *
    poco adv
    1) : little, not much
    poco probable: not very likely
    come poco: he doesn't eat much
    2) : a short time, a while
    tardaremos poco: we won't be very long
    3)
    poco antes : shortly before
    4)
    poco después : shortly after
    poco, -ca adj
    1) : little, not much, (a) few
    tengo poco dinero: I don't have much money
    en no pocas ocasiones: on more than a few occasions
    poca gente: few people
    2)
    pocas veces : rarely
    poco, -ca pron
    1) : little, few
    le falta poco para terminar: he's almost finished
    uno de los pocos que quedan: one of the remaining few
    2)
    un poco : a little, a bit
    un poco de vino: a little wine
    un poco extraño: a bit strange
    3)
    ¿a poco no se te hizo difícil?: you mean you didn't find it difficult?
    4)
    de a poco : little by little
    5)
    hace poco : not long ago
    6)
    poco a poco : little by little
    7)
    dentro de poco : shortly, in a little while
    8)
    por poco : nearly, almost
    * * *
    poco1 adj
    1. (singular) not much
    2. (plural) few / not many
    tiene pocos amigos he has few friends / he hasn't got many friends
    poco2 adv
    1. (con verbos) not much
    2. (no mucho tiempo) not long
    3. (con adjetivos) not very
    poco3 n a little / a bit
    tengo de sobra, toma un poco I've got plenty, take a little
    poco4 pron
    1. (singular) not much
    compra café, que queda muy poco buy some coffee, there's not much left
    2. (plural) few / not many
    ¿cuántos vinieron? pocos how many came? not many

    Spanish-English dictionary > poco

  • 3 steif

    I Adj.
    1. stiff (auch Körperteil, Eischnee etc.); bes. PHYS. (starr) rigid; (fest) auch firm; Penis: hard; steifer Hals stiff neck; er hat ein steifes Bein auch he can’t bend his knee; steif vor Kälte stiff with cold; steifer Hut homburg (hat); steif wie ein Brett (as) stiff as a board; steif wie ein Stock (as) stiff as a poker; steif werden go stiff; Person: get stiff; Penis: get hard; Muskeln und fig.: stiffen; ich bin ( vom vielen Sitzen) ganz steif geworden I’m really stiff (from all this sitting around); steif schlagen beat until stiff; einen Steifen haben vulg. have a hard-on; halt die Ohren steif! chin up!
    2. fig. stiff; Bewegung: auch wooden (auch Lächeln, Interpretation); (förmlich) auch formal; steifer Gang stiff gait; steife Haltung stiff ( oder rigid) posture; Deutsche gelten oft als steif Germans are often thought to be stiff and formal
    3. (stark) steife Brise stiff breeze; steifer Grog strong hot grog
    II Adv.
    1. stiffly; steif gefroren auch fig. frozen stiff
    2. fig. stiffly; (förmlich) auch formally; sich steif bewegen auch have (very) stiff movements; dort geht es mir zu steif zu it’s too stiff and formal there for my liking
    3. steif und fest behaupten, dass... insist that, swear that...; steif und fest glauben, dass... firmly believe that...
    * * *
    (förmlich) constrained; wooden; prim;
    (starr) stiff; rigid
    * * *
    [ʃtaif]
    1. adj
    1) stiff; Grog stiff, strong; Penis hard, stiff, erect

    stéíf vor Kälte — stiff or numb with cold

    eine stéífe Brise — a stiff breeze

    ein stéífer Hals — a stiff neck

    ein stéífer Hut (= Melone) — a homburg (hat) a bowler (hat), a derby (US)

    sich stéíf (wie ein Brett) machen — to go rigid

    2) (= gestärkt) starched
    3) (= förmlich) stiff; Empfang, Konventionen, Begrüßung, Abend formal
    2. adv
    1)

    (= hart) das Eiweiß stéíf schlagen — to beat the egg white until stiff

    sie behauptete stéíf und fest, dass... — she insisted that...

    etw stéíf und fest glauben — to be convinced of sth

    2) (= förmlich) stiffly

    stéíf lächeln — to smile stiffly

    jdn stéíf behandeln — to be standoffish to sb

    * * *
    1) ((of behaviour, attitude etc) not relaxed and friendly: formal behaviour.) formal
    2) (rigid or firm, and not easily bent, folded etc: He has walked with a stiff leg since he injured his knee; stiff cardboard.) stiff
    3) (moving, or moved, with difficulty, pain etc: I can't turn the key - the lock is stiff; I woke up with a stiff neck; I felt stiff the day after the climb.) stiff
    4) (strong: a stiff breeze.) stiff
    5) ((of a person or his manner etc) formal and unfriendly: I received a stiff note from the bank manager.) stiff
    7) ((of a person, behaviour etc) too formal and correct: a prim manner; a prim old lady.) prim
    * * *
    [ʃtaif]
    1. (starr) stiff
    ein \steifer Kragen a stiff collar
    \steif vor Kälte stiff [or numb] with cold
    \steif wie ein Brett as stiff as a board
    ein \steifes Bein a stiff leg
    einen \steifen Hals haben to have a stiff neck
    ▪ \steif sein/werden to be/grow stiff
    sich akk \steif machen to go rigid, to lock one's muscles
    3. (förmlich) stiff, starchy BRIT pej fam
    ein \steifer Empfang/eine \steife Begrüßung a [rather] formal [or pej fam starchy] reception/greeting
    4. (erigiert) erect
    ein \steifer Penis an erect [or a hard] [or a stiff] penis, an erection
    ▪ \steif sein/werden to be/become erect
    5. (fam: alkoholische Getränke) stiff
    ein \steifer Grog a tot [or shot] of strong grog, a stiff tot of grog
    6. NAUT
    ein \steifes Boot a stiff boat
    eine \steife Brise/See a stiff breeze/heavy sea
    7.
    ▶ \steif und fest obstinately, stubbornly, categorically
    sich dat \steif und fest einbilden, dass... to have got it into one's head that...
    * * *
    1.
    1) stiff; (ugs.): (erigiert) erect < penis>
    2) (förmlich) stiff, formal <person, greeting, style>; formal < reception>
    3) (Seemannsspr.): (stark) stiff <wind, breeze>
    4) (ugs.): (stark) strong < coffee>; stiff, strong < alcoholic drink>
    2.
    2) (Seemannsspr.): (stark)

    der Wind steht od. weht steif aus Südost — there's a stiff wind blowing from the south-east

    3)

    steif und fest behaupten/glauben, dass... — (ugs.) swear blind/be completely convinced that...

    * * *
    A. adj
    1. stiff (auch Körperteil, Eischnee etc); besonders PHYS (starr) rigid; (fest) auch firm; Penis: hard;
    steifer Hals stiff neck;
    er hat ein steifes Bein auch he can’t bend his knee;
    steif vor Kälte stiff with cold;
    steifer Hut homburg (hat);
    steif wie ein Brett (as) stiff as a board;
    steif wie ein Stock (as) stiff as a poker;
    steif werden go stiff; Person: get stiff; Penis: get hard; Muskeln und fig: stiffen;
    ich bin (vom vielen Sitzen) ganz steif geworden I’m really stiff (from all this sitting around);
    steif schlagen beat until stiff;
    einen Steifen haben vulg have a hard-on
    2. fig stiff; Bewegung: auch wooden (auch Lächeln, Interpretation); (förmlich) auch formal;
    steifer Gang stiff gait;
    steife Haltung stiff ( oder rigid) posture;
    Deutsche gelten oft als steif Germans are often thought to be stiff and formal
    steife Brise stiff breeze;
    steifer Grog strong hot grog
    B. adv
    1. stiffly;
    steif gefroren auch fig frozen stiff
    2. fig stiffly; (förmlich) auch formally;
    sich steif bewegen auch have (very) stiff movements;
    dort geht es mir zu steif zu it’s too stiff and formal there for my liking
    3.
    steif und fest behaupten, dass … insist that, swear that …;
    steif und fest glauben, dass … firmly believe that …
    * * *
    1.
    1) stiff; (ugs.): (erigiert) erect < penis>
    2) (förmlich) stiff, formal <person, greeting, style>; formal < reception>
    3) (Seemannsspr.): (stark) stiff <wind, breeze>
    4) (ugs.): (stark) strong < coffee>; stiff, strong < alcoholic drink>
    2.
    2) (Seemannsspr.): (stark)

    der Wind steht od. weht steif aus Südost — there's a stiff wind blowing from the south-east

    3)

    steif und fest behaupten/glauben, dass... — (ugs.) swear blind/be completely convinced that...

    * * *
    (Benehmen) adj.
    starched adj. adj.
    angular adj.
    starchy adj.
    stiff adj.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > steif

  • 4 tratar

    v.
    1 to treat (comportarse con) (persona, objeto).
    ¿qué tal te trataron? how were you treated?
    El médico trata al paciente The doctor treats=cures the patient.
    2 to have dealings or contact with.
    la traté muy poco I didn't have much to do with her
    3 to treat (tema, asunto).
    eso lo tienes que tratar con el jefe that's something you'll have to discuss with the boss
    4 to treat.
    5 to treat (agua, sustancia, alimento).
    6 to process (computing) (datos, información).
    Ellos tratan el cuero They process the leather.
    7 to deal.
    Las empresas trataron The companies made a deal.
    8 to try, to make a trial, to attempt it, to attempt.
    Ella trató por mucho tiempo She tried for a long time.
    9 to handle, to maneuver, to manoeuvre.
    Ellos tratan sus pensamientos They handle their thoughts.
    * * *
    1 (gen - objeto) to treat, handle; (- persona) to treat
    2 (asunto, tema) to discuss, deal with
    3 (gestionar) to handle, run
    4 (dar tratamiento) to address as
    5 (calificar, considerar) to consider, call
    6 MEDICINA to treat
    7 (datos, texto) to process
    8 QUÍMICA to treat
    1 (relacionarse) to be acquainted ( con, with), know ( con, -)
    2 (tener tratos) to deal ( con, with)
    3 (negociar) to negotiate ( con, with)
    4 (intentar) to try (de, to)
    5 (versar) to be about
    ■ trata de/sobre espías it's about spies
    6 COMERCIO to deal (en, in)
    1 (relacionarse) to talk to each other, be on speaking terms
    2 (llamarse) to address each other as, call each other
    3 (referirse) to be about
    \
    se trata de... it's a question of..., it's a matter of...
    * * *
    verb
    •
    - tratar de
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) [+ persona, animal, objeto] to treat

    hay que tratar a los animales con cariño — animals should be given plenty of affection, animals should be treated lovingly

    te dejo la cámara, pero trátala bien — I'll let you have the camera, but be careful with it o treat it carefully

    la vida la ha tratado muy bien — life has been very kind to her, life has treated her very well

    • tratar a algn de loco — to treat sb like a madman

    2) (=llamar)

    ¿cómo le tenemos que tratar cuando nos hable? — how should we address him when he speaks to us?

    • tratar a algn de algo — to call sb sth

    tratar a algn de tú/usted — to address sb as "tú"/"usted"

    3) (=relacionarse con)

    tratar a algn: ya no lo trato — I no longer have any dealings with him

    me cae bien, pero no la he tratado mucho — I like her, but I haven't had a lot to do with her

    4) (Med) [+ paciente, enfermedad] to treat

    ¿qué médico te está tratando? — which doctor is giving you treatment?

    5) [+ tejido, madera, residuos] to treat
    6) (=discutir) [+ tema] to deal with; [+ acuerdo, paz] to negotiate
    7) (Inform) to process
    2. VI
    1)

    • tratar de — [libro] to be about, deal with; [personas] to talk about, discuss

    2) (=intentar)

    • tratar de hacer algo — to try to do sth

    • tratar de que, trataré de que esta sea la última vez — I'll try to make sure that this is the last time

    3) (=relacionarse)

    • tratar con algn, trato con todo tipo de gente — I deal with all sorts of people

    4) (Com)

    • tratar con o en algo — to deal in sth

    trataban con o en pieles — they dealt in furs, they were involved in the fur trade

    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    1) ( intentar) to try

    tratar de + inf — to try to + inf

    tratar de que + subj: trata de que queden a la misma altura try to get them level; trataré de que no vuelva a suceder — I'll try to make sure it doesn't happen again

    2) obra/libro/película

    ¿de qué trata el libro? — what's the book about?

    3) (tener contacto, relaciones)
    4) (Com)
    2.
    tratar vt
    1)
    a) <persona/animal/instrumento> (+ compl) to treat
    b) ( llamar)

    tratar a alguien de usted/tú — to address somebody using the polite usted or the more familiar tú form

    3) <tema/asunto> to deal with
    4)
    a) <paciente/enfermedad> to treat
    b) <sustancia/metal> to treat
    3.
    tratarse v pron
    1)
    a)

    tratarse con alguien — ( ser amigo de) to be friendly with somebody; ( alternar) to socialize o mix with somebody

    b) (recípr)
    2) (+ compl)
    a) (recípr)

    se tratan de usted/tú — they address each other as `usted'/`tu'

    se tratan sin ningún respeto — they have o show no respect for each other

    b) (refl) ( cuidarse)

    tratarse bien/mal — to look after oneself well/not to look after oneself

    3) (Med) to have o undergo treatment
    4) tratarse de (en 3a pers)
    a) ( ser acerca de) to be about

    ¿de qué se trata? — what's it about?

    se trata de arreglar la situación, no de discutir — we're supposed to be settling things, not arguing

    si sólo se trata de eso... — if that's all it is...

    * * *
    = address, approach, consider (as), cover, discuss, focus on/upon, get to, go into, handle, manipulate, tackle, treat, turn to, broach, give + treatment, play with, speak to, treat, pick up on, meet.
    Nota: Verbo irregular: pasado y participio met.
    Ex. The inclusion of vendors and publishers allows everyone to address sticky business relationships head-on.
    Ex. The searcher may be the end user, but the end user is approaching the search in some ignorance of his real requirements, or of the literature that might be available to meet those requirements.
    Ex. A book index is an alphabetically arranged list of words or terms leading the reader to the numbers of pages on which specific topics are considered, or on which specific names appear.
    Ex. The schedules are divided into two parts, one covering music scores and parts and the other concerned with music literature.
    Ex. This review also illustrates some of the issues which cataloguers have discussed over the years, and demonstrates other solutions to standards in cataloguing than those embodied in modern cataloguing codes.
    Ex. In a text such as this which focuses primarily upon controlled indexing languages and systems it is difficult to place natural language indexing in a appropriate context.
    Ex. 'I'll get to that, I promise! but right now I have a budget to work on!'.
    Ex. Although the description given here is quite lengthy, many points are glossed over, and the Manual goes into these and a number of others at length.
    Ex. An author's name is usually shorter than a title, and thus is arguably easier to handle and remember.
    Ex. Different stores offer access to distinct types of information or data and permit the information to be manipulated to varying extents.
    Ex. Chapter 2 tackles books, pamphlets and printed sheets, and chapter 3 is dedicated to cartographic materials.
    Ex. In troubleshooting, it is important to treat the cause as well as the symptom of the problem = En la solución de problemas, es importante tratar tanto la causa como el síntoma del problema.
    Ex. We shall turn to this distinction very shortly.
    Ex. Some of the consequences of this conclusion are broached in this article.
    Ex. Equally serious, authors are often too close to the paper to give it an objective treatment.
    Ex. In this five-day workshop we will play with the design and building of non-traditional interface solutions.
    Ex. Numerous articles in the library literature speak to this phenomenon but most deal with the experience of larger libraries.
    Ex. The author studies the factors which have impeded the spread of information on the use of thioctic acid to treat mushroom poisoning.
    Ex. The report picks up on this as a surprising finding, suggesting implicitly that open access journals are lagging behind in this regard.
    Ex. There may be a threat of over-capacity; if so, this could be met by diversification, an enlargement of the SLIS role.
    ----
    * aguas residuales sin tratar = raw sewage, raw waste water.
    * atreverse a tratar = dare to + tread.
    * como si (se tratase de) = as if.
    * continuar tratando = pursue + Nombre + further.
    * cuando se trata de + Infinitivo = when it comes to + Gerundio.
    * de qué se trata = what it's all about.
    * difícil de tratar = unruly.
    * empezar a tratar = scratch + the surface of, scrape + the surface.
    * manera de tratar = avenue of approach.
    * no atraverse a tratar = fear to + tread.
    * ponerse a tratar + Algo = get down to + Nombre.
    * que trata de = surrounding.
    * seguir tratando = discuss + further.
    * sin tratar = untreated.
    * temer tratar = fear to + tread.
    * tratar Algo = get down to + Nombre, be under consideration.
    * tratar algo en detalle = go into + Algo + at length.
    * tratar Algo en profundidad = go into + Algo + at length.
    * tratar Algo imparcialmente = treat + Nombre + with an even hand.
    * tratar Algo justamente = treat + Nombre + with an even hand.
    * tratar Algo sin parcialismo = treat + Nombre + with an even hand.
    * tratar Algo sin rodeos = address + Nombre + head-on, meet + Nombre + head-on, tackle + Nombre + head-on, face + Nombre + head-on.
    * tratar Algo supercialmente = dabble in.
    * tratar como un objeto = objectify.
    * tratar como un personaje = lionise [lionize, -USA].
    * tratar (con) = negotiate (with).
    * tratar con bondad = kill + Nombre + with kindness, smother + Nombre + with kindness.
    * tratar con cloro = chlorinate.
    * tratar con condescendencia = patronise [patronize, -USA], condescend.
    * tratar con más detalle = discuss + in greater detail.
    * tratar con precaución = approach + with caution.
    * tratar con prudencia = treat with + caution, view with + caution.
    * tratar con respeto = treat with + respect.
    * tratar de = be about, be concerned with, deal with, take up, bear on, deal in.
    * tratar de abarcar más de lo que se puede = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * tratar de ganar tiempo = temporise [temporize, -USA], play for + time.
    * tratar de igual modo = treat as + equal.
    * tratar de ligar = chat up.
    * tratar de no llamar la atención = keep + a low profile, lie + low.
    * tratar de pasar desapercibido = keep + a low profile, lie + low.
    * tratar de pasar inadvertido = keep + a low profile, lie + low.
    * tratar detalladamente = cover + in detail.
    * tratar de un modo sentimental = sentimentalise [sentimentalize, -USA].
    * tratar de un modo urgente = fast track.
    * tratar en detalle = treat + at length, discuss + at length.
    * tratar en profundidad = treat + in detail.
    * tratar específicamente = target.
    * tratar información = handle + information.
    * tratar injustamente = malign.
    * tratar justamente = treat + fairly.
    * tratar la cuestión de = get to + the issue of.
    * tratar la posibilidad de = discuss + the possibility of.
    * tratar ligeramente = skim + the surface of, touch on/upon.
    * tratar magníficamente = do + more than justice.
    * tratar mal = maltreat, manhandle.
    * tratar muy por encima = scratch + the surface of, scrape + the surface.
    * tratar por todos los medios de = take + (great) pains to.
    * tratar por todos los medios de + Verbo = be at pains to + Infinitivo.
    * tratarse de = come down to, be a question of.
    * tratar severamente = mete out + harsh treatment.
    * tratar síntomas = treat + symptoms.
    * tratar superficialmente = gloss over, scratch + the surface of, scrape + the surface.
    * tratar una cuestión = address + constraint, address + issue, address + question, consider + issue, tackle + issue, address + concern, deal with + issue, broach + issue, broach + question, grapple with + issue.
    * tratar una cuestión ligeramente = touch on/upon + issue.
    * tratar un asunto = deal with + issue.
    * tratar un problema = address + problem, deal with + problem, handle + problem, tackle + problem, address + limitation, grapple with + problem, treat + problem, address + concern.
    * tratar un problema de pasada = touch on/upon + problem.
    * tratar un tema = broach + subject, broach + topic, address + theme, address + topic.
    * tratar un tema conocido = tread + familiar ground.
    * tratar un tema en detalle = go into + detail.
    * volver a tratar = revisit.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    1) ( intentar) to try

    tratar de + inf — to try to + inf

    tratar de que + subj: trata de que queden a la misma altura try to get them level; trataré de que no vuelva a suceder — I'll try to make sure it doesn't happen again

    2) obra/libro/película

    ¿de qué trata el libro? — what's the book about?

    3) (tener contacto, relaciones)
    4) (Com)
    2.
    tratar vt
    1)
    a) <persona/animal/instrumento> (+ compl) to treat
    b) ( llamar)

    tratar a alguien de usted/tú — to address somebody using the polite usted or the more familiar tú form

    3) <tema/asunto> to deal with
    4)
    a) <paciente/enfermedad> to treat
    b) <sustancia/metal> to treat
    3.
    tratarse v pron
    1)
    a)

    tratarse con alguien — ( ser amigo de) to be friendly with somebody; ( alternar) to socialize o mix with somebody

    b) (recípr)
    2) (+ compl)
    a) (recípr)

    se tratan de usted/tú — they address each other as `usted'/`tu'

    se tratan sin ningún respeto — they have o show no respect for each other

    b) (refl) ( cuidarse)

    tratarse bien/mal — to look after oneself well/not to look after oneself

    3) (Med) to have o undergo treatment
    4) tratarse de (en 3a pers)
    a) ( ser acerca de) to be about

    ¿de qué se trata? — what's it about?

    se trata de arreglar la situación, no de discutir — we're supposed to be settling things, not arguing

    si sólo se trata de eso... — if that's all it is...

    * * *
    tratar (con)

    Ex: Their purposes was to settle the disputes between the members, to negotiate with master, to accumulate and disburse a benevolent fund, and to exact contributions for drinks and parties.

    = address, approach, consider (as), cover, discuss, focus on/upon, get to, go into, handle, manipulate, tackle, treat, turn to, broach, give + treatment, play with, speak to, treat, pick up on, meet.
    Nota: Verbo irregular: pasado y participio met.

    Ex: The inclusion of vendors and publishers allows everyone to address sticky business relationships head-on.

    Ex: The searcher may be the end user, but the end user is approaching the search in some ignorance of his real requirements, or of the literature that might be available to meet those requirements.
    Ex: A book index is an alphabetically arranged list of words or terms leading the reader to the numbers of pages on which specific topics are considered, or on which specific names appear.
    Ex: The schedules are divided into two parts, one covering music scores and parts and the other concerned with music literature.
    Ex: This review also illustrates some of the issues which cataloguers have discussed over the years, and demonstrates other solutions to standards in cataloguing than those embodied in modern cataloguing codes.
    Ex: In a text such as this which focuses primarily upon controlled indexing languages and systems it is difficult to place natural language indexing in a appropriate context.
    Ex: 'I'll get to that, I promise! but right now I have a budget to work on!'.
    Ex: Although the description given here is quite lengthy, many points are glossed over, and the Manual goes into these and a number of others at length.
    Ex: An author's name is usually shorter than a title, and thus is arguably easier to handle and remember.
    Ex: Different stores offer access to distinct types of information or data and permit the information to be manipulated to varying extents.
    Ex: Chapter 2 tackles books, pamphlets and printed sheets, and chapter 3 is dedicated to cartographic materials.
    Ex: In troubleshooting, it is important to treat the cause as well as the symptom of the problem = En la solución de problemas, es importante tratar tanto la causa como el síntoma del problema.
    Ex: We shall turn to this distinction very shortly.
    Ex: Some of the consequences of this conclusion are broached in this article.
    Ex: Equally serious, authors are often too close to the paper to give it an objective treatment.
    Ex: In this five-day workshop we will play with the design and building of non-traditional interface solutions.
    Ex: Numerous articles in the library literature speak to this phenomenon but most deal with the experience of larger libraries.
    Ex: The author studies the factors which have impeded the spread of information on the use of thioctic acid to treat mushroom poisoning.
    Ex: The report picks up on this as a surprising finding, suggesting implicitly that open access journals are lagging behind in this regard.
    Ex: There may be a threat of over-capacity; if so, this could be met by diversification, an enlargement of the SLIS role.
    * aguas residuales sin tratar = raw sewage, raw waste water.
    * atreverse a tratar = dare to + tread.
    * como si (se tratase de) = as if.
    * continuar tratando = pursue + Nombre + further.
    * cuando se trata de + Infinitivo = when it comes to + Gerundio.
    * de qué se trata = what it's all about.
    * difícil de tratar = unruly.
    * empezar a tratar = scratch + the surface of, scrape + the surface.
    * manera de tratar = avenue of approach.
    * no atraverse a tratar = fear to + tread.
    * ponerse a tratar + Algo = get down to + Nombre.
    * que trata de = surrounding.
    * seguir tratando = discuss + further.
    * sin tratar = untreated.
    * temer tratar = fear to + tread.
    * tratar Algo = get down to + Nombre, be under consideration.
    * tratar algo en detalle = go into + Algo + at length.
    * tratar Algo en profundidad = go into + Algo + at length.
    * tratar Algo imparcialmente = treat + Nombre + with an even hand.
    * tratar Algo justamente = treat + Nombre + with an even hand.
    * tratar Algo sin parcialismo = treat + Nombre + with an even hand.
    * tratar Algo sin rodeos = address + Nombre + head-on, meet + Nombre + head-on, tackle + Nombre + head-on, face + Nombre + head-on.
    * tratar Algo supercialmente = dabble in.
    * tratar como un objeto = objectify.
    * tratar como un personaje = lionise [lionize, -USA].
    * tratar (con) = negotiate (with).
    * tratar con bondad = kill + Nombre + with kindness, smother + Nombre + with kindness.
    * tratar con cloro = chlorinate.
    * tratar con condescendencia = patronise [patronize, -USA], condescend.
    * tratar con más detalle = discuss + in greater detail.
    * tratar con precaución = approach + with caution.
    * tratar con prudencia = treat with + caution, view with + caution.
    * tratar con respeto = treat with + respect.
    * tratar de = be about, be concerned with, deal with, take up, bear on, deal in.
    * tratar de abarcar más de lo que se puede = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * tratar de ganar tiempo = temporise [temporize, -USA], play for + time.
    * tratar de igual modo = treat as + equal.
    * tratar de ligar = chat up.
    * tratar de no llamar la atención = keep + a low profile, lie + low.
    * tratar de pasar desapercibido = keep + a low profile, lie + low.
    * tratar de pasar inadvertido = keep + a low profile, lie + low.
    * tratar detalladamente = cover + in detail.
    * tratar de un modo sentimental = sentimentalise [sentimentalize, -USA].
    * tratar de un modo urgente = fast track.
    * tratar en detalle = treat + at length, discuss + at length.
    * tratar en profundidad = treat + in detail.
    * tratar específicamente = target.
    * tratar información = handle + information.
    * tratar injustamente = malign.
    * tratar justamente = treat + fairly.
    * tratar la cuestión de = get to + the issue of.
    * tratar la posibilidad de = discuss + the possibility of.
    * tratar ligeramente = skim + the surface of, touch on/upon.
    * tratar magníficamente = do + more than justice.
    * tratar mal = maltreat, manhandle.
    * tratar muy por encima = scratch + the surface of, scrape + the surface.
    * tratar por todos los medios de = take + (great) pains to.
    * tratar por todos los medios de + Verbo = be at pains to + Infinitivo.
    * tratarse de = come down to, be a question of.
    * tratar severamente = mete out + harsh treatment.
    * tratar síntomas = treat + symptoms.
    * tratar superficialmente = gloss over, scratch + the surface of, scrape + the surface.
    * tratar una cuestión = address + constraint, address + issue, address + question, consider + issue, tackle + issue, address + concern, deal with + issue, broach + issue, broach + question, grapple with + issue.
    * tratar una cuestión ligeramente = touch on/upon + issue.
    * tratar un asunto = deal with + issue.
    * tratar un problema = address + problem, deal with + problem, handle + problem, tackle + problem, address + limitation, grapple with + problem, treat + problem, address + concern.
    * tratar un problema de pasada = touch on/upon + problem.
    * tratar un tema = broach + subject, broach + topic, address + theme, address + topic.
    * tratar un tema conocido = tread + familiar ground.
    * tratar un tema en detalle = go into + detail.
    * volver a tratar = revisit.

    * * *
    tratar [A1 ]
    vi
    A (intentar) to try tratar DE + INF to try to + INF
    trate de comprender try to o ( colloq) try and understand
    traten de no llegar tarde try not to be late
    tratar DE QUE + SUBJ:
    trata de que queden a la misma altura try to o ( colloq) try and get them level
    trataré de que no vuelva a suceder I'll try to make sure it doesn't happen again
    B
    «obra/libro/película»: tratar DEor SOBRE algo: ¿de qué trata el libro? what's the book about?
    la conferencia tratará sobre medicina alternativa the lecture will deal with o will be on the subject of alternative medicine, the theme of the lecture will be alternative medicine
    C (tener contacto, relaciones) tratar CON algn to deal WITH sb
    en mi trabajo trato con gente de todo tipo in my job I deal with o come into contact with all kinds of people
    tratar con él no es nada fácil he's not at all easy to get on with
    prefiero tratar directamente con el fabricante I prefer to deal directly with the manufacturer
    D ( Com) tratar EN algo to deal IN sth
    tratar en joyas/antigüedades to deal in jewels/antiques
    los mercaderes que trataban en esclavos/pieles the merchants who dealt o traded in slaves/furs
    ■ tratar
    vt
    A
    1 ‹persona/animal/instrumento› (+ compl) to treat
    me tratan muy bien/como si fuera de la familia they treat me very well/as if I were one of the family
    trata la guitarra con más cuidado be more careful with the guitar
    ¿me estás tratando de mentiroso? are you calling me a liar?
    a mi suegro nunca lo he tratado de usted I've never called my father-in-law `usted'
    B ‹persona›
    (frecuentar): lo trataba cuando era joven I saw quite a lot of him when I was young
    nunca lo he tratado I have never had any contact with him o any dealings with him
    C ‹tema/asunto›
    vamos a tratar primero los puntos de mayor urgencia let's deal with o discuss the more pressing issues first
    no sé cómo tratar esta cuestión I don't know how to deal with o handle this matter
    el libro trata la Revolución Francesa desde una óptica inusual the book looks at the French Revolution from an unusual angle
    esto no se puede tratar delante de los niños we can't discuss this in front of the children
    D
    1 ‹paciente/enfermedad› to treat
    2 ‹sustancia/metal/madera› to treat
    cultivos tratados con insectidas crops treated with insecticides
    A (relacionarse, tener contacto)
    1 tratarse CON algn:
    no me gusta la gente con la que se trata I don't like the people he mixes with
    se trata con gente de la alta sociedad she socializes o mixes with people from high society, she moves in high circles
    ¿tú te tratas con los Rucabado? are you friendly with the Rucabados?
    2 ( recípr):
    somos parientes pero no nos tratamos we're related but we never see each other o we never have anything to do with each other
    B (+ compl)
    1 ( recípr):
    se tratan de usted/tú they address each other as `usted'/`tú'
    se tratan sin ningún respeto they have o show no respect for each other
    2 ( refl) to treat oneself
    ¡qué mal te tratas, eh! ( iró); you don't treat yourself badly, do you?, you know how to look after yourself, don't you?
    C ( Med) (seguir un tratamiento) to have o undergo treatment
    1 (ser acerca de) to be about
    ¿de qué se trata? what's it about?, what does it concern? ( frml)
    se trata de Roy it's about Roy
    2
    (ser cuestión de): se trata de arreglar la situación, no de discutir we're supposed to be settling things, not arguing
    si sólo se trata de eso, hazlo pasar ahora if that's all it is o if that's all he wants, show him in now
    bueno, si se trata de echarle un vistazo nada más … OK, if it's just a question of having a quick look at it …
    3
    (ser): se trata de la estrella del equipo we're talking about o he is the star of the team
    tratándose de usted, no creo que haya inconvenientes since it's for you o in your case I don't think there will be any problems
    * * *

     

    tratar ( conjugate tratar) verbo intransitivo
    1 ( intentar) to try;

    trataré de que no vuelva a suceder I'll try to make sure it doesn't happen again
    2 [obra/libro/película] tratar de algo to be about sth;
    tratar sobre algo to deal with sth;

    3 (tener contacto, relaciones) tratar con algn to deal with sb;

    verbo transitivo
    1 ‹persona/animal/instrumento› to treat;

    2 ( frecuentar):

    3 ‹tema/asunto› to discuss, to deal with
    4
    a) (Med) to treat

    b) ‹sustancia/metal› to treat

    tratarse verbo pronominal
    1 tratarse con algn ( ser amigo de) to be friendly with sb;
    ( alternar) to socialize o mix with sb;

    2 (+ compl) ( recípr):

    3 (Med) to have o undergo treatment
    4
    ◊ tratarse de (en 3a pers)


    ◊ ¿de qué se trata? what's it about?


    ◊ se trata de participar, no de ganar it's a question of taking part, not of winning;

    solo porque se trata de ti just because it's you
    tratar
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (portarse) to treat
    2 (cuidar) to look after, care: trátame el libro bien, look after my book
    3 (dirigirse a una persona) address: nos tratamos de tú, we call each other "tú" o we're on first name terms
    4 (considerar, llamar) me trató de tonto, he called me stupid
    5 (someter a un proceso) to treat
    6 (someter a tratamiento médico) to treat: le tienen que tratar la artritis, they have to treat his arthritis
    7 (tener relación social) la he tratado muy poco, I don't know her very well
    8 (considerar, discutir) to deal with: no hemos tratado la cuestión, we haven't discussed that subject
    II verbo intransitivo 1 tratar de, (un libro, una película) to be about: ¿de qué trata?, what is it about?
    2 (intentar) to try [de, to]
    3 Com tratar en, to trade in o with 4 tratar con, (negociar) to negotiate with
    ' tratar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    censurar
    - defraudar
    - delicada
    - delicado
    - drogodependencia
    - ir
    - girar
    - hablar
    - mimar
    - negociar
    - tú
    - confianza
    - curar
    - debido
    - huir
    - manera
    - miramiento
    - piel
    - punto
    - tocar
    - trato
    - usted
    English:
    about
    - address
    - associate
    - bid
    - clutch
    - deal with
    - discuss
    - form
    - grapple
    - ground
    - handle
    - light
    - lionise
    - mistreat
    - muck about
    - muck around
    - patronize
    - peer
    - push through
    - rubberize
    - specific
    - squarely
    - tactfully
    - tout
    - treat
    - try
    - try on
    - victimize
    - attempt
    - bite
    - contact
    - could
    - cover
    - deal
    - favor
    - grasp
    - process
    - profile
    - raw
    - seek
    - snub
    - tackle
    - take
    - thrash
    - untreated
    - way
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [portarse con, manejar] to treat;
    ¿qué tal te trataron? how were you treated?;
    no la trates tan mal don't be so nasty to her;
    la vida no la ha tratado bien life has not been kind to her;
    te dejo los discos, pero trátamelos bien I'll let you borrow the records, but look after them o be careful with them for me
    2. [paciente, enfermedad, herida] to treat;
    la están tratando de cáncer, le están tratando un cáncer she's being treated for cancer;
    el médico que la trata the doctor who is treating her
    3. [tener relación con] to have dealings o contact with;
    era compañera de clase pero la traté muy poco she was in my class, but I didn't have much to do with her
    4. [llamar, dirigirse a]
    tratar a alguien de usted/tú = to address sb using the “usted” form/the “tú” form;
    no hace falta que me trates de señor there's no need to call me “sir”;
    tratar a alguien de tonto to call sb an idiot
    5. [tema, asunto] to treat;
    el tema que trata la obra the subject of the book;
    hay que tratar ese asunto con cuidado this matter needs to be dealt with carefully;
    eso lo tienes que tratar con el jefe that's something you'll have to discuss with the boss
    6. [agua, sustancia, tejido, alimento] to treat
    7. Informát [datos, información] to process
    8. Bol [insultar] to insult, to swear at
    ♦ vi
    1. [intentar]
    tratar de hacer algo to try to do sth;
    trata de comprenderlo, por favor please try to understand;
    trataré de no equivocarme I'll try not to get it wrong;
    sólo trataba de que estuvieras más cómodo I was only trying to make you more comfortable
    2. [versar]
    tratar de o [m5] sobre to be about;
    ¿de qué trata el documental? what's the documentary about o on?;
    la ponencia trata sobre contaminación acústica the paper is about o on noise pollution
    3. [tener relación]
    tratar con alguien to have dealings with sb;
    en mi trabajo tengo que tratar con todo tipo de gente I have to deal with all sorts of people in my job;
    trata con gente muy rara she mixes with some very strange people;
    RP
    tratar a alguien con pinzas to handle sb with kid gloves
    4. [comerciar] to deal (en in)
    * * *
    I v/t
    1 treat
    2 ( manejar) handle
    3 ( dirigirse a) address (de as);
    tratar a alguien de tú address s.o. informally, use the tú form with s.o.;
    tratar a alguien de usted address s.o. formally, use the usted form with s.o.
    4 gente come into contact with
    5 tema deal with
    II v/i:
    1
    :
    tratar con alguien deal with s.o.
    2
    :
    tratar de ( intentar) try to
    3 COM
    :
    tratar en deal in
    * * *
    tratar vi
    1)
    tratar con : to deal with, to have contact with
    no trato mucho con los clientes: I don't have much contact with customers
    2)
    tratar de : to try to
    estoy tratando de comer: I am trying to eat
    3)
    tratar sobre : to be about, to concern
    el libro trata de las plantas: the book is about plants
    4)
    tratar en : to deal in
    trata en herramientas: he deals in tools
    tratar vt
    1) : to treat
    tratan bien a sus empleados: they treat their employees well
    2) : to handle
    trató el tema con delicadeza: he handled the subject tactfully
    * * *
    tratar vb
    1. (en general) to treat
    2. (ocuparse, tener relación) to deal with [pt. & pp. dealt]
    3. (hablar) to discuss
    4. (referirse) to be about

    Spanish-English dictionary > tratar

  • 5 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 6 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 7 høytidelig

    ceremonial, formally, solemn
    * * *
    adj. ceremonious, formal adj. ceremoniously, formally adj. pompously, solemn, solemnly (nedsettende) (bli høytidelig) get pompous (ta noe høytidelig) take something seriously, attach too much importance (ta seg selv høytidelig) take oneself seriously

    Norsk-engelsk ordbok > høytidelig

  • 8 πείθομαι

    Grammatical information: v.
    Meaning: `to trust, to rely, to obey, to be persuaded' (Il.).
    Other forms: Fut. πείσομαι, aor. πιθέσθαι, πεπιθέσθαι, perf. πέποιθα (all Il.), aor. pass. πεισθῆναι, fut. - θήσομαι, perf. πέπεισ-μαι (Att.), midd. πείσασθαι (hell.), aor. ptc. πιθήσας (Il.), fut. πιθήσω (φ 369; on the explanation below s. ἀπιθής); act. πείθω, πείσω, πεπιθεῖν w. fut. πεπιθήσω, πεῖσαι (all Il.), πιθεῖν (Pi., A.), πέπεικα (young Att.) `convince, persuade'.
    Compounds: Also w. prefix, e.g. ἀνα-, ἐπι-, παρα-, συν-. As 1. member in governing compp. like πείθ-αρχ-ος `obedient to the authorities' (A.) with - ία, - έω a.o. (Att.), Πεισί-στρατος PN; as 2. member after the σ-stems a.o. in ἀ-, εὑ-π(ε)ιθής (Thgn., A., Att.) with aor. ἀπίθ-ησε (Il.), fut. ἀπιθ-ήσω (Κ 129, Ω 300); after it the metr. easy πιθήσας with πιθήσω (diff. Chantraine Gramm. hom. 1, 446).
    Derivatives: A. From root-aorist: 1. πιστός `faithful, reliable, credible' (Il.) with πιστό-της f. `faith' (IA.), πιστ-εύω ( δια-, κατα- a.o.) `to rely, to trust, to believe, to confide' (IA.), from which - ευμα, - ευσις, - ευτικός; πιστ-όομαι ( κατα-, συν-, προ-), - όω `to trust entirely, to warrant, to assure; to make reliable' (Il.) with - ωμα, - ωσις, - ωτής, - ωτικός. 2. πίστις f. `faith, trust, authentication, assurance' (IA.) with πιστι-κός `faithful' (Plu., Vett. Val.; if not for πειστικός; s. below). 3. πιθανός `trustworthy, reliable, believable, obedient' (IA.) with πιθαν-ότης, - όω (Pl., Arist.). 4. πί-συνος `relying on somebody or something' (mostly ep. poet. Il.), prob. after θάρσυνος (Schwyzer 491, Wyss - συνη 13ff.). -- B. From present: 1. Πειθώ f. `(goddess of) persuasion, conviction, obedience' (Hes.), from there Boeot. aor. ἐπί-θωσε, - σαν (IIIa)?; Bechtel Dial. 1, 308 w. lit. 2. πειθός `(easily) pesuading, persuasive' (Ep. Cor.). 3. πειθήμων `obedient, persuasive' (late epic). -- C. From present resp. σ-aor. (younger): 1. πεῖσα f. `obedient' ( ἐν πείσῃ υ 23), like δόξα?; Chantraine Form. 100 a. 435, Schwyzer 516. 2. - πειστος as 2. member εὔ-, δυσανά-, ἀμετά-πειστος a.o. (Att.) opposed to older ἄπιστος. 3. πειστ-ικός `fit for persuasion, convincing' (Pl., Arist.), - ήριος `id.' (E.). 4. πεῖσ-μα n. `conviction, confidence' (Plu., Arr., S. E.), - μονή f. `id.' (Ep. Gal., pap.). 5. πεῖσις ( παρά-, κατά- πείθομαι) f. `conviction etc.' (Plot., Hdn., sch.); cf. older πίστις and Fraenkel Glotta 32, 27 w. lit. 6. πειστήρ m. `someone who obeys' (Suid.) 7. Πειστίχη f. surn. of Aphrodite (Delos; on the χ-suffix Chantraine Form. 404). -- D. From perfect: πεποίθ-ησις f. `trust' (LXX, Phld.), - ίαν ἐλπίδα, προσδοκίαν H.; cf. Scheller Oxytonierung 40.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [117] * bʰidʰ- `convince, trust'
    Etymology: With πείθω agrees formally exactly the Lat. themat. root-present fīdō, - ere, IE * bheidh-ō; semant. agrees however the Lat. verb with middle πείθομαι (cf. confīsus sum). Formal identity we find also with the Germ. verb for `wait' in Goth. beidan, OHG bītan etc.; the semantic cleft ('wait (for)' from `trust' or `conform, restrain' ?) is however not yet bridged. The causative too Goth. baidjan `compel', OHG beitten etc. `urge, demand' is semantically divergent; after Specht KZ 66, 205 ff. an agreeing. Gr. *ποιθέω (to which the reduplicated aor. πεπιθεῖν) would have been replaced by act. πείθω. -- The Greek system including the nominal forms is quite explainable from itself; the various adduced nouns, esp. from Lat., like fīdus (formally = the innovated πειθός), fĭdēs, foedus (not to εὑ-πειθής or to πεῖσα), to which perh. also Alb. bē f. `oath' and OCS běda `need' (IE * bhoidhā), do not help understand the Greek forms. Quite doubtful is the connection of πιστός with Alb. besë f. `belief, treaty, faithfulness', appar. from * bhidh-tā f. (= *πιστη; Hamp KZ 77, 252f.); besë rather innovation (Jokl in W.-Hofmann). -- Further forms w. rich lit. in WP. 2, 139f., 185, Pok. 117, W.-Hofmann s. fīdō. Details on form and meaning of πείθομαι and derivv. in S. Schulz Die Wurzel πειθ- ( πιθ-) im älteren Griechischen. Diss. Bern 1952.
    Page in Frisk: 2,487-488

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > πείθομαι

  • 9 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 10 ἵστωρ

    Grammatical information: m.
    Meaning: "the one who knows", `knowing, expert' (h. Hom. 32, 2, Heraklit., B., S.), `witness' (Hp., Boeot. inschr., Att. ephebe oath in Poll. 8, 106), in unclear meaning Σ 501, Ψ 486 (`witness' or `arbiter'?), also Hes. Op. 702.
    Other forms: - ορος m., Boeot. Ϝίστωρ
    Compounds: Wit prefix: συν-ίστωρ `witness, conscious' (: σύν-οιδα; trag., Th., Plb.) with συνιστορέω `be sonscious of an affair' (hell.); ἐπι-ίστωρ `know sthing, familiar with' (φ 26, A. R., AP a. o.), ὑπερ-ίσ-τωρ `know all too well' (S. El. 850 [lyr.], momentary formation); ἀ-ΐστωρ `unknowing' (Pl. Lg. 845b, E. Andr. 682), πολυ-ΐστωρ `polyhistor' (D. H., Str.), φιλ-ίστωρ `who loves knowing' with φιλιστορέω (Str., Vett. Val.).
    Derivatives: ἱστόριον `testimony' (Hp.), ἱστορία (s. below). Denomin. verb ἱστορέω, also with prefix, e. g. ἀν-, ἐξ-, `be witness, expert, give testimony, recount, get testimony, find out, search' (Ion., trag., Arist., hell.) with ἱστόρημα `account' (D. H.); usu. ἱστορία, - ίη, formally from ἵστωρ, but functionally associated with ἱστορέω, `knowledge, account, (historical) account, history, search(ing), investigation' (Ion., Att., hell.). Adjective ἱστορικός `regarding the ἱστορία, ἱστορεῖν, historical' (Pl., Arist., hell.; cf. Chantraine Études sur le vocab. gr. 134-136).
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [1125] * ueid- `know'
    Etymology: From *Ϝίδ-τωρ, agent noun of οἶδα, ἴσμεν. The word and esp. the derivations ἱστορέω, ἱστορίη, arosen in Ionic, have spread with the Ionische science and rationalism over the hellenic and hellenistic world. The aspiration must be unoriginal; explan. in Schwyzer 226 and 306. - On the history of ἵστωρ, ἱστορέω, ἱστορίη E. Kretschmer Glotta 18, 93f., Fraenkel Nom. ag. 1, 218f., Snell Die Ausdrücke für die Begriffe des Wissens 59ff., K. Keuck Historia. Geschichte des Wortes und seiner Bedeutungen in der Antike und in den roman. Sprachen. Diss. Münster 1934, Frenkian REIE 1, 468ff., Leumann Hom. Wörter 277f., Muller Mnemos. 54, 235ff., Louis Rev. de phil. 81, 39ff.
    Page in Frisk: 1,740-741

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > ἵστωρ

  • 11 λέχεται

    λέχεται κοιμᾶται H.
    Grammatical information: v.
    Meaning: `lie down, fall asleep'.
    Other forms: perf. ptc. λελο[γ]χυῖα λεχὼ γενομένη H. (also Antim. in PMilan. 17 II 10), καλέχες κατάκεισο. Πάφιοι H. (Schwyzer-Debrunner 473 n. 5), with ep. aorist- and future forms: λέκτο, λέξο, - λέχθαι, - λέγμενος (\< *λεχσ-το, - σο, - σθαι, - μενος? Schwyzer 751; after Chantraine Gramm. hom. 1, 296 rather athem. present), λέξασθαι, λέξομαι, also with παρα-, κατα-, προσ-, `lie, lie down'; act. aor. λέξον, ἔλεξα (Il.)
    Derivatives: 1. λέχος n. `lair, bed', esp. `nuptial bed', also `death-bed' (Il.; after ἕδος? Porzig Satzinhalte 263); as 1. member in λεχε-ποίης `having grass as bed' (Il.; Bechtel Lex. s. v.; on the 2. member Fraenkel Nom. ag. 2, 141), as 2. member e. g. ὀρει-λεχής `having his lair in the mountains' (Emp.); with λεχαῖος `belonging to the lair' (A. Th. 292 [conj.], A. R.), λεχήρης `bed-ridden' (E. in lyr.), λεχώ f. `one who has just given birth' (E., Ar., Cyrene), also λεκχώ (Delphi; expressive gemination, Schwyzer 478 n. 3 and Fraenkel Glotta 32, 18), with λεχώϊος `belonging to...', λεχωϊς = λεχώ (- ίς lengthening, Schwyzer 465; A. R., Call.). - 2. λόχος m. `child-birth', usu. `ambush, band (in ambush)', milit. `armed band' (Il.), often as 2. member, e. g. ἄ-λοχος f. `lairfellow, spouse' (Il.; Clark ClassPhil. 35, 188ff.), as 1. member e. g. in λοχ-ᾱγός `leader of a λόχος' (Dor.; S., Th., X.; Chantraine Études 90). Several derivv: λόχιος `belonging to birth' (E., Ar.), ἡ Λοχία surn. of Artemis (E., inscr.), τὰ λόχια `discharge after child-birth' (Hp., Arist.); λοχεῖος (E. in lyr., Plu.), λοχαῖος (Arat., AP) `id.'; λοχίτης m. `belonging to one and the same λ., war-fellow' (A., S., X.; Redard 42); λοχώ (- ώς, - ός) = λεχώ (LXX, Dsc.). Transformation λοχεός `ambuch' (Hes. Th. 178; after φωλεός a. o.); λοχή = λόχμη (late epigr.). Denomin. verbs: a. λοχάω, - ομαι `lie in ambush' (ep. ion., hell.; after κοιμάω, - ομαι Risch ̨ 112b; s. also Leumann Hom. Wörter 185 ff. [and Risch Gnomon 23, 370]; hardly iterative-intensive to λέχεται with Schwyzer 718); with λόχησις, - ητικός (late). b. λοχεύω, - ομαι `give birth, deliver', pass. `be delivered, be born' (h. Merc., Trag. etc.) with λόχευμα ` birth, the born' (A., E.), λοχεία `giving birth, birth' (Pl., E.), λοχεύτρια f. `who has just given birth' (sch.). c. λοχίζω `lie in ambush, distribute men in companies' (Hdt., Th.) with λοχισμός `putting ambushes' (Plu.). - 3. λέκτρον, often pl. -α `lair, (nuptial)bed' (Il.); compp. e. g. κοινό-λεκτρος `having a common lair, uptial, bedfellow' (A.); λεκτρίτῃ θρόνῳ ἀνάκλισιν ἔχοντι H.; cf. Redard 113. - 4. λόχμη f. `lair of wild beasts, copse, bush' (τ 439, Arist. ; after κώμη?, Porzig Satzinhalte 289; cf. also *κοίμη in κοιμάω) with λοχμαῖος `living in the bush' (Ar. in lyr.), - ιος `id.' (A P), - ώδης `grown with bush etc.' (Th., Thphr.), λοχμάζω `form a copse' (Pisand. Ep.). - On the whole word group, which in Ionic -Attic was very limited and specialized (instead κεῖμαι, ( κατα)-κλίνομαι), s. also Ruijgh L'élém. ach. 153f.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [658] * legʰ- lie'
    Etymology: With the primary thematic present λέχεται agrees exactly Goth. ligan `lie', which (like sitan `sit') is suspected as innovation for the further in Germ. dominating and also in Slavic (OCS ležǫ) found yotpresent (Brugmann Grundr.2 II: 3, 190 a. 192); after Specht KZ 62, 45 f. the verb was originally limited to the aorist. A primary present, orig. prob. also yotpresent, is also found in Celtic, MIr. laigid `lies down' (with a from e as in saidid `sits'; Thurneysen KZ 59, 9 f.). Italic too has once known this verb, as appears from Falisc. lecet `iacet' (formation?), s. Porzig Indogermanica 176. - Also to the Greek verbal nouns the other languages give many comparable forms: OWNo. lag n. `Lage, position', pl. lǫg `law', Russ. lóg `valley, cleft', Scr. lŏg `lying', Pol. od-ɫog `fallow field' (\> Lith. at-lagaĩ `id.'; cf. Porzig Satzinhalte 311f.), Alb. lagje `band, group', all from IE * logho- (formally = λόχος); OCS lože ' κλίνη, κοίτη'; OHG lehtar `uterus' = λέκτρον; in Slav., e. g. OCS ložes-no, pl. -na ' μήτρα, uterus' prob. the s-stem in λέχος. With ἄ-λοχος cf. Serb.-Csl. su-logъ ' σύγ-κοιτος, spouse' (Russ.-Csl. su-ložь). Toch. B leke, A lake `lair'. - More forms in WP. 2, 424f., Pok. 658f., W.-Hofmann s. lectus, Ernout-Meillet s. lectus, Vasmer Wb. s. ležátь, lóže, ljágu.
    Page in Frisk: 2,110-112

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > λέχεται

  • 12 μεγαίρω

    Grammatical information: v.
    Meaning: `grudge, envy', mostly with negation; privative verbal adj. ἀ-μέγαρ-τος `not enviable, unpleasant, unhappy' (Il.). After sch. on Ν 563 and Eust. from Salamis (cf. Ruijgh L'élém. ach. 162).
    Other forms: aor. μεγῆραι
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [708] * megh₂- `great'
    Etymology: Formation like ἐχθαίρω, γεραίρω a. o. (Schwyzer 725) and except for the yot-derivation formally identical with Arm. mecarem `esteem highly' (from mec `great', s. μέγας). First from an r-stem *μέγαρ `greatness', *μεγαρός `great'; so original meaning `hold smth. for smb. as (too) big' (cf. Brugmann Grundr. 22: 1, 365)? Here Μέγαιρα f. name of one of the Erinyes, prop. euphemistically "the exalted" (cf. Εὑμενίδες), as γέραιρα, γεραρός? Further s. μέγας.
    Page in Frisk: 2,188-189

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > μεγαίρω

  • 13 ὁράω

    Grammatical information: v.
    Meaning: `to look, to perceive, to contemplate, to see' (Il.).
    Other forms: Ion. also ὀρέω (Hdt.), and besides ὅρηαι (ξ 343), ὁρητο (A 56 a. 198 after Zenodot, accent uncertain), ὀρῃ̃ς, -ῃ̃, - ῆν (Hp., Democr., Herod.), Aeol. ὄρημι (Sapph.), ὄρη (Theoc.); ipf. ἑώρων (Att.), ep. 3. sg. ὅρα, Ion. ὥρα (Hdt.) etc.; pres. also ὄρονται (ξ 104) with - ντο (γ 471), ὅρει φυλάσσει H.; innovated perf. act. ἑόρακα (Att., also ἑώρ-), Ion. ὀρώρηκα a. ὤρηκα (Herod.), Dor. ptc. ὡρακυῖα (Epid.), midd. ἑώραμαι (late Att.), aor. pass. ὁραθῆναι (Arist., D.S.), plqu. also ὀρώρει (Ψ 112).
    Compounds: Very often w. prefix, e.g. ἐφ- ( ἐπ-), καθ- ( κατ-), παρ-, προ-, συν-, ὑπερ-.
    Derivatives: Few derivv., almost all hell. and late, as opposed to the older ones which derive from primary ὀπ- (s. ὄπωπα) and ἰδεῖν: 1. ὁρᾶ-τός `visible' (Hp., Pl.), προ-ορατός `who can be foreseen' (X. Cyr. 1, 6,23) as against πρό-οπτος ( προὖπ-τος) `foreseen, apparent' (IA.); 2. ὅραμα n. `sight, spectacle, apparition' (X., Arist., LXX), παρ- ὁράω (hell. a. late), m. ὁραματίζομαι (Aq.) against ὄμμα, εἶδος (s.vv.); 3. ὅρασις f., also with προ-, παρ-, ὑπερ- a.o., `sight, face, look, apparition', pl. also `eyes' (Demad., Arist., Men.) against ὄψις; ὑφόρα-σις `suspicion' (Plb.) for older ὑποψ-ία; 4. ὁρατής m. `viewer' (LXX, Plu.) against ὀπτήρ `scout'; ὁρατήρ H. as explanation of ὀπτήρ; 5. ὁρατικός `able to see, provided with sight' (Arist., Ph.), ἐφ- ὁράω `fit for oversight' (X.): ἐποπτ-ικός `belonging to ἐπόπτης' (Pl.). 6. ὁρατίζω `to catch sight of, to aim for' (medic. IVp). 7. οὖρος m. `watcher', ἐπίουρος s. v.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [1164] *u̯er- `observe, note'
    Etymology: From the ipf. ἑώρων (\< *ἠ-Ϝόρων; w. asp. after ὁρῶ) and the pf. ἑόρακα (\< *Ϝε-Ϝόρακα; ἑώρ- after the ipf.) we conclude to an orig. Ϝ-, which however neither in Homer nor epigraphically has left a trace, and also in Myc. oromeno is absent; whether the asper hangs together with the older Ϝ-, remains uncertain (Schwyzer 22 6 f. w. lit.). -- The above presentforms, from which come all non-present forms including the verbal nouns, seem to require three diff. stems: 1. Ϝορᾶ- in ὁρά-ω, from which perh. purely phonetically Ion. ὀρέω (Schwyzer 242); 2. Ϝορη- in Aeol. ὄρημι, ὄρη, ep. ὅρηαι a.o. (s. above); 3. Ϝορ- in ὄρονται, - ντο, ὅρει. Orig. *Ϝορᾶ-ι̯ω can be either an iterative-intensive deverbative of the type ποτάομαι (s. Schwyzer 718 f.), with which the meaning fits well, or be explained as denominative from *Ϝορά̄ f., which is found in φρουρά from *προ-hορά (\< *προ-Ϝορά) and in German., e.g. OHG wara f. `attentiveness', wara neman ' wahrnehmen': IE *u̯orā́ f., beside which Toch. A war, B were `flavour', IE *u̯oro-s m. Difficult to judge however is (Ϝ)όρη-μι etc. It looks like a disyllabic athemat. formation, and ὀρῃ̃ς, -ῃ̃, - ῆν can have been tranformed from this by thematization (Schwyzer 680). One may compare Lat. verē-ri `observe scrupulously, venerate', though with ablauting stemvowel. Weakest attested is the primary monosyll. (orig. athematic?; Chantraine Gramm. hom. 1, 311) ὄρονται, - ντο (to which also ὅρει in H.?); it regards moreover the same formulaic expression: ἐπὶ δ' ἀνέρες ἐσθλοὶ ὄρονται (- ντο), thus in plqu. ἐπὶ δ' ἀνηρ ἐσθλὸς ὀρώρει. Here too the o-vowel is remarkable, though analogous cases can be found like ὄθομαι, οἴχομαι a.o. (Schwyzer 721, Chantraine l.c.). To the primry verb belong both *προ-Ϝορ-ά in φρουρά (s. above and s.v.) and the form which occurs only in compounds as 2. member, - (Ϝ)ορ-ός, `guardian', e.g. θυρ-, τιμ-ωρός, κηπουρός from θυρα-, τιμα-, κηπο-Ϝορ-ός; it agrees formally (but not functionally) with Germ., e.g. OS war `attentive, cautious', OHG giwar `id., gewahr'. The other word belonging to this group from diff. languages, e.g. Latv. veruôs, vērtiês `inspect, observe', Toch. A wär, B wär-sk- `smell', Hitt. u̯erite- `fear', give nothing for Greek. -- Further forms w. lit. in WP. 1, 284f., Pok. 1164, W.-Hofmann s. vereor. On the suppletive system ὁράω: ὄψομαι: εἶδον: ἑόρακα Gonda Lingua 9, 178 ff., Bloch Suppl. Verba 91 ff. ; on the expressions for `see, eye' in Greek Prévot Rev. de phil. 61, 133ff., 233ff. -- S. also 2. οὖρος, ὤρα.
    Page in Frisk: 2,409-410

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > ὁράω

  • 14 παχύς

    Grammatical information: adj.
    Meaning: `thick, fat, well-fed, dense, stout' (Il.; on the use in Hom. Treu Von Hom. zur Lyr. 47 ff.).
    Compounds: Some compp., e.g. παχυ-μερής `consisting of thick parts, gross, massive' (Ti. Locr., Arist.); ὑπέρ-παχυς `too fat' (Hp.).
    Derivatives: 1. Copar.forms: πάσσων, only acc. - ονα (Od.), πάχ-ιστος (Il., Call.), - ίων (Arat.), - ύτερος, - ύτατος (IA.); Seiler Steigerungsformen 40 f. 2. πάχετος (rather with the Hp.mss. - ετός) = παχύς (θ 187, ψ 191, Hp.); also as subst.n. (Nic., Opp.; also ψ 191 possible), for *πάχεθος after μέγεθος? (Benveniste Origines 199); cf. Schwyzer 512, Chantraine Form. 300, Seiler 75. 3. πάχητες πλούσιοι, παχεῖς H. (after πένητες); Πάχης, - ητος m. as PN (Th.; Schwyzer 499). 4. παχυλῶς `in large draughts' (Arist.). 5. πάχος n. `thickness, strength, force' (since ι 324). 6. παχύτης (- υτής? Wackernagel Phil. 95, 177) f. `thickness'. 7. παχύνω, sporad. w. ἐπι-, ἐκ-, συν-, ὑπερ-, `to fatten, to batten' (IA.) with πάχυν-σις f. `thickening', - τικός `fattening, making fat' (medic.), - υσμός m. (Hp.), - υσμα n. (Aët.). 8. Aor. παχῶσαι `to fatten' (medic., Herm. 33, 343).
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [127] *bʰn̥ǵʰ- `dende, thick'
    Etymology: With παχύς, if from *φαχύς (s. πῆχυς), agrees formally exact Skt. bahú- `much, richly, great, extensive'; from the full grade comp. báṃhīyān (for which with second. zero grade πάσσων) the IE base form appears as *bhn̥ǵh-; from there perh. also Hitt. panku- `together, united, general'. Semant. agrees perfectly Lat. pinguis `fatt', which differs in anlaut; perh. for * finguis through cross with the old word for `fatt' in πιμελή, πίων (s. vv.); diff. ( pinguis "early Italic") Haas, s. Leumann Glotta 42, 75. One compares further Latv. bìezs `dense, thick' and Germ., e.g. OWNo. bingr m. `heap, room (for corn etc.)'; uncertain Toch. B pkante (- atte) `size'. -- On parallel innovation rests the comparison Skt. bahu-lá- `dense, thick, extensive' = παχυ-λῶς (s. above). -- Details w. rich lit. in WP. 2, 151, Pok. 127 f., W.-Hofmann s. pinguis, Mayrhofer s. bahúḥ, bahuláḥ.
    Page in Frisk: 2,484-485

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > παχύς

  • 15 Lesseps, Ferdinand de

    SUBJECT AREA: Canals
    [br]
    b. 19 November 1805 Versailles, France
    d. 7 December 1894 La Chesnaye, near Paris, France
    [br]
    French diplomat and canal entrepreneur.
    [br]
    Ferdinand de Lesseps was born into a family in the diplomatic service and it was intended that his should be his career also. He was educated at the Lycée Napoléon in Paris. In 1825, aged 20, he was appointed an attaché to the French consulate in Lisbon. In 1828 he went to the Consulate-General in Tunis and in 1831 was posted from there to Egypt, becoming French Consul in Cairo two years later. For his work there during the plague in 1836 he was awarded the Croix de Chevalier in the Légion d'honneur. During this time he became very friendly with Said Mohammed and the friendship was maintained over the years, although there were no expectations then that Said would occupy any great position of authority.
    De Lesseps then served in other countries. In 1841 he had thought about a canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, and he brooded over the idea until 1854. In October of that year, having retired from the diplomatic service, he returned to Egypt privately. His friend Said became Viceroy and he readily agreed to the proposal to cut the canal. At first there was great international opposition to the idea, and in 1855 de Lesseps travelled to England to try to raise capital. Work finally started in 1859, but there were further delays following the death of Said Pasha in 1863. The work was completed in 1869 and the canal was formally opened by the Empress Eugenic on 20 November 1869. De Lesseps was fêted in France and awarded the Grand Croix de la Légion d'honneur.
    He subsequently promoted the project of the Corinth Canal, but his great ambition in his later years was to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. This idea had been conceived by Spanish adventurers in 1514, but everyone felt the problems and cost would be too great. De Lesseps, riding high in popularity and with his charismatic character, convinced the public of the scheme's feasibility and was able to raise vast sums for the enterprise. He proposed a sea-level canal, which required the excavation of a 350 ft (107 m) cut through terrain; this eventually proved impossible, but work nevertheless started in 1881.
    In 1882 de Lesseps became first President d'-Honneur of the Syndicat des Entrepreneurs de Travaux Publics de France and was elected to the Chair of the French Academy in 1884. By 1891 the Panama Canal was in a disastrous financial crisis: a new company was formed, and because of the vast sums expended a financial investigation was made. The report led to de Lesseps, his son and several high-ranking government ministers and officials being charged with bribery and corruption, but de Lesseps was a very sick man and never appeared at the trial. He was never convicted, although others were, and he died soon after, at the age of 89, at his home.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Croix de Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur 1836; Grand Croix 1869.
    Further Reading
    John S.Pudney, 1968, Suez. De Lesseps' Canal, London: Dent.
    John Marlowe, 1964, The Making of the Suez Canal, London: Cresset.
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > Lesseps, Ferdinand de

  • 16 طلب

    طَلَبَ \ apply: to ask, esp. in writing: He applied (to me) for permission. ask: to express a question or desire: I asked (him) his name. Ask her why she came. He asked (me) for help. demand: to ask boldly, as if one were giving an order: He demanded to see the headmaster. "Why wasn’t I told?" he demanded. invite: to ask for: Your opinion was not invited. order: to ask for (sth.) to be brought or sent or obtained: We ordered breakfast for 8.00. There was no wire in the shop so I had to order some. request: to ask or ask for: I requested him to wait. He requested my help. seek (sought): old use (still used formally with a few nouns such as advice, shelter or one’s fortune) look for. want: to need: These plants want water (or watering). He is wanted by the police. wish: to express a special desire (often secretly, hoping for a magic result): Be quiet while I wish. I wished for a son. \ See Also سأل (سَأَلَ)، نشد (نَشَدَ)، التمس (اِلْتَمَسَ)‏ \ طَلَبَ إلى \ have: to cause (sth.) to be done: I had these shoes specially made for me. Please have breakfast ready by 7 o’clock. \ طَلَبَ إليه العَوْدَة \ recall: to call (sb.) back (after sending him somewhere). \ طَلَبَ البَركة من الله \ bless: to pray for God’s favour to: The priest blessed us at our marriage. \ طَلَبَ ثمنًا باهظًا \ overcharge: to charge (sb.) too much money. \ طَلَبَ العَفْوَ \ apologize: to say that one is sorry for a fault: He apologized to me for his mistake. \ طَلَبَ المشورة مِن \ consult: to ask advice of or obtain facts from: consult the doctor; consult a book. \ طَلَبَ من شَخْص \ call on: to ask sb. to do sth.: I called on my neighbours to help. \ طَلَبَ يَد \ propose: offer marriage: I shall propose to her tomorrow.

    Arabic-English dictionary > طلب

  • 17 وجبة

    وَجْبَة \ batch: a set of people or things dealt with or taken as a group: The first batch of loaves baked too hard. I’ve just corrected several batches of exam papers. feed: (of animals) food; a meal: cattle feed; two feeds a day. \ وَجْبَة طَعَام \ meal: an amount of food that is eaten formally at regular times; eating this food: Dinner is the main meal of the day. \ وَجْبَة طَعَام خفيفة \ snack: a small hurried meal. \ وَجْبَة الطعام الرئيسيّة في النَّهار \ dinner: the main meal of the day, whenever it is eaten, but usually in the evening. \ وَجْبَة العَشَاء \ supper: a light meal in the evening. \ وَجْبَة الغَدَاء \ lunch: a midday meal.

    Arabic-English dictionary > وجبة

  • 18 Schemata

       Once we have accepted a configuration of schemata, the schemata themselves provide a richness that goes far beyond our observations.... In fact, once we have determined that a particular schema accounts for some event, we may not be able to determine which aspects of our beliefs are based on direct sensory information and which are merely consequences of our interpretation. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 38)
       Through most of its history, the notion of the schema has been rejected by mainstream experimental psychologists as being too vague. As a result, the concept of the schema was largely shunned until the mid-1970s. The concept was then revived by an attempt to offer more clearly specified interpretation of the schema in terms of explicitly specified computer implementations or, similarly, formally specified implementations of the concept. Thus, Minsky (1975) postulated the concept of the frame, Schank and Abelson (1977) focused on the concept of the script, and Bobrow and Norman (1975) and Rumelhart (1975) developed an explicit notion of the schema. Although the details differed in each case, the idea was essentially the same.... Minsky and the others argued that some higher-level "suprasentential" or, more simply, conceptual structure is needed to represent the complex relations implicit in our knowledge base. The basic idea is that schemata are data structures for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata for generalized concepts underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions. Roughly, schemata are like models of the outside world. To process information with the use of a schema is to determine which model best fits the incoming information. Ultimately, consistent configurations of schemata are discovered which, in concert, offer the best account for the input. This configuration of schemata together constitutes the interpretation of the input. (Rumelhart, Smolensky, McClelland & Hinton, 1986, pp. 17-18)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Schemata

См. также в других словарях:

  • formally — adverb a) In a formal manner. He dressed quite formally too formally for the occasion. b) In accordance with official procedure. He formally filed a complaint, which involved much paperwork …   Wiktionary

  • On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems — This article describes the publication details of a famous paper in mathematical logic. For information about the theorems proved in this paper, see Gödel s incompleteness theorems. Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und… …   Wikipedia

  • One Corpse Too Many —   …   Wikipedia

  • overdressed — adj. dandified; dressed flamboyantly; dressed too formally for an occasionv. dandify too much; dress flamboyantly; dress too formally for an occasion …   English contemporary dictionary

  • Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages — The following is a list of common non native pronunciations English speakers make when trying to speak foreign languages. Much of it is due to transfer of phonological rules from English to the new language as well as differences in grammar and… …   Wikipedia

  • overdress — [ō΄vər dres′, ō′vər dres΄] vt., vi. to dress too warmly, too showily, or too formally for the occasion …   English World dictionary

  • overdress — o ver*dress , v. t. To dress or adorn to excess; to dress too much; to dress too formally for an informal occasion. Pope. [1913 Webster +PJC] …   The Collaborative International Dictionary of English

  • Halfbakery — The halfbakery is a community based ideas bank used by people who wish to propose and develop (not always serious) half baked inventions. Among many similar such sites (e.g., [http://www.worthidea.com WorthIdea] , ShouldExist,… …   Wikipedia

  • overdress — v. dandify too much; dress flamboyantly; dress too formally for an occasion …   English contemporary dictionary

  • overdresses — v. dandify too much; dress flamboyantly; dress too formally for an occasion …   English contemporary dictionary

  • overdressing — v. dandify too much; dress flamboyantly; dress too formally for an occasion …   English contemporary dictionary

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»