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1 grammar
'ɡræmə1) (the rules for forming words and for combining words to form sentences: He's an expert on French grammar.) grammatikk2) (a description or collection of the rules of grammar: Could you lend me your Latin grammar?; ( also adjective) a grammar book.) grammatikk(bok)3) (a person's use of grammatical rules: This essay is full of bad grammar.) språkbruk•- grammatically
- grammar schoolgrammatikksubst. \/ˈɡræmə\/1) grammatikk2) språkvitenskap3) språkbruk4) grunnleggende kunnskap5) grammatikkbokbad grammar dårlig språkbrukbe grammar ( hverdagslig) være korrekt, være grammatisk riktig• is that grammar? -
2 Grammar
I think that the failure to offer a precise account of the notion "grammar" is not just a superficial defect in linguistic theory that can be remedied by adding one more definition. It seems to me that until this notion is clarified, no part of linguistic theory can achieve anything like a satisfactory development.... I have been discussing a grammar of a particular language here as analogous to a particular scientific theory, dealing with its subject matter (the set of sentences of this language) much as embryology or physics deals with its subject matter. (Chomsky, 1964, p. 213)Obviously, every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. This is not to say that he is aware of the rules of grammar or even that he can become aware of them, or that his statements about his intuitive knowledge of his language are necessarily accurate. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 8)Much effort has been devoted to showing that the class of possible transformations can be substantially reduced without loss of descriptive power through the discovery of quite general conditions that all such rules and the representations they operate on and form must meet.... [The] transformational rules, at least for a substantial core grammar, can be reduced to the single rule, "Move alpha" (that is, "move any category anywhere"). (Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 21)4) The Relationship of Transformational Grammar to Semantics and to Human Performancehe implications of assuming a semantic memory for what we might call "generative psycholinguistics" are: that dichotomous judgments of semantic well-formedness versus anomaly are not essential or inherent to language performance; that the transformational component of a grammar is the part most relevant to performance models; that a generative grammar's role should be viewed as restricted to language production, whereas sentence understanding should be treated as a problem of extracting a cognitive representation of a text's message; that until some theoretical notion of cognitive representation is incorporated into linguistic conceptions, they are unlikely to provide either powerful language-processing programs or psychologically relevant theories.Although these implications conflict with the way others have viewed the relationship of transformational grammars to semantics and to human performance, they do not eliminate the importance of such grammars to psychologists, an importance stressed in, and indeed largely created by, the work of Chomsky. It is precisely because of a growing interdependence between such linguistic theory and psychological performance models that their relationship needs to be clarified. (Quillian, 1968, p. 260)here are some terminological distinctions that are crucial to explain, or else confusions can easily arise. In the formal study of grammar, a language is defined as a set of sentences, possibly infinite, where each sentence is a string of symbols or words. One can think of each sentence as having several representations linked together: one for its sound pattern, one for its meaning, one for the string of words constituting it, possibly others for other data structures such as the "surface structure" and "deep structure" that are held to mediate the mapping between sound and meaning. Because no finite system can store an infinite number of sentences, and because humans in particular are clearly not pullstring dolls that emit sentences from a finite stored list, one must explain human language abilities by imputing to them a grammar, which in the technical sense is a finite rule system, or programme, or circuit design, capable of generating and recognizing the sentences of a particular language. This "mental grammar" or "psychogrammar" is the neural system that allows us to speak and understand the possible word sequences of our native tongue. A grammar for a specific language is obviously acquired by a human during childhood, but there must be neural circuitry that actually carries out the acquisition process in the child, and this circuitry may be called the language faculty or language acquisition device. An important part of the language faculty is universal grammar, an implementation of a set of principles or constraints that govern the possible form of any human grammar. (Pinker, 1996, p. 263)A grammar of language L is essentially a theory of L. Any scientific theory is based on a finite number of observations, and it seeks to relate the observed phenomena and to predict new phenomena by constructing general laws in terms of hypothetical constructs.... Similarly a grammar of English is based on a finite corpus of utterances (observations), and it will contain certain grammatical rules (laws) stated in terms of the particular phonemes, phrases, etc., of English (hypothetical constructs). These rules express structural relations among the sentences of the corpus and the infinite number of sentences generated by the grammar beyond the corpus (predictions). (Chomsky, 1957, p. 49)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Grammar
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3 study
N1. अध्ययनA study of grammar is important for everyone.--------V1. अध्ययन करनाI study in class Xth. -
4 all
all [ɔ:l]━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━1. adjective2. pronoun3. adverb4. noun5. compounds━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━1. adjective• all the others tous (or toutes) les autres━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► Articles or pronouns often need to be added in French.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━• all three accused were found guilty of fraud les accusés ont tous (les) trois été reconnus coupables de fraude2. pronouna. ( = everything) tout• he's seen it all, done it all il a tout vu, tout fait• it all happened so quickly tout s'est passé si vite► all that (subject of relative clause) tout ce qui• you can have all that's left tu peux prendre tout ce qui reste► all (that) (object of relative clause) tout ce que ; (after verb taking "de") tout ce dont• all I want is to sleep tout ce que je veux, c'est dormir• all I remember is... tout ce dont je me souviens, c'est...• the girls all knew that... les filles savaient toutes que...• the peaches? I've eaten them all! les pêches ? je les ai toutes mangées !• education should be open to all who want it l'éducation devrait être accessible à tous ceux qui veulent en bénéficier► superlative + of all• best of all, the reforms will cost nothing et surtout, ces réformes ne coûteront rien• I love his short stories, I've read all of them j'aime beaucoup ses nouvelles, je les ai toutes lues► all of + number ( = at least)• exploring the village took all of ten minutes ( = only) la visite du village a bien dû prendre dix minutes3. adverba. ( = entirely) tout━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━► When used with a feminine adjective starting with a consonant, tout agrees.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━• she left her daughters all alone in the flat elle a laissé ses filles toutes seules dans l'appartementb. (in scores) the score was two all (tennis, squash) les joueurs étaient à deux jeux (or sets) partout ; (other sports) le score était de deux à deux• what's the score? -- two all quel est le score ? -- deux partout or deux à deux4. noun• all along the road tout le long de la route► all but ( = nearly) presque ; ( = all except) tous sauf• we thought, all in all, it wasn't a bad idea nous avons pensé que, l'un dans l'autre, ce n'était pas une mauvaise idée► all one• it's all over! c'est fini !• this was all the more surprising since... c'était d'autant plus surprenant que...• all the more so since... d'autant plus que...► all the better! tant mieux !► all too• that's all very well but... c'est bien beau mais...• the dog ate the sausage, mustard and all le chien a mangé la saucisse avec la moutarde et tout (inf)• what with the snow and all, we didn't go avec la neige et tout le reste, nous n'y sommes pas allés► as all that• it's not as important as all that ce n'est pas si important que ça► for all... ( = despite) malgré• for all its beauty, the city... malgré sa beauté, la ville...• for all that malgré tout► for all I know...• for all I know he could be right il a peut-être raison, je n'en sais rien• for all I know, they're still living together autant que je sache, ils vivent encore ensemble► if... at all• they won't attempt it, if they have any sense at all ils ne vont pas essayer s'ils ont un peu de bon sens• the little grammar they learn, if they study grammar at all le peu de grammaire qu'ils apprennent, si tant est qu'il étudient la grammaire► no... at all• have you any comments? -- none at all! vous avez des commentaires à faire ? -- absolument aucun !► not... at all ( = not in the least) pas... du tout• are you disappointed? -- not at all! vous êtes déçu ? -- pas du tout• thank you! -- not at all! merci ! -- de rien !► not all that ( = not so)6. compounds• all clear! ( = you can go through) la voie est libre ; ( = the alert is over) l'alerte est passée• to give sb the all clear ( = authorize) donner le feu vert à qn ; (doctor to patient) dire à qn que tout va bien ► all-embracing adjective global• to go all out for monetary union jeter toutes ses forces dans la bataille pour l'union monétaire ► all-out strike noun grève f générale• to be a good all-rounder être bon en tout ► all-seater stadium noun (British) stade n'ayant que des places assises• all-weather court (Tennis) (terrain m en) quick m ► all-year-round adjective [resort] ouvert toute l'année* * *[ɔːl] 1.1) ( everything) toutall will be revealed — hum vous saurez tout hum
that's all — ( all contexts) c'est tout
2) ( the only thing) toutthat's all we need! — iron il ne manquait plus que ça!
3) ( everyone) tousthank you, one and all — merci à (vous) tous
‘all welcome’ — ‘venez nombreux’
4) ( the whole amount)5) ( emphasizing entirety)2.what's it all for? — ( all contexts) à quoi ça sert (tout ça)?
1) ( each one of) tous/toutes2) ( the whole of) tout/toute3) ( total)4) ( any)3.1) (emphatic: completely) toutit's all about... — c'est l'histoire de...
2) (emphatic: nothing but)to be all smiles — ( happy) être tout souriant; ( two-faced) être tout sourire
3) Sport4. 5.all+ combining form ( completely)all-digital/-electronic — entièrement numérique/électronique
6.all-female/-male — [group] composé uniquement de femmes/d'hommes
all along adverbial phrase [know etc] depuis le début, toujours7.all but adverbial phrase pratiquement, presque8.all of adverbial phrase9.all that adverbial phrase10.all the adverbial phrase11.all the more — [difficult, effective] d'autant plus (before adj)
all too adverbial phrase [accurate, easy, widespread, often] bien trop12.and all adverbial phrase1)2) (colloq) GB13.at all adverbial phrasenot at all! — ( acknowledging thanks) de rien!; ( answering query) pas du tout!
14.is it at all likely that...? — y a-t-il la moindre possibilité que...? (+ subj)
for all prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase1) ( despite)for all that — malgré tout, quand même
2) ( as regards)15.of all prepositional phrase1) ( in rank)first/last of all — pour commencer/finir
2) ( emphatic)••he's not all there — (colloq) il n'a pas toute sa tête
it's all go (colloq) here! — GB on s'active (colloq) ici!
that's all very well —
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5 comparative
comparative [kəm'pærətɪv](a) (relative) relatif;∎ the comparative wealth of the two countries la fortune relative des deux pays;∎ she's a comparative stranger to me je la connais relativement peu2 nounGrammar comparatif m;∎ in the comparative au comparatif►► comparative adverb adverbe m de comparaison ou comparatif;American comparative advertising publicité f comparative;Grammar the comparative degree le comparatif;comparative history histoire f comparée;comparative law droit m comparé;comparative linguistics linguistique f comparée;comparative literature littérature f comparéeUn panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > comparative
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6 Bibliography
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Dennett (Eds.), The mind's I (pp. 353-373). New York: Basic Books.■ Searle, J. R. (1983). Intentionality. New York: Cambridge University Press.■ Serres, M. (1982). The origin of language: Biology, information theory, and thermodynamics. M. Anderson (Trans.). In J. V. Harari & D. F. Bell (Eds.), Hermes: Literature, science, philosophy (pp. 71-83). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.■ Simon, H. A. (1966). Scientific discovery and the psychology of problem solving. In R. G. Colodny (Ed.), Mind and cosmos: Essays in contemporary science and philosophy (pp. 22-40). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.■ Simon, H. A. (1979). Models of thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.■ Simon, H. A. (1989). The scientist as a problem solver. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert Simon. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Simon, H. A., & C. Kaplan (1989). Foundations of cognitive science. In M. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 1-47). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Simonton, D. K. (1988). Creativity, leadership and chance. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Knopf.■ Smith, E. E. (1988). Concepts and thought. In J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 19-49). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Smith, E. E. (1990). Thinking: Introduction. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Thinking. An invitation to cognitive science. (Vol. 3, pp. 1-2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Socrates. (1958). Meno. In E. H. Warmington & P. O. Rouse (Eds.), Great dialogues of Plato W.H.D. Rouse (Trans.). New York: New American Library. (Original publication date unknown.)■ Solso, R. L. (1974). Theories of retrieval. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology. Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Spencer, H. (1896). The principles of psychology. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.■ Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. New York: Oxford University Press.■ Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg, Thinking and problem solving. San Diego: Academic Press.■ Sternberg, R. J., & J. E. Davidson (1985). Cognitive development in gifted and talented. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented (pp. 103-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.■ Storr, A. (1993). The dynamics of creation. New York: Ballantine Books. (Originally published in 1972.)■ Stumpf, S. E. (1994). Philosophy: History and problems (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.■ Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Random House/Vintage Books.■ Thorndike, E. L. (1906). Principles of teaching. New York: A. G. Seiler.■ Thorndike, E. L. (1970). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Darien, CT: Hafner Publishing Co. (Originally published in 1911.)■ Titchener, E. B. (1910). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.■ Titchener, E. B. (1914). A primer of psychology. New York: Macmillan.■ Toulmin, S. (1957). The philosophy of science. London: Hutchinson.■ Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organisation of memory. London: Academic Press.■ Turing, A. (1946). In B. E. Carpenter & R. W. Doran (Eds.), ACE reports of 1946 and other papers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Turkle, S. (1984). Computers and the second self: Computers and the human spirit. New York: Simon & Schuster.■ Tyler, S. A. (1978). The said and the unsaid: Mind, meaning, and culture. New York: Academic Press.■ van Heijenoort (Ed.) (1967). From Frege to Goedel. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.■ Varela, F. J. (1984). The creative circle: Sketches on the natural history of circularity. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality (pp. 309-324). New York: W. W. Norton.■ Voltaire (1961). On the Penseґs of M. Pascal. In Philosophical letters (pp. 119-146). E. Dilworth (Trans.). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.■ Wagman, M. (1991a). Artificial intelligence and human cognition: A theoretical inter comparison of two realms of intellect. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1991b). Cognitive science and concepts of mind: Toward a general theory of human and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1993). Cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence: Theory and re search in cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1995). The sciences of cognition: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1996). Human intellect and cognitive science: Toward a general unified theory of intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1997a). Cognitive science and the symbolic operations of human and artificial intelligence: Theory and research into the intellective processes. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1997b). The general unified theory of intelligence: Central conceptions and specific application to domains of cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998a). Cognitive science and the mind- body problem: From philosophy to psychology to artificial intelligence to imaging of the brain. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998b). Language and thought in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology, artificial intelligence, and neural science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998c). The ultimate objectives of artificial intelligence: Theoretical and research foundations, philosophical and psychological implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1999). The human mind according to artificial intelligence: Theory, re search, and implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (2000). Scientific discovery processes in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wall, R. (1972). Introduction to mathematical linguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.■ Wallas, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.■ Wason, P. (1977). Self contradictions. In P. Johnson-Laird & P. Wason (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Wason, P. C., & P. N. Johnson-Laird. (1972). Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.■ Watson, J. (1930). Behaviorism. New York: W. W. Norton.■ Watzlawick, P. (1984). Epilogue. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984.■ Weinberg, S. (1977). The first three minutes: A modern view of the origin of the uni verse. New York: Basic Books.■ Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity: Genius and other myths. New York: W. H. Freeman.■ Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason: From judgment to cal culation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.■ Wertheimer, M. (1945). Productive thinking. New York: Harper & Bros.■ Whitehead, A. N. (1925). Science and the modern world. New York: Macmillan.■ Whorf, B. L. (1956). In J. B. Carroll (Ed.), Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Whyte, L. L. (1962). The unconscious before Freud. New York: Anchor Books.■ Wiener, N. (1954). The human use of human beings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.■ Wiener, N. (1964). God & Golem, Inc.: A comment on certain points where cybernetics impinges on religion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Winograd, T. (1972). Understanding natural language. New York: Academic Press.■ Winston, P. H. (1987). Artificial intelligence: A perspective. In E. L. Grimson & R. S. Patil (Eds.), AI in the 1980s and beyond (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Winston, P. H. (Ed.) (1975). The psychology of computer vision. New York: McGrawHill.■ Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.■ Wittgenstein, L. (1958). The blue and brown books. New York: Harper Colophon.■ Woods, W. A. (1975). What's in a link: Foundations for semantic networks. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representations and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 35-84). New York: Academic Press.■ Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Holt; London: Methuen (1939).■ Wundt, W. (1904). Principles of physiological psychology (Vol. 1). E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.■ Wundt, W. (1907). Lectures on human and animal psychology. J. E. Creighton & E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.■ Young, J. Z. (1978). Programs of the brain. New York: Oxford University Press.■ Ziman, J. (1978). Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
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7 comprehensive
- sivadjective (including many things: The school curriculum is very comprehensive.) completo, extensotr[kɒmprɪ'hensɪv]1 (thorough) detallado,-a, global, completo,-a; (broad) amplio,-a, extenso,-a\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLcomprehensive school instituto de enseñanza secundaria (para alumnos de cualquier nivel académico)comprehensive insurance seguro a todo riesgocomprehensive [.kɑmprɪ'hɛntsɪv] adj1) inclusive: inclusivo, exhaustivo2) broad: extenso, amplioadj.• amplio, -a adj.• completo, -a adj.• comprensivo, -a adj.• de conjunto adj.• exhaustivo, -a adj.• extenso, -a adj.• global adj.• integral adj.n.( relativo a l sistema educativo en el cual no se separa a los educando s según su nivel de aptitud) s.m.• \@ (UK)
I 'kɑːmprɪ'hensɪv, ˌkɒmprɪ'hensɪva) <survey/report> exhaustivo, global; < view> integral, de conjunto; <list/range> completo; <insurance/cover> contra todo riesgob) ( Educ) ( in UK) relativo al sistema educativo en el cual no se separa a los alumnos según su nivel de aptitud
II comprehensive (school)
[ˌkɒmprɪ'hensɪv]1. ADJ1) (=complete) [list, guide, range] completo; [report, description, study] exhaustivo; [account, view] de conjunto, integral; [knowledge] extenso; [training] completo, exhaustivo; [victory, defeat] aplastante2) (Brit)(Scol)comprehensive education — sistema de enseñanza secundaria que abarca a alumnos de todos los niveles de aptitud
comprehensive school — instituto m (de segunda enseñanza)
3) (Insurance) (also: fully comprehensive) [insurance, policy, cover] a todo riesgo2.N (also: comprehensive school) instituto m (de segunda enseñanza)3.CPDCOMPREHENSIVE SCHOOLS La mayoría de las escuelas de educación secundaria en el Reino Unido se conocen como comprehensive schools y ofrecen una gran variedad de asignaturas para cubrir las necesidades educativas de alumnos con diferentes aptitudes. Fueron creadas en los años sesenta en un intento de fomentar la igualdad de oportunidades y acabar con la división tradicional entre los centros selectivos de enseñanzas teóricas ( grammar schools) y otros de enseñanza básicamente profesional ( secondary modern schools).comprehensive insurance policy N — seguro m a todo riesgo
See:see cultural note GRAMMAR SCHOOL in grammar* * *
I ['kɑːmprɪ'hensɪv, ˌkɒmprɪ'hensɪv]a) <survey/report> exhaustivo, global; < view> integral, de conjunto; <list/range> completo; <insurance/cover> contra todo riesgob) ( Educ) ( in UK) relativo al sistema educativo en el cual no se separa a los alumnos según su nivel de aptitud
II comprehensive (school)
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8 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
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9 проходить I
, пройти
1. pass;
~ мимо pass by;
~ через pass through;
он прошёл незаметно he passed by unobserved;
пройти по мосту cross a bridge;
посетители прошли в кабинет the visitors went/passed into the study;
дорога проходит около деревни the road passes close to the village;
2. (вн.;
какое-л. расстояние) cover( smth.), do* (smth.) ;
(о транспорте тж.) travel( smth.) ;
мы прошли двадцать километров не останавливаясь we did twenty kilometers without stopping;
за час поезд прошёл только 50 километров the train travelled only fifty kilometers in an hour;
3. (вн.;
миновать, оставлять позади себя) pass (smth.), pass through( smth.) ;
(по ошибке) miss (smth.) ;
заговорившись, пройти поворот дороги miss one`s turning while talking;
4. (распространяться - о слухах и т. п.) go* round, get* around;
по деревне прошёл слух, что... а rumour went round the village that...;
5. (продвигаться через что-л.) go* through;
шкаф не пройдёт в дверь the wardrobe won`t go through the door;
6. (просачиваться) go* through, seep through;
7. ( вн., через вн., подвергаться чему-л.) go* through, endure( smth.), experience( smth.) ;
~ через тяжёлые испытания go* through an ordeal;
8. (о времени) pass, slip away, elapse;
много лет прошло с тех пор years have elapsed since then;
дни проходят незаметно the days slip by;
как время быстро проходит! how time does fly!;
9. (заканчиваться с каким-л. результатом) go* off;
доклад прошёл удачно the lecture was a success, the lecture went off well;
концерт прошёл хорошо the concert was а success;
10. (вн.;
завершать какой-л. курс) take* (smth.), do* (smth.) ;
~ практику do* one`s practical training;
пройти курс лечения undergo*/take* а course of treatment;
11. (прекращаться) stop;
(о боли) pass off, go* off;
дождь прошёл it has stopped raining;
головная боль у него прошла his headache has passed off;
12. (быть утверждённым) pass, be* adopted, be* approved;
резолюция прошла the resolution has been passed/adopted;
проект прошёл the design has been accepted;
13. разг. (быть принятым, избранным) be* accepted;
его кандидатура прошла his candidature has been accepted/approved;
14. (вн.) разг. (изучать) go* through (smth.), study (smth.) ;
~ теоретическую грамматику study theoretical grammar;
это не пройдёт that won`t do/work.Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > проходить I
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10 subject
1. noun1) (citizen) Staatsbürger, der/-bürgerin, die; (in relation to monarch) Untertan, der/Untertanin, die2) (topic) Thema, das; (department of study) Fach, das; (area of knowledge) Fach[gebiet], das; (Art) Motiv, das; (Mus.) Thema, dason the subject of money — über das Thema Geld [reden usw.]; beim Thema Geld [sein, bleiben]
3)be a subject for something — (cause something) zu etwas Anlass geben
4) (Ling., Logic, Philos.) Subjekt, das2. adjective1) (conditional)be subject to something — von etwas abhängig sein od. abhängen
2) (prone)be subject to — anfällig sein für [Krankheit]; neigen zu [Melancholie]
3) (dependent) abhängig3. adverb 4. transitive verbsubject to — (dependent on) untertan (+ Dat.) [König usw.]; unterworfen (+ Dat.) [Verfassung, Gesetz, Krone]; untergeben (+ Dat.) [Dienstherrn]
1) (subjugate, make submissive) unterwerfen (to Dat.)2) (expose)subject somebody/something to something — jemanden/etwas einer Sache (Dat.) aussetzen
* * *1. adjective 2. noun1) (a person who is under the rule of a monarch or a member of a country that has a monarchy etc: We are loyal subjects of the Queen; He is a British subject.) der/die Untertan(in)2) (someone or something that is talked about, written about etc: We discussed the price of food and similar subjects; What was the subject of the debate?; The teacher tried to think of a good subject for their essay; I've said all I can on that subject.) der Gegenstad3) (a branch of study or learning in school, university etc: He is taking exams in seven subjects; Mathematics is his best subject.) das Fach4) (a thing, person or circumstance suitable for, or requiring, a particular kind of treatment, reaction etc: I don't think her behaviour is a subject for laughter.) der Gegenstand5) (in English, the word(s) representing the person or thing that usually does the action shown by the verb, and with which the verb agrees: The cat sat on the mat; He hit her because she broke his toy; He was hit by the ball.) das Subjekt3. [səb'‹ekt] verb1) (to bring (a person, country etc) under control: They have subjected all the neighbouring states (to their rule).) unterwerfen2) (to cause to suffer, or submit (to something): He was subjected to cruel treatment; These tyres are subjected to various tests before leaving the factory.) aussetzen•- academic.ru/71616/subjection">subjection- subjective
- subjectively
- subject matter
- change the subject
- subject to* * *sub·jectI. n[ˈsʌbʤɪkt, -ʤekt]▪ on the \subject of sb/sth über jdn/etwwhile we're on the \subject wo wir gerade beim Thema sindthe planes have been the \subject of their concern die Flugzeuge waren Gegenstand ihrer Befürchtungenthe guest lecturer took as her \subject ‘imprisonment in modern society’ die Gastsprecherin hatte ‚die Freiheitsstrafe in der modernen Gesellschaft‘ zu ihrem Thema gewählt\subject of debate [or discussion] Diskussionsthema ntthe plan has been the \subject of debate recently über den Plan wurde vor Kurzem diskutiertto change the \subject das Thema wechselnto wander off the \subject vom Thema abschweifen3. (field) Fach nt; (at school) [Schul]fach nt; (specific research area) Spezialgebiet nt, Fachgebiet nthe's better at arts \subjects than science in den künstlerischen Fächern ist er besser als in den naturwissenschaftlichenher \subject is low-temperature physics sie hat sich auf Kältephysik spezialisiertII. adj[ˈsʌbʤɪkt]these flights are \subject to delay bei diesen Flügen muss mit Verspätung gerechnet werdenthe goods are \subject to a 20% discount die Waren sind um 20 % herabgesetztto be \subject to colds sich akk leicht erkältento be \subject to many dangers vielen Gefahren ausgesetzt seinto be \subject to depression zu Depressionen neigento be \subject to a high rate of tax einer hohen Steuer unterliegen3. (contingent on)to be \subject to approval genehmigungspflichtig sein\subject to payment vorbehaltlich einer Zahlung, unter dem Vorbehalt einer ZahlungIII. adv[ˈsʌbʤɪkt]▪ \subject to wennwe plan to go on Wednesday \subject to your approval wir haben vor, am Mittwoch zu gehen, wenn du nichts dagegen hast\subject to your consent vorbehaltlich Ihrer ZustimmungIV. vt[səbˈʤekt]1. (subjugate)▪ to be \subjected to sb/sth jdm/etw ausgesetzt [o unterworfen] seineveryone interviewed had been \subjected to unfair treatment alle Interviewten waren unfair behandelt wordento \subject sb/sth to criticism jdn/etw kritisierento \subject sb to a lie-detector test jdn einem Lügendetektortest unterziehento \subject sb to torture jdn foltern* * *['sʌbdZɪkt]1. nthe subject of the picture is... — das Thema or Sujet (geh)
he paints urban subjects — er malt städtische Motive
on the subject of... — zum Thema (+gen)...
while we're on the subject — da wir gerade beim Thema sind
while we're on the subject of mushrooms — wo wir gerade von Pilzen reden, apropos Pilze
that's off the subject — das gehört nicht zum Thema
6) (= object) Gegenstand m (of +gen in experiment, = person) Versuchsperson f, Versuchsobjekt nt; (= animal) Versuchstier nt, Versuchsobjekt nt; (ESP MED, for treatment) Typ mhe is the subject of much criticism — er wird stark kritisiert, er ist Gegenstand häufiger Kritik
he's a good subject for treatment by hypnosis — er lässt sich gut hypnotisch behandeln
2. adj1) (= conquered) unterworfen2)provinces subject to foreign rule — Provinzen pl unter Fremdherrschaft
to be subject to sth (to law, constant change, sb's will) — einer Sache (dat) unterworfen sein; to illness für etw anfällig sein; to consent, approval von etw abhängig sein
northbound trains are subject to delays — bei Zügen in Richtung Norden muss mit Verspätung gerechnet werden
prices/opening times are subject to change or alteration without notice — Preisänderungen/Änderungen der Öffnungszeiten sind vorbehalten
all these plans are subject to last minute changes — all diese Pläne können in letzter Minute noch geändert werden
all offers are subject to availability — alle Angebote nur so weit verfügbar
subject to confirmation in writing — vorausgesetzt, es wird schriftlich bestätigt
3. vt[səb'dZekt]1) (= subjugate) unterwerfen; terrorists, guerrillas zerschlagen2)to subject sb to sth (to questioning, analysis, treatment) — jdn einer Sache (dat) unterziehen; to test also jdn einer Sache (dat) unterwerfen; to torture, suffering, heat, ridicule, criticism jdn einer Sache (dat) aussetzen
to subject sb to criticism — jdn unter Kritik nehmen, jdn kritisieren
4. vr[səb'dZekt]to subject oneself to sth (to insults, suffering) — etw hinnehmen; (to criticism, ridicule) sich einer Sache (dat) aussetzen; (to examination, test, questioning) sich einer Sache (dat) unterziehen
* * *subject [ˈsʌbdʒıkt]A s1. (Gesprächs- etc) Gegenstand m, Thema n, Stoff m:a subject for debate ein Diskussionsthema;change the subject das Thema wechseln, von etwas anderem reden;don’t change the subject lenk nicht ab!;a) über (akk), bezüglich (gen),2. SCHULE, UNIV (Lehr-, Schul-, Studien)Fach n, Fachgebiet n:cooking has never been her subject Kochen war noch nie ihr Fachfor complaint zur Beschwerde)4. Gegenstand m, Objekt n:the subject of ridicule der Gegenstand des Spottes5. MUS Thema n (einer Fuge)6. KUNST Vorwurf m, Thema n, Sujet n7. a) Untertan(in)b) Staatsbürger(in), -angehörige(r) m/f(m):he is a British subject er hat oder besitzt die britische Staatsangehörigkeit8. LING Subjekt n, Satzgegenstand m9. MED etca) (Versuchs)Objekt nb) Versuchsperson f oder -tier nc) Leichnam m (für Sektionszwecke)d) Patient(in)12. PHILa) Substanz fb) Subjekt n, Ich n:subject and object Subjekt und Objekt, Ich und Nicht-IchB adj1. untertan, untergeben ( beide:to dat)2. abhängig (to von) (Staat etc)3. ausgesetzt (to dat):be subject to the approval of (erst noch) genehmigt werden müssen von;“subject to change” „Änderungen vorbehalten“;“subject to change without notice” WIRTSCH „freibleibend“;subject to consent vorbehaltlich Ihrer Zustimmung;subject to duty zollpflichtig;subject to the laws of nature den Naturgesetzen unterworfen;“subject to prior sale” WIRTSCH „Zwischenverkauf vorbehalten“5. anfällig (to für):he’s subject to headaches er neigt zu KopfschmerzenC v/t [səbˈdʒekt]to dat):subject sb to a test jemanden einer Prüfung unterziehen;subject o.s. to ridicule sich dem Gespött aussetzen* * *1. noun1) (citizen) Staatsbürger, der/-bürgerin, die; (in relation to monarch) Untertan, der/Untertanin, die2) (topic) Thema, das; (department of study) Fach, das; (area of knowledge) Fach[gebiet], das; (Art) Motiv, das; (Mus.) Thema, dason the subject of money — über das Thema Geld [reden usw.]; beim Thema Geld [sein, bleiben]
3)be a subject for something — (cause something) zu etwas Anlass geben
4) (Ling., Logic, Philos.) Subjekt, das2. adjective1) (conditional)be subject to something — von etwas abhängig sein od. abhängen
2) (prone)be subject to — anfällig sein für [Krankheit]; neigen zu [Melancholie]
3) (dependent) abhängig3. adverb 4. transitive verbsubject to — (dependent on) untertan (+ Dat.) [König usw.]; unterworfen (+ Dat.) [Verfassung, Gesetz, Krone]; untergeben (+ Dat.) [Dienstherrn]
1) (subjugate, make submissive) unterwerfen (to Dat.)2) (expose)subject somebody/something to something — jemanden/etwas einer Sache (Dat.) aussetzen
* * *(grammar) n.Satzgegenstand f. (one who is submitted to a higher authority) n.Untertan -en m. (school) n.Schulfach n. n.Fach ¨-er n.Fragenkomplex m.Gegenstand m.Lehrfach -¨er n.Subjekt -e n.Thema Themen n. v.unterwerfen v. -
11 examen
examen sustantivo masculino◊ examen de admisión entrance examination o test;examen parcial modular exam o test; hacer or (CS) dar un examen to take an exam; presentarse a un examen to take o (BrE) sit an exam; examen de ingreso entrance examination o test examen médico medical examination, medical
examen sustantivo masculino examination, exam
examen de conducir, LAm examen de manejar, driving test Med examen médico, checkup ➣ Ver nota en nota
¿Qué se puede hacer con un examen?
• poner un examen, to set an exam • presentarse a un examen, to sit an exam • hacer un examen, to do an exam • aprobar un examen, to pass an exam • suspender un examen, to fail an exam
' examen' also found in these entries: Spanish: ambas - ambos - blanca - blanco - bobada - calificar - copiar - dejar - detallada - detallado - ejercicio - escrutinio - fácil - floja - flojo - hacer - lengua - N. P. - oposición - opositor - opositora - parcial - pasar - presentarse - prueba - punto - superar - suspender - temario - vigilar - víspera - acordeón - admisión - bochar - comprobación - corregir - dar - difícil - eliminatorio - escrito - evaluación - fregado - ingreso - ir - machacar - matar - observación - perder - pobre - poner English: breeze - catch out - cheat - crib - driving test - ease - entrance examination - exam - examination - fail - flub - flunk - flying - frown - get through - giveaway - grammar school - heart-searching - mark - medical - miserably - miss - mock - oral - paper - pass - qualifying - resit - review - sail through - score - scrape through - script - scrutiny - set - sit - soul-searching - stand - stand up - stiff - study - take - test - tough - check - debar - discourage - driving - first - grammar -
12 voice
[vois] 1. noun1) (the sounds from the mouth made in speaking or singing: He has a very deep voice; He spoke in a quiet/loud/angry/kind voice.) glas2) (the voice regarded as the means of expressing opinion: The voice of the people should not be ignored; the voice of reason/conscience.) glas2. verb1) (to express (feelings etc): He voiced the discontent of the whole group.) izraziti2) (to produce the sound of (especially a consonant) with a vibration of the vocal cords as well as with the breath: `Th' should be voiced in `this' but not in `think'.) izgovoriti•- voiced- voiceless
- voice mail
- be in good voice
- lose one's voice
- raise one's voice* * *I [vɔis]nounglas (politics & figuratively; tudi človeški); ton, zvok; izraz; grammar način; sposobnost ali moč govora; mnenje, odločitev; phonetics zven; music petje (kot stroka); obsolete govorica; sloveswith one voice — enoglasno, enodušno, kot edenat the top of one's voice — na ves glas, na vse grloactive, passive voice grammar tvorni, trpni način (glagola)the voice of God — glas vesti, vestto give one's voice for — izjaviti se za, glasovati zato lift up one's voice — povzdigniti svoj glas, spregovoriti, javiti seto lose one's voice — izgubiti glas (zaradi prehlada itd.)to raise one's voice — povzdigniti svoj glas, govoriti glasnejeII [vɔis]transitive verbizgovoriti, izreči, izraziti z besedami, formulirati; music uglasiti, regulirati (orgle); linguistics zveneče izgovarjati -
13 comprehensive *** com·pre·hen·sive
[ˌkɒmprɪ'hɛnsɪv]1. adj(study) esauriente, (knowledge) esteso (-a), (description) dettagliato (-a), (report, review) completo (-a), esauriente, (measures) di vasta portatacomprehensive insurance policy Auto — polizza f casco inv, polizza f multi-rischio inv
2. n Brit(also: comprehensive school) scuola secondaria dagli 11 ai 18 anni, aperta a tuttiSee:FALSE FRIEND: comprehensive is not translated by the Italian word comprensivo Cultural note: COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL In Gran Bretagna le comprehensive schools sono scuole secondarie introdotte negli anni '60 per sostituire il sistema selettivo in base al quale gli alunni più dotati venivano indirizzati verso le "grammar schools" e i meno brillanti verso le "secondary modern schools". Alcune "grammar schools" esistono ancora, ma la stragrande maggioranza dei ragazzi frequenta le comprehensive schools.English-Italian dictionary > comprehensive *** com·pre·hen·sive
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14 case
Ⅰ.case1 [keɪs]cas ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (f)-(h) affaire ⇒ 1 (c), 1 (d) arguments ⇒ 1 (e) en tout cas ⇒ 2 au cas où ⇒ 3 en cas de ⇒ 41 noun(a) (instance, situation) cas m, exemple m;∎ it's a clear case of mismanagement c'est un exemple manifeste de mauvaise gestion;∎ it was a case of having to decide on the spur of the moment il fallait décider sur-le-champ;∎ we often hear of cases where companies go bankrupt nous entendons souvent parler de cas où des entreprises font faillite;∎ if it's a case of not having enough money si c'est une question d'argent;∎ to put the case clearly exposer clairement le cas ou la situation;∎ in the case of single mothers dans le cas des mères célibataires;∎ in that case dans ou en ce cas;∎ in these cases it's best to wait dans de telles circonstances, il vaut mieux attendre;∎ in this particular case en l'occurrence;∎ in which case auquel cas;∎ in your case en ce qui vous concerne, dans votre cas;∎ in Paul's case dans le cas de Paul;∎ in many/most cases dans beaucoup de/la plupart des cas;∎ in no case en aucun cas;∎ in some cases dans certains cas;∎ in the vast majority of cases dans la plupart des cas;∎ in nine cases out of ten neuf fois sur dix;∎ the current crisis is a case in point la crise actuelle est un exemple typique;∎ it's a case of now or never il s'agit de saisir l'occasion ou de faire vite;(b) (actual state of affairs) cas m;∎ can we assume that this is in fact the case? pouvons-nous considérer que c'est bien le cas?;∎ that is not the case in Great Britain ce ou tel n'est pas le cas en Grande-Bretagne;∎ as is often/usually the case comme c'est souvent/ordinairement le cas;∎ as the case or whatever the case may be selon le cas;∎ if such is indeed the case si tel est ou si c'est vraiment le cas(c) (investigation) affaire f;∎ it was one of Inspector Dupont's most difficult cases ce fut une des affaires les plus difficiles de l'inspecteur Dupont;∎ a murder/fraud case une affaire de meurtre/fraude;∎ the case continues affaire à suivre;∎ the case is closed c'est une affaire classée;∎ familiar to be on sb's case être sur le dos de qn;∎ familiar get off my case! fiche-moi la paix!;∎ a civil rights case une affaire de droits civils;∎ her case comes up next week son procès a lieu la semaine prochaine;∎ to try a case juger une affaire;∎ he won his case for slander (barrister) il a gagné le procès en diffamation; (plaintiff) il a gagné son procès ou il a eu gain de cause dans son procès en diffamation(e) (argument) arguments mpl;∎ there is no case against him aucune preuve n'a pu être retenue contre lui;∎ the case against/for the defendant les arguments contre/en faveur de l'accusé;∎ there is a good case against/for establishing quotas il y a beaucoup à dire contre/en faveur de l'établissement de quotas;∎ the union has a good case le syndicat a de bons arguments ou de bonnes raisons;∎ state your case présentez vos arguments;∎ there is a case to be answered here il ne faut pas négliger cette question;∎ to make (out) a case for sth présenter des arguments pour ou en faveur de qch∎ there have been several cases of meningitis recently il y a eu plusieurs cas de méningite récemment;∎ the hospital could only take the most serious cases l'hôpital ne pouvait s'occuper que des cas les plus graves;∎ all burns cases are treated here tous les grands brûlés sont traités ici∎ he's a real case! c'est un cas ou un phénomène!;∎ he's a sad case c'est vraiment un pauvre type∎ in any case I shan't be coming je ne viendrai pas en tout cas ou de toute façon;∎ in any case, that's not the point bref ou en tout cas, là n'est pas la question(b) (at least) du moins, en tout cas;∎ that's what I was told, or in any case was led to believe c'est ce qu'on m'a dit ou en tout cas ou ou du moins, ce qu'on m'a fait croire1 adverbau cas où;∎ I'll take my umbrella (just) in case je vais prendre mon parapluie au cas oùau cas où;∎ in case you think I'm bluffing au cas où tu croirais que je bluffe;∎ I kept a place for you, in case you were late je t'ai gardé une place, au cas où tu serais en retarden cas de;∎ in case of emergency/fire en cas d'urgence/d'incendie►► case conference étude f de cas (par un groupe de spécialistes);case grammar grammaire f des cas;case history antécédents mpl;case law jurisprudence f, droit m jurisprudentiel;case load (nombre m de) dossiers mpl à traiter;case notes dossier m;case study étude f de casⅡ.case21 noun(a) (container) caisse f, boîte f; (for bottles) caisse f; (for fruit, vegetables) cageot m; (chest) coffre m; (for jewellery) coffret m; (for necklace, watch) écrin m; (for camera, guitar, spectacles, cigarettes) étui m; (for pencils, geometry etc instruments) trousse f(b) (for display) vitrine f(d) Typography casse f(a) (put in box) mettre en boîte ou caisse∎ cased in ice couvert de glace∎ the robbers had thoroughly cased the joint les voleurs avaient bien examiné les lieux (avant de faire leur coup)►► case knife couteau m à gaine -
15 form
form [fɔ:m]forme ⇒ 1 (a)-(d), 1 (f)-(m), 1 (r), 1 (s) silhouette ⇒ 1 (b) formulaire ⇒ 1 (e) classe ⇒ 1 (n) former ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (b), 2 (e), 2 (f) façonner ⇒ 2 (a) se former ⇒ 2 (c), 3 (a), 3 (b) créer ⇒ 2 (d) composer ⇒ 2 (e)1 noun∎ in the form of a heart en forme de cœur;∎ her plan began to take form son projet a commencé à prendre tournure ou forme(b) (body, figure) forme f, silhouette f;∎ a slender form appeared at the door une silhouette élancée apparut à la porte;∎ the human form la forme humaine(c) (aspect, mode) forme f;∎ it's written in the form of a letter c'est écrit sous forme de lettre;∎ the Devil appeared in the form of a goat le diable apparut sous la forme d'une chèvre;∎ the same product in a new form le même produit présenté différemment;∎ what form should my questions take? comment devrais-je formuler mes questions?;∎ the interview took the form of an informal chat l'entrevue prit la forme d'une discussion informelle;∎ her anxiety showed itself in the form of anger son inquiétude se manifesta par de la colère(d) (kind, type) forme f, sorte f;∎ one form of cancer une forme de cancer;∎ we studied three different forms of government nous avons examiné trois systèmes de gouvernement ou trois régimes différents;∎ all forms of sugar le sucre sous toutes ses formes;∎ she sent some flowers as a form of thanks elle a envoyé des fleurs en guise de remerciements∎ to fill in or out a form remplir un formulaire;∎ printed form imprimé m(f) (condition) forme f, condition f;∎ in good form en pleine forme, en excellente condition;∎ John was British on or American in good form at lunch John était en forme ou plein d'entrain pendant le déjeuner;∎ British on or American in their current form they're unlikely to win étant donné leur forme actuelle ils ont peu de chances de gagner;∎ to study (the) form (in horse racing) examiner le tableau des performances des chevaux∎ form and content la forme et le fond;∎ his writing lacks form ce qu'il écrit n'est pas clair;∎ her ideas lack form ses idées sont confuses(h) (standard practice) forme f, règle f;∎ to do sth as a matter of form faire qch pour la forme;∎ what's the usual form in these cases? que fait-on d'habitude ou quelle est la marche à suivre dans ces cas-là?;∎ Law in due form en bonne et due forme∎ it's bad form cela ne se fait pas;∎ it's good form c'est de bon ton, cela se fait;∎ it is bad form to ask a lady her age ce n'est pas poli de demander son âge à une dame∎ form of address formule f de politesse;∎ the correct form of address for a senator la manière correcte de s'adresser à un sénateur;∎ it's only a form of speech ce n'est qu'une façon de parler;∎ the form of the marriage service les rites mpl du mariage∎ the masculine form la forme du masculin, le masculin∎ she's in the first/sixth form ≃ elle est en sixième/première∎ has he got form? est-ce qu'il a un casier judiciaire?(a) (shape) former, construire; (character, mind) former, façonner; (sentence) construire; Metallurgy former, façonner;∎ he formed the model out of or from clay il a sculpté ou façonné le modèle dans l'argile;∎ form the dough into a ball pétrissez la pâte en forme de boule;∎ she has trouble forming certain words elle a du mal à prononcer certains mots;∎ it was certainly a character-forming experience c'est sans aucun doute une expérience qui forme ou façonne le caractère(b) (take the shape of) former, faire;∎ the coastline forms a series of curves la côte forme une série de courbes;∎ the children formed a circle les enfants formèrent un cercle;∎ form a line please faites la queue s'il vous plaît;∎ the applicants formed a queue les candidats firent la queue∎ he's wary of forming friendships il hésite à nouer des amitiés;∎ to form an impression avoir une impression(d) (organize → association, club) créer, fonder; (→ committee, government) former; Commerce (→ company) fonder, créer;∎ they formed themselves into a committee ils se constituèrent en comité(e) (constitute) composer, former;∎ to form the basis of sth constituer la base de ou servir de base à qch;∎ to form (a) part of sth faire partie de qch;∎ the countries forming the alliance les pays qui constituent l'alliance∎ how to form the past tense comment former le passé composé(a) (materialize) se former, prendre forme;∎ doubts began to form in his mind des doutes commencèrent à prendre forme dans son esprit, il commença à avoir des doutes(b) (take shape) se former;∎ form into a line! alignez-vous!;∎ we formed into groups nous nous sommes mis en groupes, nous avons formé des groupes►► Linguistics form class catégorie f grammaticale;Computing form document document m canevas;Computing form feed avancement m du papier;form letter lettre f circulaire;British School form teacher, form tutor ≃ professeur m principal;Linguistics form word mot-outil m, mot m faisant fonction de désinenceBritish se mettre en ligne, s'aligner -
16 method
ˈmeθəd сущ.
1) а) метод, способ;
методика, прием, средство б) мн. методика (как направление научной деятельности) to apply, employ, use a method ≈ применять, использовать метод to adopt a method ≈ перенимать метод to give up, scrap a method ≈ переставать пользоваться( каким-л.) методом modern method ≈ современный метод obsolete method ≈ устаревший метод oral method ≈ устный метод a method for learning languages ≈ метод изучения иностранного языка There is a definite method in her manner of interrogation. ≈ В ее манере задавать вопросы есть определенный метод. antiquated method ≈ устаревший метод audiovisual method ≈ аудиовизуальный метод case method ≈ метод анализа( конкретных) ситуаций crude method ≈ неразработанный метод deductive method ≈ дедуктивный метод direct method ≈ прямой метод grammar-translation method ≈ грамматико-переводной метод изучения иностранного языка inductive method ≈ индуктивный метод infallible method ≈ надежный способ, проверенный способ refined method ≈ изощренный, тонкий метод rhythm method ≈ метод естественного цикла( метод контрацепции) scientific method ≈ научный метод Socratic method ≈ сократический метод (искусство добиться истины путем установления противоречий в суждении противника) sophisticated method ≈ изощренный, тонкий метод sound method ≈ логичный, правильный метод sure method ≈ надежный способ, проверенный способ teaching methods ≈ методика обучения unorthodox method ≈ оригинальный, нешаблонный метод up-to-date method ≈ современный метод Syn: fashion, manner, mode, procedure, way, means
2) а) система;
порядок, строй Syn: system б) бот.;
зоол. классификация метод, способ, система - comparative * сравнительный метод - a new * of cure новый способ лечения - the * of operation( горное) система эксплуатации - finite-difference * (математика) метод конечных разностей, конечно-разностный метод - his * is to compare different versions его метод состоит в сопоставлении разных вариантов - there are several *s of doing this существует несколько способов сделать это обыкн. pl методика (преподавания) - modern *s of language teaching современная методика преподавания языков - to evolve a new * разработать новую методику (the Method) (театроведение) система Станиславского - a Method actor актер, работающий по системе Станиславского система, порядок - a man of * человек любящий систему /порядок/;
методичный человек - to work without * работать бессистемно - he relies on * rather than luck он рассчитывает на систематический подход, а не на везение( редкое) классификация логичность, последовательность - there is * in his madness в его безумии есть система access ~ вчт. метод доступа accounting ~ метод бухгалтерского учета accounting ~ метод бухгалтерской отчетности accrual ~ вчт. кумулятивный метод actuarial ~ актуарный метод approximation ~ способ аппроксимации audio-visual ~ аудио-визуальный метод (учебный процесс, использующий озвученные проецируемые изображения для облегчения усвоения учебного материала) axiomatic ~ аксиоматический метод axiomatical ~ аксиоматический метод branch-and-bound ~ метод ветвей и границ building ~ вчт. метод стандартных блоков business ~ метод деловой деятельности case-study ~ метод анализа конкретных ситуаций checksum ~ вчт. метод контрольных сумм component ~ вчт. метод компонентов contribution ~ способ уплаты взносов cost ~ метод калькуляции critical path ~ метод критического пути cut-and-try ~ метод проб и ошибок deferral ~ порядок отсрочки deferral ~ способ отсрочки demon ~ вчт. метод-демон depreciation ~ метод начисления износа direct-access ~ вчт. прямой метод доступа distribution ~ способ распределения distribution ~ способ распространения dual simplex ~ двойственный симплексный метод equity ~ метод оценки собственного капитала finite-difference ~ метод конечных разностей finite-element ~ метод конечных элементов first-in-first-out ~ вчт. метод обслуживания в порядке поступления gradient ~ градиентный метод gradient projection ~ метод проекции градиента graduation ~ метод сглаживания graph ~ графический метод graphic analysis ~ графико-аналитический метод gross profit ~ метод валовой прибыли heuristic ~ эвристический метод hierarchical access ~ вчт. иерархический метод доступа highest average ~ стат. метод наибольшего среднего index ~ метод индексов inference ~ вчт. стратегия вывода interview ~ метод интервью inventory flow ~ метод управления потоком запасов iteration ~ итерационный метод last-in-first-out ~ вчт. метод обслуживания в обратном порядке least-square ~ метод наименьших квадратов least-squares ~ метод наименьших квадратов liability ~ метод дебиторского долга management ~ метод управления manufacturing ~ производственный метод manufacturing ~ технология производства marketing ~ метод сбыта продукции matrix ~ матричный метод maximum likelihood ~ метод максимального правдоподобия maximum-likelihood ~ метод максимального правдоподобия method бот., зоол. классификация ~ логичность ~ метод, способ;
прием ~ метод ~ pl методика (наука) ~ методика ~ порядок ~ система;
порядок ~ система ~ способ ~ of assessment метод оценки ~ of average метод средних ~ of bonus allocation метод распределения вознаграждения ~ of bonus allocation метод распределения добавочного дивиденда ~ of bonus allocation метод распределения премии ~ of calculation метод вычисления ~ of calculation метод калькуляции ~ of calculation метод расчета ~ of comparison способ сравнения ~ of computing interest метод расчета процентов ~ of dispatch способ отправки ~ of doing business метод предпринимательства ~ of integer forms метод целочисленных форм ~ of leading averages метод ведущих средних ~ of leading variables метод ведущих переменных ~ of linearization метод линеаризации ~ of maximum likelihood метод максимального правдоподобия ~ of measurement способ измерения ~ of payment метод платежа ~ of production метод производства ~ of recording метод учета ~ of recording система регистрации ~ of settlement метод урегулирования ~ of smoothing метод сглаживания ~ of solution метод решения ~ of successive approximations метод последовательных приближений ~ of trial and error метод проб и ошибок ~ of valuation метод определения стоимости network ~ сетевой метод nonquantitative ~s неколичественные методы nonsequential ~ непоследовательный метод numerical ~ численный метод numerical ~s численные методы one-factor-at-a-time ~ метод раздельного исследования факторов overriding a ~ вчт. переопределение метода past equity ~ метод чистой стоимости капитала в прошлом периоде percentage-of-completion ~ метод процента выполнения point ~ точечный метод point-estimation ~ метод точечных оценок prediction-correction ~ метод предиктор-корректор production ~ метод производства production ~ технология производства promotional ~ метод рекламно-пропагандистской деятельности ranking ~ метод упорядочения ranking ~ способ упорядочения ranking ~s методы упорядочения ray-casting ~ метод отслеживания лучей reducing balance ~ метод снижения баланса residual ~ метод остаточных чисел retail ~ метод розничной продажи sales ~ метод продажи sampling ~ выборочный метод sampling ~ stat. метод взятия выборок sampling ~ stat. метод выборочного контроля sampling ~ stat. метод выборочного обследования service output ~ метод оценки объема производства shortcut ~ ускоренный метод simplex ~ сиплексный метод simulation ~ метод моделирования snap-study ~ метод хронометрирования по отдельным отсчетам snapback ~ метод хронометрирования по отдельным отсчетам step-by-step ~ пошаговый метод stochastic approximation ~ метод стохастической аппроксимации targeting ~ метод контрольных показателей tax assessment ~ порядок налогообложения tax assessment ~ порядок установления налоговых ставок trial-and-error ~ метод проб и ошибок try-and-error ~ метод проб и ошибок unit-of-production ~ метод единицы измерения продукции valuation ~ метод оценки variation ~ вариационный метод variational ~ вариационный метод working ~ метод труда -
17 ground
I1. [graʋnd] n1. 1) земля, поверхность землиa narrow slip of ground - узкая полоска земли /суши/
on firm ground - на суше, на твёрдой земле [ср. тж. ♢ ]
to lie [to sit] on the ground - лежать [сидеть] на земле
to fall [to be thrown] to the ground - падать [быть (с)брошенным] на землю [ср. тж. ♢ ]
2) почва, земля, грунтfertile [barren, marshy /boggy/, sandy] ground - плодородная [бесплодная, болотистая, песчаная] почва
contaminated ground - радиоактивно заражённый грунт, радиоактивно заражённая местность
ground contamination - воен. заражение местности стойкими отравляющими или радиоактивными веществами
ground moistening - с.-х. грунтовое увлажнение
to till the ground - возделывать землю, пахать
to break ground - а) распахивать землю; б) раскапывать, разрывать; в) рыть котлован; г) делать первые шаги; подготавливать почву; [см. тж. 3)]
to break fresh ground - а) поднимать целину; б) предпринимать что-л. новое
3) дно моряto touch ground - коснуться дна [см. тж. 6]
to take the ground - мор. сесть на мель [ср. тж. ♢ ]
to break ground - поднимать якорь [см. тж. 2)]
4) горн. подошва выработки2. 1) участок земли2) pl сад, парк, участок земли вокруг дома3) площадка; спортивная площадка (тж. sports ground)4) полигон; аэродром; плац (тж. parade, drill или training ground)5) территория3. 1) местность, область, районlevel [flat, rising, rough /broken, bumpy/] ground - ровная [плоская, постепенно возвышающаяся, пересечённая /изрезанная/] местность
undulating ground - волнистая /холмистая/ местность
ground study - воен. изучение местности
2) высотаdominating ground - спец. господствующая высота
4. 1) фон; грунт, грунтовкаa design of flowers on a white ground - узор из цветов на белом поле /по белому полю/
ground coat - грунт, грунтовка; первый слой краски
2) офортный лак3) жив. планthe middle ground - второй /средний/ план
5. основание, причина, мотивto have (good) ground(s) for believing [saying, doing] smth., to have (good) ground(s) to believe [to say, to do] smth. - иметь (все) основания верить чему-л. [говорить, делать что-л.]
to have no ground for anxiety [complaint] - не иметь оснований беспокоиться [жаловаться]
to have no ground for suspicion [refusal] - не иметь причин /оснований/ для подозрений [отказа]
there are several grounds of suspicion against him - имеется несколько причин подозревать его
what is the ground of his complaint? - на каком основании он жалуется?
there are still grounds for hope - всё ещё можно надеяться; ≅ ещё не всё потеряно
on the ground of - а) по причине, на основании; б) под предлогом
on personal grounds - по личным мотивам /причинам/, из личных соображений
on what ground(s)? - на каком основании?, по какой причине?
on what grounds are you refusing? - на каком основании /почему/ вы отказываетесь?
to excuse oneself on the grounds of illness - отказаться делать что-л., ссылаясь на болезнь
I acted on good grounds - у меня были все основания действовать таким образом
grounds for divorce - юр. основания для развода
grounds for appeal - юр. основания для кассационной жалобы
6. предмет, тема (разговора, исследования, спора)debatable ground - спорная тема; предмет спора
common ground - вопрос, в котором спорящие стороны сходятся
delicate ground - щекотливая /деликатная/ тема; щекотливый /деликатный/ вопрос, щекотливая /деликатная/ ситуация
to cover much ground - охватывать /затрагивать/ много вопросов [ср. тж. ♢ ]
to go over the ground (again) - (снова) повторить /проверить/ (что-л.)
to touch ground - дойти до сути дела /до фактов/ [см. тж. 1, 3)]
7. pl1) осадок, гуща, подонки2) редк. остатки пищи8. уст.1) фундамент2) основной принцип3) pl зачатки, основы4) основная, основополагающая часть9. охот. нораto go /to run/ to ground - скрыться в норе ( о лисе)
10. эл. заземление; «земля»11. текст. основа12. муз. граунд, остинатный бас♢
above ground см. above-groundbelow ground - умерший, скончавшийся; в земле, в могиле
down to the ground - а) полностью, во всех отношениях; it suits me down to the ground - это устраивает меня во всех отношениях; б) полностью, окончательно; без остатка
from the ground up - а) амер. основательно, полностью, во всех отношениях; to study a case from the ground up - досконально изучить дело; б) с самого начала; с пустого места, с нуля
on one's own ground - а) в своей стихии; б) дома
to be on sure /firm/ ground, to be sure of one's ground - чувствовать твёрдую почву под ногами [ср. тж. 1, 1)]
to gain ground on smb. - побеждать кого-л.
to gain /to gather, to get/ ground - а) продвигаться вперёд; б) распространяться; в) делать успехи
to cover (much) ground - а) покрыть /пройти/ (большое) расстояние; б) (много) путешествовать; в) сделать большую часть (чего-л.); [ср. тж. 6]
to give ground - а) отступать, отходить; б) уступать, сдавать позиции
to lose ground - а) = to give ground; б) потерять прежнее положение, идти назад, регрессировать; в) становиться непопулярным
to take ground - воен. а) занимать местность; б) залечь; [ср. тж. 1, 3)]
to hold /to keep, to maintain, to stand/ one's ground - а) не сдавать позиций, не отступать; б) стоять на своём, не поддаваться уговорам
to shift /to change/ one's ground - переменить позицию в споре, изменить точку зрения в ходе дискуссии
to fall to the ground - рушиться; оказаться бесплодным /безрезультатным/ ( о планах) [ср. тж. 1, 1)]
to dash smb.'s hopes to the ground - разбить чьи-л. надежды
to cut the ground from under smb.'s feet - выбить почву из-под ног у кого-л.
to get off the ground - а) взлететь; подняться в воздух; оторваться от земли (о самолёте и т. п.); б) начать действовать; включиться в работу
to get smth. off the ground - успешно положить начало чему-л.; пустить в ход; двинуть; ≅ запустить на орбиту
to get the conference off the ground - сдвинуть конференцию с мёртвой точки
to fall on stony ground - библ. падать на бесплодную ночву
into the ground - до последней степени; перейдя все границы
caution is no doubt a virtue, but don't run it into the ground - осмотрительность, конечно, добродетель, но не надо так с ней перебарщивать
2. [graʋnd] a1. 1) наземныйground troops /forces/ - воен. наземные /сухопутные/ войска
ground operations - воен. наземные боевые действия
ground defence - воен. наземная (противовоздушная) оборона
ground reconnaissance - воен. наземная разведка
ground crew /staff/ - ав. а) наземный обслуживающий экипаж; б) жарг. нелётный состав
ground control - радио наземное управление, управление с земли
2) держащийся низко над землёйground fog - низкий /метеор. тж. приземный/ туман
2. аэродромныйground flare - ав. аэродромный сигнальный огонь
ground personnel - ав. аэродромный технический персонал
ground pilot - воен. разг. член аэродромной команды
3. [graʋnd] v1. 1) сесть на мель2) посадить на мель3) мор. заставить выброситься на берег или приткнуться к берегу2. ав.1) приземляться2) заставить приземлиться3) препятствовать отрыву от землиthe planes were grounded by the fog, the fog grounded the planes - из-за тумана самолёты не могли подняться в воздух
3. 1) класть, опускать на землюto ground arms - воен. складывать оружие, сдаваться
2) опускаться на землю4. основывать, обосновыватьto ground one's arguments on facts [on experience] - основывать свои доводы на фактах [на опыте]
to ground one's claims on facts - обосновывать /подкреплять/ свои требования /претензии/ фактами
the theory is well [ill] grounded - теория хорошо [плохо] обоснована
5. (in) обучать основам ( предмета)to ground smb. in mathematics [in Latin] - обучать кого-л. основам математики [латыни]
to be well grounded in grammar - хорошо знать основы /основные правила/ грамматики
6. эл. заземлять7. 1) спец. грунтовать2) мездрить ( кожу)8. стр. положить основание9. 1) отстранять от полётов ( пилота); отчислять из лётного состава2) лишать водительских прав; не разрешать ( подростку) водить автомобиль3) отчислять из флота4) не разрешать вылет; не разрешать старт (космического корабля и т. п.)II1. [graʋnd] a1. молотый, толчёный, измельчённыйground hay - измельчённое сено, сенная мука
2. матовый, матированный3. = ground-in2. [graʋnd] past и p. p. от grind II -
18 CSR
1) Общая лексика: central serous retinopathy, центральная серозная ретинопати, customer service representative, Социальная ответственность бизнеса ( СОБ)2) Биология: cortisol secretion rate3) Морской термин: Continuous Synopsis Record (журнал непрерывной регистрации истории судна), (Common Structural Rules) общие правила МАКО по конструкции и прочности (for bulk carriers or oil tankers)4) Медицина: Clinical Study Report (отчет о клиническом исследовании), Cheyne-Stokes Respiration5) Американизм: Center for Scientific Review6) Военный термин: Canadian Scottish Regiment, Coastal Surveillance Radar, Collection Support Requirement, Combat Search & Rescue, Council Situation Room, Current Situation Room, camp sentinel radar, chief of staff regulations, civil service retirement, combat search and rescue, combat surveillance radar, contract status report, control section report, controlled supply rate, critical shortage report7) Техника: check signal return, coaxial single-pole relay, command and status register, concentric storage rings, conical scan receiver, connected speech recognition8) Сельское хозяйство: Crop Suitability Rating10) Грубое выражение: Chelsea's Stupid Ranting, Completely Stupid Rhetoric11) Телекоммуникации: Customer Service Request, Customer Service Record, Call Success Rate12) Сокращение: Certificate Signing Request, Clean Suppressed Radiation, Container Summary Record (2008, IMB program), Control and Status Register, Covert Strike Radar, Customer Support Ruling (2007), communications satellite relay, control shift register, Control/Status Register13) Текстиль: Corporate Social Responsibility14) Вычислительная техника: Customer Service Representative (Telephony), Cell Switch Router (Toshiba)15) Организация производства: корпоративная социальная ответственность (corporate social responsibility)16) Фирменный знак: Cambridge Silicon Radio, Central Scientific Research17) Экология: Chemical Safety Report18) СМИ: Community Service Radio19) Деловая лексика: Company Statistical Rates, (Corporate Social Responsibility) Корпоративная Социальная Ответственность (КСО)20) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Company Site Representative21) Образование: Children Showing Results, Class Size Reduction22) Сетевые технологии: Channel Status Register23) Контроль качества: Crack Sensitivity Ratio24) Сахалин Ю: crack surface ratio25) Химическое оружие: control station room26) Авиационная медицина: computer service request27) Безопасность: запрос на подпись сертификата (certificate signing request)28) Электротехника: CSR-выпрямитель, тип тиристора (silicon-controlled rectifier)29) Фармация: отчёт о клиническом исследовании (Clinical Study Report)30) Майкрософт: представитель отдела обслуживания клиентов31) Евросоюз: Совет Старших Представителей (http://moscow-translator.ru/grammar)32) Должность: Certified Shorthand Reporter, Community Service Representative, Customer Support Representative33) NYSE. Central & Southwest Corporation34) НАСА: Critical Section Rlab35) Программное обеспечение: Control And State Register -
19 csr
1) Общая лексика: central serous retinopathy, центральная серозная ретинопати, customer service representative, Социальная ответственность бизнеса ( СОБ)2) Биология: cortisol secretion rate3) Морской термин: Continuous Synopsis Record (журнал непрерывной регистрации истории судна), (Common Structural Rules) общие правила МАКО по конструкции и прочности (for bulk carriers or oil tankers)4) Медицина: Clinical Study Report (отчет о клиническом исследовании), Cheyne-Stokes Respiration5) Американизм: Center for Scientific Review6) Военный термин: Canadian Scottish Regiment, Coastal Surveillance Radar, Collection Support Requirement, Combat Search & Rescue, Council Situation Room, Current Situation Room, camp sentinel radar, chief of staff regulations, civil service retirement, combat search and rescue, combat surveillance radar, contract status report, control section report, controlled supply rate, critical shortage report7) Техника: check signal return, coaxial single-pole relay, command and status register, concentric storage rings, conical scan receiver, connected speech recognition8) Сельское хозяйство: Crop Suitability Rating10) Грубое выражение: Chelsea's Stupid Ranting, Completely Stupid Rhetoric11) Телекоммуникации: Customer Service Request, Customer Service Record, Call Success Rate12) Сокращение: Certificate Signing Request, Clean Suppressed Radiation, Container Summary Record (2008, IMB program), Control and Status Register, Covert Strike Radar, Customer Support Ruling (2007), communications satellite relay, control shift register, Control/Status Register13) Текстиль: Corporate Social Responsibility14) Вычислительная техника: Customer Service Representative (Telephony), Cell Switch Router (Toshiba)15) Организация производства: корпоративная социальная ответственность (corporate social responsibility)16) Фирменный знак: Cambridge Silicon Radio, Central Scientific Research17) Экология: Chemical Safety Report18) СМИ: Community Service Radio19) Деловая лексика: Company Statistical Rates, (Corporate Social Responsibility) Корпоративная Социальная Ответственность (КСО)20) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Company Site Representative21) Образование: Children Showing Results, Class Size Reduction22) Сетевые технологии: Channel Status Register23) Контроль качества: Crack Sensitivity Ratio24) Сахалин Ю: crack surface ratio25) Химическое оружие: control station room26) Авиационная медицина: computer service request27) Безопасность: запрос на подпись сертификата (certificate signing request)28) Электротехника: CSR-выпрямитель, тип тиристора (silicon-controlled rectifier)29) Фармация: отчёт о клиническом исследовании (Clinical Study Report)30) Майкрософт: представитель отдела обслуживания клиентов31) Евросоюз: Совет Старших Представителей (http://moscow-translator.ru/grammar)32) Должность: Certified Shorthand Reporter, Community Service Representative, Customer Support Representative33) NYSE. Central & Southwest Corporation34) НАСА: Critical Section Rlab35) Программное обеспечение: Control And State Register -
20 case
I keis noun1) (an instance or example: another case of child-beating; a bad case of measles.) caso2) (a particular situation: It's different in my case.) caso3) (a legal trial: The judge in this case is very fair.) caso4) (an argument or reason: There's a good case for thinking he's wrong.) razón5) ((usually with the) a fact: I don't think that's really the case.) caso6) (a form of a pronoun (eg he or him), noun or adjective showing its relation to other words in the sentence.) caso•- in case- in case of
- in that case
II keis noun1) (a container or outer covering: a case of medical instruments; a suitcase.)2) (a crate or box: six cases of whisky.)3) (a piece of furniture for displaying or containing things: a glass case full of china; a bookcase.)case n1. caso2. maletatr[keɪs]1 (instance, situation, circumstances) caso2 (problem) caso3 SMALLLAW/SMALL (lawsuit) causa, litigio, pleito; (set of arguments) argumentos nombre masculino plural, razones nombre femenino plural4 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL caso\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLa case in point un buen ejemploas the case may be según (sea) el casoin any case en todo caso, en cualquier casoin case... por si..., en caso de que...in case of something en caso de algoin no case bajo ninguna circunstancia, en ninguna circunstanciain that case en ese casoto make out a case for something exponer los argumentos en favor de algocase law SMALLLAW/SMALL jurisprudenciacase study estudio, trabajothe case for the defence la defensathe case for the prosecution la acusación nombre femenino————————tr[keɪs]1 (suitcase) maleta2 (box) caja, cajón nombre masculino; (small, hard container) estuche nombre masculino; (soft container) funda3 (in printing) caja■ lower case caja baja, minúscula■ upper case caja alta, mayúscula\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLto case the joint slang reconocer el terreno (antes de cometer un robo)1) box, pack: embalar, encajonar2) inspect: observar, inspeccionar (antes de cometer un delito)case n1) : caso man unusual case: un caso insólitoablative case: caso ablativoa case of the flu: un caso de gripe2) box: caja f3) container: funda f, estuche m4)in any case : de todos modos, en cualquier caso5)in case : como precauciónjust in case: por si acaso6)in case of : en caso den.• argumento convincente s.m.• bujeta s.f.• caja (Electrónica) s.f.• cajón s.m.• caso s.m.• cápsula s.f.• cárter s.m.• especie s.f.• estuche s.m.• forro s.m.• funda s.f.• pleito s.m.• vitrina s.f.v.• encajonar v.• ensanchar v.
I keɪs1) ( matter) caso mto lose/win a case — perder*/ganar un pleito or juicio
to be on somebody's case — (AmE) estar* encima de alguien
get off my case! — déjame tranquilo or en paz!
to make a federal case out of something — (AmE colloq) hacer* un drama de algo
2)a) (Med, Soc Adm) caso ma hopeless case — (colloq) un caso perdido
b) ( eccentric) (colloq) caso m (fam)3) (instance, situation) caso ma case in point — un ejemplo que viene al caso, un buen ejemplo
he won't go - in that case, neither will I — no quiere ir - (pues) en ese caso, yo tampoco
that is the case — así es, esa es la cuestión
in that case, I'm not interested — en ese caso, no me interesa
4) (in phrases)in any case — de todas maneras or formas, en cualquier caso, de cualquier modo
make a note in case you forget — apúntalo por si te olvidas, apúntalo en caso de que se te olvide
5) ( argument)the case for the prosecution/defense — la acusación/la defensa
she has a good/strong case — sus argumentos son buenos/poderosos
to make (out) a case for something/-ing — exponer* los argumentos a favor de algo/para + inf
to put/state one's case — dar*/exponer* sus (or mis etc) razones
6)a) ( suitcase) maleta f, petaca f (Méx), valija f (RPl)b) ( attaché case) maletín mc) ( crate) caja f, cajón m, jaba f (Chi, Per); (of wine, liquor) caja de 12 botellasd) ( hard container - for small objects) estuche f; (- for large objects) caja f; ( soft container) funda f
II
transitive verb (sl)to case the joint — reconocer* el terreno ( antes de cometer un delito)
I [keɪs]1. N1) (Brit) (=suitcase) maleta f, valija f (S. Cone), veliz m (Mex); (=briefcase) cartera f, maletín m, portafolio(s) m (LAm); (=packing case) cajón m ; [of drink] caja f ; (for jewellery) joyero m, estuche m ; (for camera, guitar, gun etc) funda f ; (for spectacles) (soft) funda f ; (hard) estuche m ; (for watch) caja f ; (=display case) vitrina f ; [of window] marco m, bastidor m ; [of cartridge] funda f, cápsula f2) (Typ) caja flower case — minúscula f
upper case — mayúscula f
2. VT1) (=encase)her leg was cased in plaster — tenía la pierna escayolada or enyesada
2)
II [keɪs]1. N1) (gen) (also Med) caso mit's a hopeless case — (Med) es un caso de desahucio
•
as the case may be — según el caso•
it's a case for the police — este es asunto para la policía, esto es cosa de la policía•
it's a case of... — se trata de...•
if that is the case — en ese caso2) (Jur) (gen) caso m, proceso m ; (=particular dispute) causa f, pleito m ; (=argument) argumento m, razón fthe Dreyfus case — el proceso de Dreyfus; (more loosely) el asunto Dreyfus
•
there's a strong case for reform — hay buenos fundamentos para exigir una reformathere's a case for saying that... — puede decirse razonablemente que...
•
to have a good or strong case — tener buenos argumentos or buenas razones•
to make (out) a case for sth — dar razones para algo, presentar argumentos en favor de algo•
to rest one's case — terminar la presentación de su alegato3) (with "in")(just) in case — por si acaso, por si las moscas *
in case he comes — por si viene, (en) caso de que venga
•
in any case — de todas formas, en cualquier caso, en todo caso•
in most cases — en la mayoría de los casos•
in no case — en ningún caso, de ninguna manera•
in case of emergency — en caso de emergencia•
in such a case — en tal caso•
in that case — en ese caso4) (Ling) caso m5) * (=eccentric person)he's a case — es un tipo raro *, es un caso
6) **•
get off my case! — ¡déjame ya en paz!•
to be on sb's case — estar siempre encima de algn2.CPDcase grammar N — gramática f de caso
case history N — (Med) historial m médico or clínico
what is the patient's case history? — ¿cuál es el historial del enfermo?
case law N — jurisprudencia f
case study N — estudio m de casos
case system N — (Ling) sistema m de casos
* * *
I [keɪs]1) ( matter) caso mto lose/win a case — perder*/ganar un pleito or juicio
to be on somebody's case — (AmE) estar* encima de alguien
get off my case! — déjame tranquilo or en paz!
to make a federal case out of something — (AmE colloq) hacer* un drama de algo
2)a) (Med, Soc Adm) caso ma hopeless case — (colloq) un caso perdido
b) ( eccentric) (colloq) caso m (fam)3) (instance, situation) caso ma case in point — un ejemplo que viene al caso, un buen ejemplo
he won't go - in that case, neither will I — no quiere ir - (pues) en ese caso, yo tampoco
that is the case — así es, esa es la cuestión
in that case, I'm not interested — en ese caso, no me interesa
4) (in phrases)in any case — de todas maneras or formas, en cualquier caso, de cualquier modo
make a note in case you forget — apúntalo por si te olvidas, apúntalo en caso de que se te olvide
5) ( argument)the case for the prosecution/defense — la acusación/la defensa
she has a good/strong case — sus argumentos son buenos/poderosos
to make (out) a case for something/-ing — exponer* los argumentos a favor de algo/para + inf
to put/state one's case — dar*/exponer* sus (or mis etc) razones
6)a) ( suitcase) maleta f, petaca f (Méx), valija f (RPl)b) ( attaché case) maletín mc) ( crate) caja f, cajón m, jaba f (Chi, Per); (of wine, liquor) caja de 12 botellasd) ( hard container - for small objects) estuche f; (- for large objects) caja f; ( soft container) funda f
II
transitive verb (sl)to case the joint — reconocer* el terreno ( antes de cometer un delito)
См. также в других словарях:
grammar — Pili ōlelo, hō ike ōlelo. ♦ To study grammar, a o pili ōlelo … English-Hawaiian dictionary
Grammar — is the field of linguistics that covers the rules governing the use of any given natural language. It includes morphology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. Each language has its own distinct… … Wikipedia
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grammar — [gram′ər] n. [ME gramer < OFr gramaire < L grammatica ( ars, art) < Gr grammatikē ( technē, art), grammar, learning < gramma, something written (see GRAM1): in L & Gr a term for the whole apparatus of literary study: in the medieval… … English World dictionary
Grammar — Gram mar, n. [OE. gramere, OF. gramaire, F. grammaire Prob. fr. L. gramatica Gr ?, fem. of ? skilled in grammar, fr. ? letter. See {Gramme}, {Graphic}, and cf. {Grammatical}, {Gramarye}.] 1. The science which treats of the principles of language; … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
Grammar school — Grammar Gram mar, n. [OE. gramere, OF. gramaire, F. grammaire Prob. fr. L. gramatica Gr ?, fem. of ? skilled in grammar, fr. ? letter. See {Gramme}, {Graphic}, and cf. {Grammatical}, {Gramarye}.] 1. The science which treats of the principles of… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
grammar, syntax — Grammar is not a list of rules involving do s and don ts. As usually applied in speech and in some writing, the word usage should be substituted for grammar. Grammar itself is the science that deals with words and their relationships to each… … Dictionary of problem words and expressions
grammar — early 14c., gramarye (late 12c. in surnames), from O.Fr. gramaire learning, especially Latin and philology, grammar, (magic) incantation, spells, mumbo jumbo, irregular semi popular adoption [OED] of L. grammatica, from Gk. grammatike tekhne art… … Etymology dictionary
grammar — grammarless, adj. /gram euhr/, n. 1. the study of the way the sentences of a language are constructed; morphology and syntax. 2. these features or constructions themselves: English grammar. 3. an account of these features; a set of rules… … Universalium
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