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  • 41 Wollaston, William Hyde

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 6 August 1766 East Dereham, Norfolk, England
    d. 22 December 1828 London, England
    [br]
    English chemist and metallurgist who discovered palladium and rhodium, pioneer in the fabrication of platinum.
    [br]
    Wollaston qualified in medicine at Cambridge University but gave up his practice in 1800 to devote himself to chemistry and metallurgy, funded from the profits from making malleable platinum. In partnership with Smithson Tennant, a friend from his Cambridge days, he worked on the extraction of platinum by dissolving it in aqua regia. In 1802 he found that in addition to platinum the solution contained a new metal, which he named palladium. Two years later he identified another new metal, rhodium.
    Wollaston developed a method of forming platinum by means of powder metallurgy and was the first to produce malleable and ductile platinum on a commercial scale. He produced platinum vessels for sulphuric acid manufacture and scientific apparatus such as crucibles. He devised an elegant method for forming fine platinum wire. He also applied his inventive talents to improving scientific apparatus, including the sextant and microscope and a reflecting goniometer for measuring crystal angles. In 1807 he was appointed Joint Secretary of the Royal Society with Sir Humphry Davy, which entailed a heavy workload and required them to referee all the papers submitted to the Society for publication.
    Wollaston's output of platinum began to decline after 1822. Due to ill health he ceased business operations in 1828 and at last made public the details of his secret platinum fabrication process. It was fully described in the Bakerian Lecture he delivered to the Royal Society on 28 November 1828, shortly before his death.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1793.
    Bibliography
    His scientific papers were published in various journals, nearly all listed in the Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers.
    Further Reading
    There is no good general biography, the best general account being the entry in
    Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
    D.McDonald, 1960, A History of Platinum from the Earliest Times to the Eighteen- Eighties, London (provides a good discussion of his work on platinum).
    M.E.Weeks, 1939, "The discovery of the elements", Journal of Chemical Education: 184–5.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Wollaston, William Hyde

  • 42 Grammar

       I think that the failure to offer a precise account of the notion "grammar" is not just a superficial defect in linguistic theory that can be remedied by adding one more definition. It seems to me that until this notion is clarified, no part of linguistic theory can achieve anything like a satisfactory development.... I have been discussing a grammar of a particular language here as analogous to a particular scientific theory, dealing with its subject matter (the set of sentences of this language) much as embryology or physics deals with its subject matter. (Chomsky, 1964, p. 213)
       Obviously, every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. This is not to say that he is aware of the rules of grammar or even that he can become aware of them, or that his statements about his intuitive knowledge of his language are necessarily accurate. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 8)
       Much effort has been devoted to showing that the class of possible transformations can be substantially reduced without loss of descriptive power through the discovery of quite general conditions that all such rules and the representations they operate on and form must meet.... [The] transformational rules, at least for a substantial core grammar, can be reduced to the single rule, "Move alpha" (that is, "move any category anywhere"). (Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 21)
       4) The Relationship of Transformational Grammar to Semantics and to Human Performance
       he implications of assuming a semantic memory for what we might call "generative psycholinguistics" are: that dichotomous judgments of semantic well-formedness versus anomaly are not essential or inherent to language performance; that the transformational component of a grammar is the part most relevant to performance models; that a generative grammar's role should be viewed as restricted to language production, whereas sentence understanding should be treated as a problem of extracting a cognitive representation of a text's message; that until some theoretical notion of cognitive representation is incorporated into linguistic conceptions, they are unlikely to provide either powerful language-processing programs or psychologically relevant theories.
       Although these implications conflict with the way others have viewed the relationship of transformational grammars to semantics and to human performance, they do not eliminate the importance of such grammars to psychologists, an importance stressed in, and indeed largely created by, the work of Chomsky. It is precisely because of a growing interdependence between such linguistic theory and psychological performance models that their relationship needs to be clarified. (Quillian, 1968, p. 260)
       here are some terminological distinctions that are crucial to explain, or else confusions can easily arise. In the formal study of grammar, a language is defined as a set of sentences, possibly infinite, where each sentence is a string of symbols or words. One can think of each sentence as having several representations linked together: one for its sound pattern, one for its meaning, one for the string of words constituting it, possibly others for other data structures such as the "surface structure" and "deep structure" that are held to mediate the mapping between sound and meaning. Because no finite system can store an infinite number of sentences, and because humans in particular are clearly not pullstring dolls that emit sentences from a finite stored list, one must explain human language abilities by imputing to them a grammar, which in the technical sense is a finite rule system, or programme, or circuit design, capable of generating and recognizing the sentences of a particular language. This "mental grammar" or "psychogrammar" is the neural system that allows us to speak and understand the possible word sequences of our native tongue. A grammar for a specific language is obviously acquired by a human during childhood, but there must be neural circuitry that actually carries out the acquisition process in the child, and this circuitry may be called the language faculty or language acquisition device. An important part of the language faculty is universal grammar, an implementation of a set of principles or constraints that govern the possible form of any human grammar. (Pinker, 1996, p. 263)
       A grammar of language L is essentially a theory of L. Any scientific theory is based on a finite number of observations, and it seeks to relate the observed phenomena and to predict new phenomena by constructing general laws in terms of hypothetical constructs.... Similarly a grammar of English is based on a finite corpus of utterances (observations), and it will contain certain grammatical rules (laws) stated in terms of the particular phonemes, phrases, etc., of English (hypothetical constructs). These rules express structural relations among the sentences of the corpus and the infinite number of sentences generated by the grammar beyond the corpus (predictions). (Chomsky, 1957, p. 49)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Grammar

  • 43 base

    adj.
    host.
    f.
    base de maquillaje foundation (cream)
    2 basis (fundamento, origen).
    el petróleo es la base de su economía their economy is based on oil
    ese argumento se cae por su base that argument is built on sand
    partimos de la base de que… we assume that…
    sentar las bases para to lay the foundations of
    3 base.
    base aérea air base
    base espacial space station
    base de lanzamiento launch site
    base naval naval base
    base de operaciones operational base
    4 base (chemistry).
    5 base (math & geometry).
    6 base.
    7 makeup.
    8 radix, base of a system of numbers or logarithms.
    pres.subj.
    1st person singular (yo) Present Subjunctive of Spanish verb: basar.
    * * *
    1 (gen) base
    2 figurado basis
    ■ si partimos de la base de que... if we start from the premise that...
    3 QUÍMICA base, alkali
    2 las bases (de partido etc) grass roots, rank and file
    \
    a base de (por) through, by means of, using 2 (de) consisting of
    en base a based on, on the basis of
    base aérea air base
    base de datos database
    base de datos documental documentary database
    base de datos relacional relational database
    base de lanzamiento launch site
    base de operaciones operational headquarters
    base imponible taxable income
    base naval naval base
    * * *
    noun f.
    1) base
    •
    * * *
    1. SF
    1) (=parte inferior) base
    2) (=fondo) [de pintura] background; [de maquillaje] foundation
    3) (=fundamento) basis

    • carecer de base — [acusación] to lack foundation, be unfounded; [argumento] to lack justification, be unjustified

    • de base — [error, dato] basic, fundamental; [activista, apoyo] grass-roots antes de s

    • en base a [uso periodístico] —

    en base a que: no publicaron la carta en base a que era demasiado larga — they didn't publish the letter because it was too long

    • partir de una base, un juez tiene que partir de una base de neutralidad absoluta — a judge must start out from a position of absolute neutrality

    partiendo de esta base, nos planteamos la necesidad... — on this assumption, we think it necessary...

    partir de la base de que... — to take as one's starting point that...

    • sentar las bases de algo — to lay the foundations of sth

    • sobre la base de algo — on the basis of sth

    4) (=componente principal)

    • a base de algo, una dieta a base de arroz — a rice-based diet, a diet based on rice

    un plato a base de verduras — a vegetable-based dish, a dish based on vegetables

    • a base de hacer algo — by doing sth

    así, a base de no hacer nada, poco vas a conseguir — you won't achieve much by doing nothing

    a base de insistir, la convenció para comprar la casa — by o through his insistence, he persuaded her to buy the house

    base imponible — (Econ) taxable income

    5) (=conocimientos básicos) grounding
    6) (Mil) base
    7) pl bases
    a) (=condiciones) [de concurso] conditions, rules; [de convocatoria] requirements
    b) (Pol)
    8) (Inform)
    9) (Mat) [en una potencia] base
    10) (Quím) base
    11) (Téc) base, mounting
    12) (Agrimensura) base, base line
    13) (Ling) (tb: base derivativa) base form
    14) (Béisbol) base
    15) ** (=droga) base
    2.
    SMF (Baloncesto) guard
    3. ADJ INV
    1) (=de partida) [campamento, campo] base antes de s ; [puerto] home antes de s
    2) (=básico) [idea] basic; [documento, texto] provisional, draft

    • alimento base — staple (food)

    • color base — base colour o (EEUU) color

    salario, sueldo
    * * *
    I
    1)
    a) ( parte inferior) base
    b) tb
    2)

    a base de: a base de descansar se fue recuperando by resting she gradually recovered; un régimen a base de verdura a vegetable-based diet; vive a base de pastillas he lives on pills; de base <planteamiento/error> fundamental, basic; < militante> rank-and-file (before n), ordinary (before n); < movimiento> grass-roots (before n); en base a (crit) on the basis of; a base de bien (Esp fam): comimos a base de bien — we ate really well

    base aérea/naval/militar — air/naval/military base

    5)

    las bases — (Pol) the rank and file (pl)

    6) (Mat, Quím) base
    7) bases femenino plural ( de concurso) rules (pl)
    8)
    a) ( en béisbol) base
    b) base masculino y femenino ( en baloncesto) guard
    II
    adjetivo invariable
    a) (básico, elemental) basic; <documento/texto> draft (before n)
    b) < campamento> base (before n)
    * * *
    = base, base, base plate, basis [bases, -pl.], basis [bases, -pl.], bedrock, core, cornerstone [corner-stone], foundation, grounding, underpinning, cradle, warp and woof.
    Ex. The reader should now have a reasonably firm base from which to begin a more detailed reading of the specification of elements.
    Ex. The base of a notation is the set of symbols used in a specific notation.
    Ex. The two windows in the base plate of the scanner help move the read head accurately across the bar codes.
    Ex. These factors form the basis of the problems in identifying a satisfactory subject approach, and start to explain the vast array of different tolls used in the subject approach to knowledge.
    Ex. These factors form the basis of the problems in identifying a satisfactory subject approach, and start to explain the vast array of different tolls used in the subject approach to knowledge.
    Ex. We are the bedrock of our profession and the standards that we attain fundamentally affect the status of the profession.
    Ex. The main list of index terms is the core of the thesaurus and defines the index language.
    Ex. Abstracts are the cornerstone of secondary publications.
    Ex. In the same way that citation orders may have more or less theoretical foundations, equally reference generation may follow a predetermined pattern.
    Ex. The experience gained with these special schemes provided a grounding for work on the development of a new general scheme.
    Ex. The criteria must be subject to continuing review and annual updating if they are to remain valid as the underpinning for a professional activity.
    Ex. 'I have to leave fairly soon,' he said as he returned the receiver to its cradle, 'so let's get down to business'.
    Ex. Training in self-help is part of the warp and woof of any tenable theory of reference work.
    ----
    * a base de = in the form of, on a diet of.
    * a base de carne = meaty [meatier -comp., meatiest -sup.].
    * a base de cometer errores = the hard way.
    * a base de errores = the hard way.
    * afianzar las bases = strengthen + foundations.
    * aplicar una capa base = prime.
    * aprender Algo a base de cometer errores = learn + Nombre + the hard way.
    * banda de base = baseband.
    * basado en un gestor de bases de datos = DBMS-based.
    * base cognitiva = knowledge base [knowledge-base].
    * base de datos = data bank [databank], database [data base], database software.
    * base de datos automatizada = computer database, computer-held database, computerised database, machine-readable database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica = bibliographic database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica de resúmenes = abstracts based bibliographic database.
    * base de datos catalográfica = catalogue database, cataloguing database.
    * base de datos comercial = commercial database.
    * base de datos completa = full-provision database.
    * base de datos con información confidencial = intelligence database.
    * base de datos cruzada = cross database.
    * base de datos de acceso mediante suscripción = subscription database.
    * base de datos de autoridades = authority database.
    * base de datos de carburantes = TULSA.
    * base de datos de documentos primarios = source database.
    * base de datos de documentos secundarios = reference database.
    * base de datos de dominio público = public domain database.
    * base de datos de educación = ERIC.
    * base de datos de imágenes = image database, image bank.
    * base de datos de investigación = research database.
    * base de datos del gobierno de USA = CRECORD, FEDREG.
    * base de datos de lógica difusa = fuzzy database.
    * base de datos de medicina = MEDLINE.
    * base de datos de negocios = business database.
    * base de datos de pago = subscription database.
    * base de datos de patentes = WPI.
    * base de datos de propiedades = properties database.
    * base de datos de referencia = reference database.
    * base de datos de referencia a especialistas = referral database.
    * base de datos de registros de catálogo = catalogue record database.
    * base de datos de texto = textual data base, text-oriented database, text database.
    * base de datos de texto completo = full text database.
    * base de datos de texto libre = free text database.
    * base de datos dirigida a un mercado específico = niche database.
    * base de datos distribuida = distributed database.
    * base de datos documental = textual data base.
    * base de datos en CD-ROM = CD-ROM database.
    * base de datos en disco óptico = optical disc database.
    * base de datos en estado original = raw database.
    * base de datos en línea = online database.
    * base de datos estadística = statistical database.
    * base de datos externa = external database.
    * base de datos factual = factual database.
    * base de datos financiera = financial database.
    * base de datos interna = in-house database.
    * base de datos jurídica = legal database.
    * base de datos local = local area database.
    * base de datos multimedia = multimedia database.
    * base de datos no bibliográfica = non-bibliographic database.
    * base de datos numérica = numeric database, numerical database.
    * base de datos numérico-textual = textual-numeric database, text-numeric database.
    * base de datos relacional = relational database.
    * base de datos residente = resident database.
    * base de datos terminológica = terminology database.
    * base de datos textual = textual data base.
    * base de operaciones = home base.
    * base de un número = subscript numeral.
    * base impositiva = tax base.
    * base lógica = rationale.
    * base militar = military base.
    * bases = background.
    * base teórica = theoretical underpinning, theoretical underpinning.
    * búsqueda en múltiples bases de datos = cross database searching.
    * campamento base = base camp.
    * comenzar desde la base = start at + ground zero.
    * como base para = as a basis for.
    * con base de arena = sand-based.
    * con base empírica = empirically-based.
    * con base en = based in.
    * conformar las bases = set + the framework.
    * conocimiento de base = foundation study.
    * constituir la base = form + the foundation.
    * constituir la base de = form + the basis of.
    * construir la base = form + the skeleton.
    * creador de bases de datos = database producer.
    * crear una base = form + a basis.
    * de base popular = grassroots [grass-roots].
    * descubrimiento de información en las bases de datos = knowledge discovery in databases (KDD).
    * directorio de empresas en base de datos = company directory database.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos = online system host, database host, host system, online service vendor.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos en línea = online vendor.
    * empezar desde la base = start at + ground zero.
    * en base a = in terms of, on the grounds that/of, on the basis of.
    * en la base = at the core (of).
    * en su base = at its core.
    * específico de una base de datos = database-specific.
    * formar la base = form + the foundation.
    * formar la base de = form + the basis of.
    * gestión de bases de datos = database management.
    * gestor de bases de datos = database management system (DBMS), DBMS system.
    * gestor de bases de datos relacionales = relational database management system.
    * hecho a base de parches = patchwork.
    * industria de las bases de datos = database industry.
    * línea base = baseline [base line].
    * meta base de datos = meta-database.
    * montar una base de datos = mount + database.
    * novela escrita a base de fórmulas o clichés = formula fiction.
    * organismo de base popular = grassroots organisation.
    * partir de la base de que = start from + the premise that, build on + the premise that.
    * poner las bases = lay + foundation, lay + the basis for.
    * portada de una base de datos = file banner.
    * presupuesto de base cero = zero-base(d) budgeting (ZZB), zero-base(d) budget.
    * productor de bases de datos = database producer.
    * programa de gestión de bases de datos = database management software.
    * proveedor de bases de datos = database provider.
    * que funciona a base de órdenes = command-driven.
    * remedio a base de hierbas = herbal remedy.
    * sentar base = make + things happen.
    * sentar las bases = lay + foundation, set + the scene, set + the wheels in motion, set + the tone, set + the framework, set + the pattern, provide + the basis, lay + the basis for, provide + the material for.
    * sentar las bases de Algo = lay + the groundwork for.
    * ser la base de = be at the core of, form + the basis of, be at the heart of.
    * sin base = unsupported, ill-founded.
    * sobre base de arena = sand-based.
    * sobre esta base = on this basis, on that basis.
    * sobre la base de = in relation to, on the usual basis.
    * subsistir a base de = live on.
    * tipo de interés base = base rate, prime rate.
    * tratamiento a base de hierbas = herbal treatment.
    * * *
    I
    1)
    a) ( parte inferior) base
    b) tb
    2)

    a base de: a base de descansar se fue recuperando by resting she gradually recovered; un régimen a base de verdura a vegetable-based diet; vive a base de pastillas he lives on pills; de base <planteamiento/error> fundamental, basic; < militante> rank-and-file (before n), ordinary (before n); < movimiento> grass-roots (before n); en base a (crit) on the basis of; a base de bien (Esp fam): comimos a base de bien — we ate really well

    base aérea/naval/militar — air/naval/military base

    5)

    las bases — (Pol) the rank and file (pl)

    6) (Mat, Quím) base
    7) bases femenino plural ( de concurso) rules (pl)
    8)
    a) ( en béisbol) base
    b) base masculino y femenino ( en baloncesto) guard
    II
    adjetivo invariable
    a) (básico, elemental) basic; <documento/texto> draft (before n)
    b) < campamento> base (before n)
    * * *
    = base, base, base plate, basis [bases, -pl.], basis [bases, -pl.], bedrock, core, cornerstone [corner-stone], foundation, grounding, underpinning, cradle, warp and woof.

    Ex: The reader should now have a reasonably firm base from which to begin a more detailed reading of the specification of elements.

    Ex: The base of a notation is the set of symbols used in a specific notation.
    Ex: The two windows in the base plate of the scanner help move the read head accurately across the bar codes.
    Ex: These factors form the basis of the problems in identifying a satisfactory subject approach, and start to explain the vast array of different tolls used in the subject approach to knowledge.
    Ex: These factors form the basis of the problems in identifying a satisfactory subject approach, and start to explain the vast array of different tolls used in the subject approach to knowledge.
    Ex: We are the bedrock of our profession and the standards that we attain fundamentally affect the status of the profession.
    Ex: The main list of index terms is the core of the thesaurus and defines the index language.
    Ex: Abstracts are the cornerstone of secondary publications.
    Ex: In the same way that citation orders may have more or less theoretical foundations, equally reference generation may follow a predetermined pattern.
    Ex: The experience gained with these special schemes provided a grounding for work on the development of a new general scheme.
    Ex: The criteria must be subject to continuing review and annual updating if they are to remain valid as the underpinning for a professional activity.
    Ex: 'I have to leave fairly soon,' he said as he returned the receiver to its cradle, 'so let's get down to business'.
    Ex: Training in self-help is part of the warp and woof of any tenable theory of reference work.
    * a base de = in the form of, on a diet of.
    * a base de carne = meaty [meatier -comp., meatiest -sup.].
    * a base de cometer errores = the hard way.
    * a base de errores = the hard way.
    * afianzar las bases = strengthen + foundations.
    * aplicar una capa base = prime.
    * aprender Algo a base de cometer errores = learn + Nombre + the hard way.
    * banda de base = baseband.
    * basado en un gestor de bases de datos = DBMS-based.
    * base cognitiva = knowledge base [knowledge-base].
    * base de datos = data bank [databank], database [data base], database software.
    * base de datos automatizada = computer database, computer-held database, computerised database, machine-readable database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica = bibliographic database.
    * base de datos bibliográfica de resúmenes = abstracts based bibliographic database.
    * base de datos catalográfica = catalogue database, cataloguing database.
    * base de datos comercial = commercial database.
    * base de datos completa = full-provision database.
    * base de datos con información confidencial = intelligence database.
    * base de datos cruzada = cross database.
    * base de datos de acceso mediante suscripción = subscription database.
    * base de datos de autoridades = authority database.
    * base de datos de carburantes = TULSA.
    * base de datos de documentos primarios = source database.
    * base de datos de documentos secundarios = reference database.
    * base de datos de dominio público = public domain database.
    * base de datos de educación = ERIC.
    * base de datos de imágenes = image database, image bank.
    * base de datos de investigación = research database.
    * base de datos del gobierno de USA = CRECORD, FEDREG.
    * base de datos de lógica difusa = fuzzy database.
    * base de datos de medicina = MEDLINE.
    * base de datos de negocios = business database.
    * base de datos de pago = subscription database.
    * base de datos de patentes = WPI.
    * base de datos de propiedades = properties database.
    * base de datos de referencia = reference database.
    * base de datos de referencia a especialistas = referral database.
    * base de datos de registros de catálogo = catalogue record database.
    * base de datos de texto = textual data base, text-oriented database, text database.
    * base de datos de texto completo = full text database.
    * base de datos de texto libre = free text database.
    * base de datos dirigida a un mercado específico = niche database.
    * base de datos distribuida = distributed database.
    * base de datos documental = textual data base.
    * base de datos en CD-ROM = CD-ROM database.
    * base de datos en disco óptico = optical disc database.
    * base de datos en estado original = raw database.
    * base de datos en línea = online database.
    * base de datos estadística = statistical database.
    * base de datos externa = external database.
    * base de datos factual = factual database.
    * base de datos financiera = financial database.
    * base de datos interna = in-house database.
    * base de datos jurídica = legal database.
    * base de datos local = local area database.
    * base de datos multimedia = multimedia database.
    * base de datos no bibliográfica = non-bibliographic database.
    * base de datos numérica = numeric database, numerical database.
    * base de datos numérico-textual = textual-numeric database, text-numeric database.
    * base de datos relacional = relational database.
    * base de datos residente = resident database.
    * base de datos terminológica = terminology database.
    * base de datos textual = textual data base.
    * base de operaciones = home base.
    * base de un número = subscript numeral.
    * base impositiva = tax base.
    * base lógica = rationale.
    * base militar = military base.
    * bases = background.
    * base teórica = theoretical underpinning, theoretical underpinning.
    * búsqueda en múltiples bases de datos = cross database searching.
    * campamento base = base camp.
    * comenzar desde la base = start at + ground zero.
    * como base para = as a basis for.
    * con base de arena = sand-based.
    * con base empírica = empirically-based.
    * con base en = based in.
    * conformar las bases = set + the framework.
    * conocimiento de base = foundation study.
    * constituir la base = form + the foundation.
    * constituir la base de = form + the basis of.
    * construir la base = form + the skeleton.
    * creador de bases de datos = database producer.
    * crear una base = form + a basis.
    * de base popular = grassroots [grass-roots].
    * descubrimiento de información en las bases de datos = knowledge discovery in databases (KDD).
    * directorio de empresas en base de datos = company directory database.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos = online system host, database host, host system, online service vendor.
    * distribuidor de bases de datos en línea = online vendor.
    * empezar desde la base = start at + ground zero.
    * en base a = in terms of, on the grounds that/of, on the basis of.
    * en la base = at the core (of).
    * en su base = at its core.
    * específico de una base de datos = database-specific.
    * formar la base = form + the foundation.
    * formar la base de = form + the basis of.
    * gestión de bases de datos = database management.
    * gestor de bases de datos = database management system (DBMS), DBMS system.
    * gestor de bases de datos relacionales = relational database management system.
    * hecho a base de parches = patchwork.
    * industria de las bases de datos = database industry.
    * línea base = baseline [base line].
    * meta base de datos = meta-database.
    * montar una base de datos = mount + database.
    * novela escrita a base de fórmulas o clichés = formula fiction.
    * organismo de base popular = grassroots organisation.
    * partir de la base de que = start from + the premise that, build on + the premise that.
    * poner las bases = lay + foundation, lay + the basis for.
    * portada de una base de datos = file banner.
    * presupuesto de base cero = zero-base(d) budgeting (ZZB), zero-base(d) budget.
    * productor de bases de datos = database producer.
    * programa de gestión de bases de datos = database management software.
    * proveedor de bases de datos = database provider.
    * que funciona a base de órdenes = command-driven.
    * remedio a base de hierbas = herbal remedy.
    * sentar base = make + things happen.
    * sentar las bases = lay + foundation, set + the scene, set + the wheels in motion, set + the tone, set + the framework, set + the pattern, provide + the basis, lay + the basis for, provide + the material for.
    * sentar las bases de Algo = lay + the groundwork for.
    * ser la base de = be at the core of, form + the basis of, be at the heart of.
    * sin base = unsupported, ill-founded.
    * sobre base de arena = sand-based.
    * sobre esta base = on this basis, on that basis.
    * sobre la base de = in relation to, on the usual basis.
    * subsistir a base de = live on.
    * tipo de interés base = base rate, prime rate.
    * tratamiento a base de hierbas = herbal treatment.

    * * *
    A
    la base de una columna the base of a column
    el contraste está en la base the hallmark is on the base o the bottom
    2 (fondo) background
    sobre una base de tonos claros against o on a background of light tones
    3
    tb base de maquillaje foundation
    4 (permanente) soft perm
    B
    1
    (fundamento): no tienes suficiente base para asegurar eso you don't have sufficient grounds to claim that
    la base de una buena salud es una alimentación sana the basis of good health is a balanced diet
    esa afirmación carece de bases sólidas that statement is not founded o based on any firm evidence
    sentar las bases de un acuerdo to lay the foundations of an agreement
    un movimiento sin base popular a movement without a popular power base
    tomar algo como base to take sth as a starting point
    partiendo or si partimos de la base de que … if we start from the premise o assumption that …
    sobre la base de estos datos podemos concluir que … on the basis of this information we can conclude that …
    2
    (componente principal): la base de su alimentación es el arroz rice is their staple food, their diet is based on rice
    la base de este perfume es el jazmín this perfume has a jasmine base, this is a jasmine-based perfume
    los diamantes forman la base de la economía the economy is based on diamonds
    3
    (conocimientos básicos): tiene una sólida base científica he has a sound basic knowledge of o he has a sound grounding in science
    llegó sin ninguna base he hadn't mastered the basics when he arrived
    Compuestos:
    database
    relational database
    tax base ( AmE), taxable income o base ( BrE)
    C ( en locs):
    a base de: a base de descansar se fue recuperando by resting she gradually recovered
    lo consiguió a base de muchos sacrificios he had to make a lot of sacrifices to achieve it
    un régimen a base de verdura a vegetable-based diet, a diet mainly consisting of vegetables
    una bebida a base de ginebra a gin-based drink
    vive a base de pastillas pills are what keep her going
    de base ‹planteamiento/error› fundamental, basic;
    ‹militante› rank-and-file ( before n), ordinary ( before n); ‹movimiento/democracia› grass roots ( before n)
    en base a ( crit); on the basis of
    en base a las recientes encuestas on the evidence o basis of recent polls
    una propuesta de negociación en base a un programa de diez puntos a proposal for negotiations based on a ten-point plan
    a base de bien ( Esp fam): comimos a base de bien we really ate well, we had a really good meal
    Compuestos:
    air base
    launch site
    center* of operations, operational headquarters ( sing o pl)
    military base
    naval base
    E ( Pol) tb
    bases rank and file (pl)
    F ( Mat) base
    G ( Quím) base
    H bases fpl (de un concurso) rules (pl), conditions of entry (pl)
    I
    2
    1 (básico, elemental) ‹alimento› basic, staple ( before n); ‹documento/texto› draft ( before n)
    la idea base partió de … the basic idea stemmed from …
    2 (de origen) ‹puerto› home ( before n); ‹campamento› base ( before n)
    * * *

     

    Del verbo basar: ( conjugate basar)

    basé es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) pretérito indicativo

    base es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente subjuntivo

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente subjuntivo

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) imperativo

    Multiple Entries:
    basar    
    base
    basar ( conjugate basar) verbo transitivo ‹teoría/idea› base algo en algo to base sth on sth
    basarse verbo pronominal
    a) [ persona] basese EN algo:

    ◊ ¿en qué te basas para decir eso? and what basis o grounds do you have for saying that?;

    se basó en esos datos he based his argument (o theory etc) on that information
    b) [teoría/creencia/idea/opinión] basese EN algo to be based on sth

    base sustantivo femenino
    1

    b) tb


    2


    tengo suficiente base para asegurar eso I have sufficient grounds to claim that;
    sentar las bases de algo to lay the foundations of sth;
    tomar algo como base to take sth as a starting point


    llegó al curso sin ninguna base he didn't have the basics when he began the course;
    base de datos database
    3 ( en locs)
    ◊ a base de: un régimen a base de verdura a vegetable-based diet;

    vive a base de pastillas he lives on pills
    4 ( centro de operaciones) base;
    ◊ base aérea/naval/militar air/naval/military base

    5
    ◊ bases sustantivo femenino plural ( de concurso) rules (pl)

    6

    b)

    ◊ base sustantivo masculino y femenino ( en baloncesto) guard

    basar verbo transitivo to base [en, on]
    base
    I sustantivo femenino
    1 base
    2 (fundamento de una teoría, de un argumento) basis, (motivo) grounds: tus quejas no tienen base alguna, your complaints are groundless
    3 (conocimientos previos) grounding: tiene muy mala base en matemáticas, he's got a very poor grasp of maths
    4 Mil base
    base aérea/naval, air/naval base
    5 Inform base de datos, data base
    II fpl
    1 Pol the grass roots: las bases no apoyan al candidato, the candidate didn't get any grass-roots support
    2 (de un concurso) rules
    ♦ Locuciones: a base de: la fastidiaron a base de bien, they really messed her about
    a base de estudiar consiguió aprobar, he passed by studying
    a base de extracto de camomila, using camomile extract
    ' base' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    baja
    - bajo
    - basar
    - columpiarse
    - concentración
    - esquema
    - fundar
    - fundamentar
    - fundarse
    - innoble
    - mantenerse
    - pie
    - salario
    - somier
    - subsistir
    - tejemaneje
    - asiento
    - banco
    - bastardo
    - cimentar
    - fundamento
    - inicial
    - mantener
    - rejilla
    - sueldo
    English:
    air base
    - base
    - basis
    - circuit board
    - cornerstone
    - data base
    - decision making
    - fatty
    - foundation
    - from
    - grounding
    - rank
    - rationale
    - roll out
    - stand
    - undercoat
    - work
    - air
    - ball
    - base pay
    - bed
    - cover
    - data
    - educated
    - found
    - French
    - go
    - ground
    - hard
    - home
    - model
    - pickle
    - primary
    - report
    - rocky
    - sordid
    - squash
    - staple
    - starchy
    - taxable
    - under
    * * *
    ♦ nf
    1. [parte inferior] base;
    [de edificio] foundations;
    colocaron un ramo de flores en la base del monumento they placed a bunch of flowers at the foot of the monument
    base de maquillaje foundation (cream)
    2. [fundamento, origen] basis;
    el respeto al medio ambiente es la base de un desarrollo equilibrado respect for the environment is o forms the basis of balanced development;
    el petróleo es la base de su economía their economy is based on oil;
    salí de la universidad con una sólida base humanística I left university with a solid grounding in the humanities;
    ese argumento se cae por su base that argument is built on sand;
    esta teoría carece de base this theory is unfounded, this theory is not founded on solid arguments;
    partimos de la base de que… we assume that…;
    se parte de la base de que todos ya saben leer we're starting with the assumption that everyone can read;
    sentar las bases para… to lay the foundations of…;
    sobre la base de esta encuesta se concluye que… on the basis of this opinion poll, it can be concluded that… Fin base imponible taxable income
    3. [conocimientos básicos] grounding;
    habla mal francés porque tiene mala base she doesn't speak French well because she hasn't learnt the basics properly
    4. [militar, científica] base
    base aérea air base;
    base espacial space station;
    base de lanzamiento launch site;
    base naval naval base;
    base de operaciones operational base;
    [aeropuerto civil ] base (of operations)
    5. Quím base
    6. Geom base
    7. Mat base
    8. Ling base (form)
    base de datos documental documentary database;
    base de datos relacional relational database
    10. Com base de clientes customer base
    11.
    bases [para prueba, concurso] rules
    12.
    las bases [de partido, sindicato] the grass roots, the rank and file;
    afiliado de las bases grassroots member
    13. [en béisbol] base;
    Méx
    ♦ nmf
    [en baloncesto] guard
    ♦ a base de loc prep
    by (means of);
    me alimento a base de verduras I live on vegetables;
    el flan está hecho a base de huevos crème caramel is made with eggs;
    a base de no hacer nada by not doing anything;
    a base de trabajar duro fue ascendiendo puestos she moved up through the company by working hard;
    aprender a base de equivocarse to learn the hard way;
    se sacó la carrera a base de codos she got her degree by sheer hard work
    Esp Fam
    a base de bien: nos humillaron a base de bien they really humiliated us;
    lloraba a base de bien he was crying his eyes out;
    los niños disfrutaron a base de bien the children had a great time
    ♦ en base a loc prep
    [considerado incorrecto] on the basis of;
    en base a lo visto hasta ahora, no creo que puedan ganar from what I've seen so far, I don't think they can win;
    el plan se efectuará en base a lo convenido the plan will be carried out in accordance with the terms agreed upon
    * * *
    I f
    1 QUÍM, MAT, MIL, DEP base
    2
    :
    bases pl de concurso etc conditions
    3
    :
    una dieta a base de frutas a diet based on fruit, a fruit-based diet;
    consiguió comprarse una casa a base de ahorrar he managed to buy a house by (dint of) saving;
    nos divertimos a base de bien we had a really o fam a real good time
    II m/f en baloncesto guard
    * * *
    base nf
    1) : base, bottom
    2) : base (in baseball)
    3) fundamento: basis, foundation
    4)
    base de datos : database
    5)
    a base de : based on, by means of
    6)
    en base a : based on, on the basis of
    * * *
    base n
    1. (en general) base
    2. (fundamento) basis [pl. bases]

    Spanish-English dictionary > base

  • 44 aurkikunde

    iz.
    1. discovery; Amerikaren \aurkikundea the discovery of America; \aurkikunde zientifikoak scientific discoveries
    2. breakthrough, finding

    Euskara Ingelesa hiztegiaren > aurkikunde

  • 45 Jansky, Karl Guthe

    [br]
    b. 22 October 1905 Norman, Oklahoma, USA
    d. 14 February 1950 Red Bank, New Jersey, USA
    [br]
    American radio engineer who discovered stellar radio emission.
    [br]
    Following graduation from the University of Wisconsin in 1928 and a year of postgraduate study, Jansky joined Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey with the task of establishing the source of interference to telephone communications by radio. To this end he constructed a linear-directional short-wave antenna and eventually, in 1931, he concluded that the interference actually came from the stars, the major source being the constellation Sagittarius in the direction of the centre of the Milky Way. Although he continued to study the propagation of short radio waves and the nature of observed echoes, it was left to others to develop the science of radioastronomy and to use the creation of echoes for radiolocation. Although he received no scientific award for his discovery, Jansky's name is primarily honoured by its use as the unit of stellar radio-emission strength.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1935, "Directional studies of atmospherics at high frequencies", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 23:1,158.
    1935, "A note on the sources of stellar interference", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio
    Engineers.
    1937, "Minimum noise levels obtained on short-wave radio receiving systems", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 25:1,517.
    1941, "Measurements of the delay and direction of arrival of echoes from nearby short-wave transmitters", Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 29:322.
    Further Reading
    P.C.Mahon, 1975, BellLabs, Mission Communication. The Story of the Bell Labs.
    W.I.Sullivan (ed.), 1984, The Early Years of Radio-Astronomy: Reflections 50 Years after Jansky's Discovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Jansky, Karl Guthe

  • 46 Ohm, Georg Simon

    SUBJECT AREA: Electricity
    [br]
    b. 16 March 1789 Erlangen, near Nuremberg, Germany
    d. 6 July 1854 Munich, Germany
    [br]
    German physicist who laid the foundations of electrical science with his discovery of Ohm's Law.
    [br]
    Given the same first name as his father, Johann, at his baptism, Ohm was generally known by the name of Georg to avoid confusion. While still a child he became interested in science and learned many of his basic skills from his father, a mechanical engineer. After basic education he attended the Gymnasium at Erlangen for a year, then in 1805 he entered the University of Erlangen. Probably for financial reasons, he left after three terms in 1806 and obtained a post as a mathematics tutor at a school in Gottstadt, Switzerland, where he may well have begun to experiment with electrical circuits. In 1811 he returned to Erlangen. He appears to have obtained his doctorate in the same year. After studying physics for a year, he became a tutor at the Studienanstalt (girls' secondary school) at Bamberg in Bavaria. There, in 1817, he wrote a book on the teaching of geometry in schools, as a result of which King Freidrich Wilhelm III of Prussia had him appointed Oberlehrer (Senior Master) in Mathematics and Physics at the Royal Consistory in Cologne. He continued his electrical experiments and in 1826 was given a year's leave of absence to concentrate on this work, which culminated the following year in publication of his "Die galvanische Kette", in which he demonstrated his now-famous Law, that the current in a resistor is proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. Because he published only a theoretical treatment of his Law, without including the supporting experimental evidence, his conclusions were widely ignored and ridiculed by the eminent German scientists of his day; bitterly disappointed, he was forced to resign his post at the Consistory. Reduced to comparative poverty he took a position as a mathematics teacher at the Berlin Military School. Fortunately, news of his discovery became more widely known, and in 1833 he was appointed Professor at the Nuremberg Polytechnic School. Two years later he was given the Chair of Higher Mathematics at the University of Erlangen and the position of State Inspector of Scientific Education. Honoured by the Royal Society of London in 1841 and 1842, in 1849 he became Professor of Physics at Munich University, apost he held until his death.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Royal Society Copley Medal 1841. FRS 1842.
    Bibliography
    1817, "Grundlinien zu einer zweckmàssigen Behandlung der Geometric als hohern Bildungsmittels an vorbereitenden Lehranstalt".
    1827, "Die galvanische Kette, mathematische bearbeit".
    Further Reading
    F.E.Terman, 1943, Radio Engineers' Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill, Section 3 (for circuit theory based on Ohm's Law).
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Ohm, Georg Simon

  • 47 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 48 cuestión

    f.
    issue, matter, problem, subject.
    * * *
    1 (pregunta) question
    2 (asunto) business, matter, question
    3 (discusión) dispute, quarrel, argument
    \
    en cuestión in question
    en cuestión de... (tiempo) in just a few..., in a matter of...
    eso es otra cuestión that's a whole different matter
    la cuestión es que... the thing is that...
    ser cuestión de vida o muerte figurado to be a matter of life or death
    cuestión candente burning question
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=asunto) matter, question

    ¡sigue gritando, la cuestión es no dejarme tranquilo! — iró * carry on shouting, don't mind me!

    no sé por qué, pero la cuestión es que ahora soy más pobre — * I don't know why, but the fact is that I'm poorer now than I was

    • cuestión de, una cuestión de honor — a matter of honour

    todo es cuestión de proponérselo — it's all a matter o question of telling yourself you can do it

    puedes beber, pero no es cuestión de que te emborraches — you can have a drink or two, but there's no need to get drunk

    • en cuestión — in question

    quid, vida 1)
    2) (=pregunta) question
    3) (=duda)

    poner algo en cuestión — to call sth into question, raise doubts about sth

    * * *
    1)
    a) (tema, problema) question, matter

    otra cuestión sería que or si estuviera enfermo — if he were ill, that would be another matter o a different matter altogether

    la cuestión es... — the thing is...

    la cuestión es molestar — he/she only does it to annoy

    es cuestión de diez minutos — it'll only take/I'll only be ten minutes

    si fuera cuestión de dinero, no habría problema — if it were a question of money, there'd be no problem

    todo es cuestión de... — it's just a question of...

    2) ( duda)
    3) (fam) ( problema) disagreement, problem; (cosa, objeto) thing, thingamajig* (colloq)
    * * *
    = affair, consideration, enquiry [inquiry, -USA], issue, matter, point, question, topic, business [businesses, -pl.], concern, question.
    Ex. And also until Groome appeared, newcomers were a nullity as an active political force, exerting little influence in city affairs.
    Ex. This broader consideration of descriptive cataloguing problems serves to set a context for the consideration of cataloguing problems associated with nonbook materials.
    Ex. A threshold weight appropriate to the specificity of the searcher's enquiry must be established.
    Ex. These issues are reviewed more thoroughly in chapter 10.
    Ex. AACR2 generally recommends collocation although it is suggested that the extent of collocation and the need for uniform titles is a matter for local decisions.
    Ex. The point being that these systems are very much in their infancy and have a long way to go before they reach the comparable sophistication of space probes and reusable rocketry.
    Ex. One argument against including a list of questions is that often analysts will think they are the only questions that might be asked.
    Ex. A book index is an alphabetically arranged list of words or terms leading the reader to the numbers of pages on which specific topics are considered, or on which specific names appear.
    Ex. I think this whole business about whether punctuation is obtrusive or not is quite honestly not worth discussing.
    Ex. Her article lays emphasis on some of the concerns that are important to the continued development of effective information policies.
    Ex. The question is not how much time we have, but what we do with it and how we utilize it.
    ----
    * aclarar una cuestión = clarify + matter, clarify + issue.
    * adoptar una postura firme ante una cuestión = take + position on + issue.
    * analizar una cuestión = explore + question, explore + issue.
    * cuestión administrativa = management issue, administrative issue.
    * cuestión candente = burning issue, burning question.
    * cuestión científica = scientific issue.
    * cuestión controvertida = vexed question, vexing question.
    * cuestión crítica = critical issue.
    * cuestión debatible = debatable point.
    * cuestión de importancia = matter of consequence.
    * cuestión delicada = sensitive issue.
    * cuestión de vida o muerte = life or death issue.
    * cuestión difícil = thorny issue, thorny question, poser.
    * cuestión económica = economic issue, financial issue.
    * cuestiones = matters.
    * cuestiones bibliotecarias = library issues.
    * cuestiones clave = key issues.
    * cuestiones de intendencia = housekeeping.
    * cuestiones de reglamento = policy issue.
    * cuestiones implicadas = issues involved.
    * cuestión específica = topical issue.
    * cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].
    * cuestiones prácticas = mechanics, how-to.
    * cuestiones problemáticas = problem areas.
    * cuestiones sociales = social affairs.
    * cuestiones técnicas = check + under the hood, crawl + under the hood.
    * cuestión ética = ethical issue.
    * cuestión financiera = financial issue.
    * cuestión + girar en torno a = question + revolve around.
    * cuestión histórica = historical issue.
    * cuestión imprescindible = imperative.
    * cuestión insignificante = matter of no consequence.
    * cuestión laboral = work-related issue.
    * cuestión legal = legal issue.
    * cuestión negociable = negotiable point.
    * cuestión peliaguda = sticky issue.
    * cuestión personal = life issue, personal issue.
    * cuestión polémica = vexed question, vexing question.
    * cuestión política = political issue.
    * cuestión práctica = practicality.
    * cuestión problemática = issue of concern, sticky issue.
    * cuestión relacionada con el trabajo = work-related issue.
    * cuestión sin importancia = matter of no consequence.
    * cuestión sin trascendencia = matter of no consequence.
    * cuestión social = social issue, societal issue.
    * cuestión + surgir = issue + surface.
    * cuestión técnica = technical issue.
    * cuestión tecnológica = technological issue.
    * debatir una cuestión = discuss + idea, discuss + issue.
    * dejar la cuestión abierta = leave + the question open.
    * desviarse del tema en cuestión = go off on + another track.
    * discutir una cuestión = air + issue.
    * el quid de la cuestión = the crux of the problem, the crux of the matter.
    * eludir una cuestión = dodge + issue.
    * en cuestión = at hand, concerned, in hand, in question, individual, at issue, of concern.
    * en cuestión de minutos = within minutes, in a matter of minutes.
    * en cuestión de segundos = within seconds, in a matter of seconds.
    * en cuestión de + Tiempo = in a matter of + Tiempo, within a matter of + Tiempo.
    * en cuestiones de = in matters of.
    * enfrentarse a una cuestión = run up against + issue.
    * en las cuestiones relacionadas con = in the areas of.
    * esa es la cuestión = herein lies the rub, there's the rub.
    * esquivar la cuestión = sidestep + the issue.
    * esquivar una cuestión = dodge + issue.
    * estado de la cuestión = state of the art.
    * estudio crítico del estado de la cuestión = review.
    * estudio del estado de la cuestión = survey.
    * evitar discutir una cuestión = circumvent + issue.
    * evitar una cuestión = skirt + issue, tiptoe around + issue.
    * exponer una cuestión = raise + point.
    * informe del estado de la cuestión = state of the art report, state of the art review.
    * la cuestión es que = the thing is.
    * la juventud no es cuestión de edad sino de espíritu = you are as old as you feel.
    * llegar al fondo de la cuestión = see to the + bottom of things.
    * llegar al meollo de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llegar al quid de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llevar a hablar de una cuestión = bring up + issue.
    * mencionar una cuestión = bring up + matter, bring up + point.
    * meollo de la cuestión, el = heart of the matter, the, heart of the question, the.
    * no ser cuestión de = there + be + no question of.
    * partes en cuestión, las = parties concerned, the.
    * plantearle a Alguien una cuestión = put before + Nombre + an issue.
    * plantear una cuestión = bring forth + issue, issue + arise, pose + question, raise + argument, raise + issue, raise + point, open up + issue.
    * poner en cuestión = call into + question, render + questionable.
    * poner en cuestión la validez de = bring into + question the validity of, question + the validity of.
    * proyección de cuestiones de interés = issues management.
    * quid de la cuestión, el = heart of the matter, the, heart of the question, the.
    * relacionado con cuestiones raciales = race-related.
    * resolver las cuestiones menores = work out + details.
    * resolver una cuestión = resolve + point, resolve + question, issue + settle.
    * responder la cuestión = get behind + the question.
    * sacar a colación una cuestión = bring up + matter, bring up + issue, bring up + point.
    * ser cuestión de = come down to.
    * ser la cuestión = be the point.
    * ser una cuestión de = be a matter for/of.
    * ser una cuestión debatible = be an open question.
    * ser una cuestión problemática = be at issue.
    * surgir una cuestión = issue + arise, arise + question.
    * suscitar una cuestión = evoke + issue, open up + issue.
    * tocar una cuestión = touch on/upon + issue.
    * tratar la cuestión de = get to + the issue of.
    * tratar una cuestión = address + constraint, address + issue, address + question, consider + issue, tackle + issue, address + concern, deal with + issue, broach + issue, broach + question, grapple with + issue.
    * tratar una cuestión ligeramente = touch on/upon + issue.
    * una cuestión de principios = a matter of principle.
    * una cuestión de vida o muerte = a matter of life and death.
    * zanjar la cuestión = clinch + the affair, clinch + the argument.
    * * *
    1)
    a) (tema, problema) question, matter

    otra cuestión sería que or si estuviera enfermo — if he were ill, that would be another matter o a different matter altogether

    la cuestión es... — the thing is...

    la cuestión es molestar — he/she only does it to annoy

    es cuestión de diez minutos — it'll only take/I'll only be ten minutes

    si fuera cuestión de dinero, no habría problema — if it were a question of money, there'd be no problem

    todo es cuestión de... — it's just a question of...

    2) ( duda)
    3) (fam) ( problema) disagreement, problem; (cosa, objeto) thing, thingamajig* (colloq)
    * * *
    = affair, consideration, enquiry [inquiry, -USA], issue, matter, point, question, topic, business [businesses, -pl.], concern, question.

    Ex: And also until Groome appeared, newcomers were a nullity as an active political force, exerting little influence in city affairs.

    Ex: This broader consideration of descriptive cataloguing problems serves to set a context for the consideration of cataloguing problems associated with nonbook materials.
    Ex: A threshold weight appropriate to the specificity of the searcher's enquiry must be established.
    Ex: These issues are reviewed more thoroughly in chapter 10.
    Ex: AACR2 generally recommends collocation although it is suggested that the extent of collocation and the need for uniform titles is a matter for local decisions.
    Ex: The point being that these systems are very much in their infancy and have a long way to go before they reach the comparable sophistication of space probes and reusable rocketry.
    Ex: One argument against including a list of questions is that often analysts will think they are the only questions that might be asked.
    Ex: A book index is an alphabetically arranged list of words or terms leading the reader to the numbers of pages on which specific topics are considered, or on which specific names appear.
    Ex: I think this whole business about whether punctuation is obtrusive or not is quite honestly not worth discussing.
    Ex: Her article lays emphasis on some of the concerns that are important to the continued development of effective information policies.
    Ex: The question is not how much time we have, but what we do with it and how we utilize it.
    * aclarar una cuestión = clarify + matter, clarify + issue.
    * adoptar una postura firme ante una cuestión = take + position on + issue.
    * analizar una cuestión = explore + question, explore + issue.
    * cuestión administrativa = management issue, administrative issue.
    * cuestión candente = burning issue, burning question.
    * cuestión científica = scientific issue.
    * cuestión controvertida = vexed question, vexing question.
    * cuestión crítica = critical issue.
    * cuestión debatible = debatable point.
    * cuestión de importancia = matter of consequence.
    * cuestión delicada = sensitive issue.
    * cuestión de vida o muerte = life or death issue.
    * cuestión difícil = thorny issue, thorny question, poser.
    * cuestión económica = economic issue, financial issue.
    * cuestiones = matters.
    * cuestiones bibliotecarias = library issues.
    * cuestiones clave = key issues.
    * cuestiones de intendencia = housekeeping.
    * cuestiones de reglamento = policy issue.
    * cuestiones implicadas = issues involved.
    * cuestión específica = topical issue.
    * cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].
    * cuestiones prácticas = mechanics, how-to.
    * cuestiones problemáticas = problem areas.
    * cuestiones sociales = social affairs.
    * cuestiones técnicas = check + under the hood, crawl + under the hood.
    * cuestión ética = ethical issue.
    * cuestión financiera = financial issue.
    * cuestión + girar en torno a = question + revolve around.
    * cuestión histórica = historical issue.
    * cuestión imprescindible = imperative.
    * cuestión insignificante = matter of no consequence.
    * cuestión laboral = work-related issue.
    * cuestión legal = legal issue.
    * cuestión negociable = negotiable point.
    * cuestión peliaguda = sticky issue.
    * cuestión personal = life issue, personal issue.
    * cuestión polémica = vexed question, vexing question.
    * cuestión política = political issue.
    * cuestión práctica = practicality.
    * cuestión problemática = issue of concern, sticky issue.
    * cuestión relacionada con el trabajo = work-related issue.
    * cuestión sin importancia = matter of no consequence.
    * cuestión sin trascendencia = matter of no consequence.
    * cuestión social = social issue, societal issue.
    * cuestión + surgir = issue + surface.
    * cuestión técnica = technical issue.
    * cuestión tecnológica = technological issue.
    * debatir una cuestión = discuss + idea, discuss + issue.
    * dejar la cuestión abierta = leave + the question open.
    * desviarse del tema en cuestión = go off on + another track.
    * discutir una cuestión = air + issue.
    * el quid de la cuestión = the crux of the problem, the crux of the matter.
    * eludir una cuestión = dodge + issue.
    * en cuestión = at hand, concerned, in hand, in question, individual, at issue, of concern.
    * en cuestión de minutos = within minutes, in a matter of minutes.
    * en cuestión de segundos = within seconds, in a matter of seconds.
    * en cuestión de + Tiempo = in a matter of + Tiempo, within a matter of + Tiempo.
    * en cuestiones de = in matters of.
    * enfrentarse a una cuestión = run up against + issue.
    * en las cuestiones relacionadas con = in the areas of.
    * esa es la cuestión = herein lies the rub, there's the rub.
    * esquivar la cuestión = sidestep + the issue.
    * esquivar una cuestión = dodge + issue.
    * estado de la cuestión = state of the art.
    * estudio crítico del estado de la cuestión = review.
    * estudio del estado de la cuestión = survey.
    * evitar discutir una cuestión = circumvent + issue.
    * evitar una cuestión = skirt + issue, tiptoe around + issue.
    * exponer una cuestión = raise + point.
    * informe del estado de la cuestión = state of the art report, state of the art review.
    * la cuestión es que = the thing is.
    * la juventud no es cuestión de edad sino de espíritu = you are as old as you feel.
    * llegar al fondo de la cuestión = see to the + bottom of things.
    * llegar al meollo de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llegar al quid de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.
    * llevar a hablar de una cuestión = bring up + issue.
    * mencionar una cuestión = bring up + matter, bring up + point.
    * meollo de la cuestión, el = heart of the matter, the, heart of the question, the.
    * no ser cuestión de = there + be + no question of.
    * partes en cuestión, las = parties concerned, the.
    * plantearle a Alguien una cuestión = put before + Nombre + an issue.
    * plantear una cuestión = bring forth + issue, issue + arise, pose + question, raise + argument, raise + issue, raise + point, open up + issue.
    * poner en cuestión = call into + question, render + questionable.
    * poner en cuestión la validez de = bring into + question the validity of, question + the validity of.
    * proyección de cuestiones de interés = issues management.
    * quid de la cuestión, el = heart of the matter, the, heart of the question, the.
    * relacionado con cuestiones raciales = race-related.
    * resolver las cuestiones menores = work out + details.
    * resolver una cuestión = resolve + point, resolve + question, issue + settle.
    * responder la cuestión = get behind + the question.
    * sacar a colación una cuestión = bring up + matter, bring up + issue, bring up + point.
    * ser cuestión de = come down to.
    * ser la cuestión = be the point.
    * ser una cuestión de = be a matter for/of.
    * ser una cuestión debatible = be an open question.
    * ser una cuestión problemática = be at issue.
    * surgir una cuestión = issue + arise, arise + question.
    * suscitar una cuestión = evoke + issue, open up + issue.
    * tocar una cuestión = touch on/upon + issue.
    * tratar la cuestión de = get to + the issue of.
    * tratar una cuestión = address + constraint, address + issue, address + question, consider + issue, tackle + issue, address + concern, deal with + issue, broach + issue, broach + question, grapple with + issue.
    * tratar una cuestión ligeramente = touch on/upon + issue.
    * una cuestión de principios = a matter of principle.
    * una cuestión de vida o muerte = a matter of life and death.
    * zanjar la cuestión = clinch + the affair, clinch + the argument.

    * * *
    A
    1 (tema, problema) question, matter
    es experto en cuestiones de derecho internacional he is an expert on matters o questions of international law
    otra cuestión sería que or si estuviera enfermo if he were ill, that would be another matter o a different matter
    llegar al fondo de la cuestión to get to the heart of the matter o issue, to get to the root of the problem
    2 ( en locs):
    en cuestión in question
    el museo en cuestión va a ser clausurado the museum in question is going to be closed
    en cuestión de in a matter of
    aprendió inglés en cuestión de meses she learnt English in a matter of months
    la cuestión es … the thing is …
    la cuestión es que no tengo tiempo the problem o thing is that I don't have time
    la cuestiónes divertirnos the main thing is to enjoy ourselves
    pide por pedir, la cuestión es molestar she asks just for the sake of asking, she only does it to annoy
    ser cuestión de to be a matter o question of
    es una cuestión de principios it's a matter o question of principle
    en taxi es cuestión de diez minutos it's only a ten-minute taxi ride
    si fuera cuestión de dinero, no habría problema if it were a question of money, there'd be no problem
    todo es cuestión de darle tiempo al tiempo it's just a question of waiting
    todo es cuestión de poner atención it's just o all a question of concentrating, it's just o all a matter of concentration
    será cuestión de planteárselo y ver we'll just have to put it to him and see
    tampoco es cuestión de enloquecernos there's no need to get in a flap ( colloq)
    ayúdala, pero tampoco es cuestión de que lo hagas todo tú help her by all means, but there's no reason why you should do it all yourself
    B
    (duda): poner algo en cuestión to call sth into question, to raise questions o doubts about sth
    este descubrimiento pone en cuestión la validez del método this discovery raises questions about o raises doubts about o calls into question the validity of the method
    C ( fam)
    1 (problema) disagreement, problem
    2 (cosa, objeto) thing, thingamajig* ( colloq)
    * * *

     

    cuestión sustantivo femenino
    a) (tema, problema) question, matter;

    ◊ cuestiones de derecho internacional matters o questions of international law;

    llegar al fondo de la cuestión to get to the heart of the matter
    b) ( en locs)


    en cuestión de in a matter of;
    la cuestión es … the thing is …;
    la cuestión es divertirnos the main thing is to enjoy ourselves;
    ser cuestión de to be a matter of;
    todo es cuestión de … it's just a question of …
    cuestión sustantivo femenino
    1 (asunto) matter, question
    2 (pregunta) question
    ♦ Locuciones: en cuestión, in question: el muchacho en cuestión, the boy in questión
    en cuestión de unas horas, in just a few hours
    poner en cuestión algo, to doubt sthg
    si te cansas de conducir, es cuestión de parar en cualquier lado, if you get tired of driving, we can stop anywhere
    ' cuestión' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    discutir
    - inaccesible
    - indecisa
    - indeciso
    - intrincada
    - intrincado
    - palpitante
    - quid
    - radicar
    - resolverse
    - seno
    - soslayar
    - tratar
    - volar
    - asunto
    - chabolismo
    - delicado
    - empezar
    - fondo
    - plantear
    - tema
    - vida
    English:
    arise
    - burning
    - cast
    - crux
    - issue
    - matter
    - morality
    - nitty-gritty
    - open
    - pose
    - principle
    - proceed
    - question
    - raise
    - stake
    - undecided
    - vexed
    - whip on
    - come
    - point
    * * *
    1. [pregunta] question
    2. [problema] problem;
    no es cuestión de tamaño sino de peso it's a question o matter of weight not size
    3. [asunto] matter, issue;
    una cuestión de honor/de principios a matter of honour/principle;
    los investigadores quieren llegar al fondo de la cuestión the investigators want to get to the bottom of the matter;
    la cuestión es que no he tenido tiempo the thing is, I haven't had time;
    en cuestión in question;
    el candidato en cuestión es venezolano the candidate in question is Venezuelan;
    tenemos que discutir el tema en cuestión we must discuss the matter at hand;
    en cuestión de [en materia de] as regards;
    en cuestión de una hora in no more than an hour;
    el edificio se hundió en cuestión de segundos the building collapsed in a matter of seconds;
    es cuestión de un par de días it is a matter of a couple of days;
    ya acabo, es cuestión de cinco minutos I'm nearly finished, I'll only be five minutes;
    es cuestión de trabajar más it's a question of working harder;
    será cuestión de ir yéndose it's time we were on our way;
    será cuestión de esforzarnos más we'll just have to work harder;
    no es cuestión de que el abuelo se ponga a hacerlo there's no need for grandad to have to do it
    4.
    poner algo en cuestión to call sth into question
    * * *
    f
    1 question
    2 ( asunto) matter, question;
    en cuestión de dinero as far as money is concerned;
    no es cuestión de dinero it’s not a question of money;
    en cuestión in question;
    la cuestión es que the thing is
    * * *
    cuestión nf, pl - tiones asunto, tema: matter, affair
    * * *
    1. (asunto) matter
    2. (pregunta) question

    Spanish-English dictionary > cuestión

  • 49 Appleton, Sir Edward Victor

    [br]
    b. 6 September 1892 Bradford, England
    d. 21 April 1965 Edinburgh, Scotland
    [br]
    English physicist awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the ionospheric layer, named after him, which is an efficient reflector of short radio waves, thereby making possible long-distance radio communication.
    [br]
    After early ambitions to become a professional cricketer, Appleton went to St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied under J.J.Thompson and Ernest Rutherford. His academic career interrupted by the First World War, he served as a captain in the Royal Engineers, carrying out investigations into the propagation and fading of radio signals. After the war he joined the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, as a demonstrator in 1920, and in 1924 he moved to King's College, London, as Wheatstone Professor of Physics.
    In the following decade he contributed to developments in valve oscillators (in particular, the "squegging" oscillator, which formed the basis of the first hard-valve time-base) and gained international recognition for research into electromagnetic-wave propagation. His most important contribution was to confirm the existence of a conducting ionospheric layer in the upper atmosphere capable of reflecting radio waves, which had been predicted almost simultaneously by Heaviside and Kennelly in 1902. This he did by persuading the BBC in 1924 to vary the frequency of their Bournemouth transmitter, and he then measured the signal received at Cambridge. By comparing the direct and reflected rays and the daily variation he was able to deduce that the Kennelly- Heaviside (the so-called E-layer) was at a height of about 60 miles (97 km) above the earth and that there was a further layer (the Appleton or F-layer) at about 150 miles (240 km), the latter being an efficient reflector of the shorter radio waves that penetrated the lower layers. During the period 1927–32 and aided by Hartree, he established a magneto-ionic theory to explain the existence of the ionosphere. He was instrumental in obtaining agreement for international co-operation for ionospheric and other measurements in the form of the Second Polar Year (1932–3) and, much later, the International Geophysical Year (1957–8). For all this work, which made it possible to forecast the optimum frequencies for long-distance short-wave communication as a function of the location of transmitter and receiver and of the time of day and year, in 1947 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics.
    He returned to Cambridge as Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1939, and with M.F. Barnett he investigated the possible use of radio waves for radio-location of aircraft. In 1939 he became Secretary of the Government Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, a post he held for ten years. During the Second World War he contributed to the development of both radar and the atomic bomb, and subsequently served on government committees concerned with the use of atomic energy (which led to the establishment of Harwell) and with scientific staff.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted (KCB 1941, GBE 1946). Nobel Prize for Physics 1947. FRS 1927. Vice- President, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 1932. Royal Society Hughes Medal 1933. Institute of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1946. Vice-Chancellor, Edinburgh University 1947. Institution of Civil Engineers Ewing Medal 1949. Royal Medallist 1950. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1962. President, British Association 1953. President, Radio Industry Council 1955–7. Légion d'honneur. LLD University of St Andrews 1947.
    Bibliography
    1925, joint paper with Barnett, Nature 115:333 (reports Appleton's studies of the ionosphere).
    1928, "Some notes of wireless methods of investigating the electrical structure of the upper atmosphere", Proceedings of the Physical Society 41(Part III):43. 1932, Thermionic Vacuum Tubes and Their Applications (his work on valves).
    1947, "The investigation and forecasting of ionospheric conditions", Journal of the
    Institution of Electrical Engineers 94, Part IIIA: 186 (a review of British work on the exploration of the ionosphere).
    with J.F.Herd \& R.A.Watson-Watt, British patent no. 235,254 (squegging oscillator).
    Further Reading
    Who Was Who, 1961–70 1972, VI, London: A. \& C.Black (for fuller details of honours). R.Clark, 1971, Sir Edward Appleton, Pergamon (biography).
    J.Jewkes, D.Sawers \& R.Stillerman, 1958, The Sources of Invention.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Appleton, Sir Edward Victor

  • 50 Cowper-Coles, Sherard Osborn

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 8 October 1866 East Harting, Sussex, England
    d. 9 September 1936
    [br]
    English inventor of the sherardizing process for metal protection.
    [br]
    He was the son of Captain Cowper- Coles, Royal Navy, the inventor of the swivelling turret for naval guns. He inherited his father's inventive talents and investigated a variety of inventions in his workshop at his home at Sunbury-on-Thames, assisted by a number of scientific workers. He had been educated by governesses, but he lacked a sound scientific background. His inventions, rarely systematically pursued, ranged from electrolytic processes for making copper sheets and parabolic reflectors to a process for inlaying and decorating metallic surfaces. Overall, however, he is best known for the invention of "sherardizing", the process for producing a rustproof coating of zinc on small metallic articles. The discovery came by chance, when he was annealing iron and steel packed in zinc dust to exclude air. The metal was found to be coated with a thin layer of zinc with some surface penetration. The first patent for the process was obtained in 1900, and later the American rights were sold, with a company being formed in 1908 to control them. A small plant was set up in Chelsea, London, to develop the process to the point where it could be carried out on a commercial scale in a plant in Willesden. Sherardizing has not been a general protective finish, but is restricted to articles such as nuts and bolts which are then painted or finished. The process was still in use in 1977, operated by the Zinc Alloy Company (London) Ltd.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    C.A.Smith, 1978, "Sherard Cowper-Coles: a review of the inception of sherardizing", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 49:1–4.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Cowper-Coles, Sherard Osborn

  • 51 Henry, Joseph

    [br]
    b. 17 December 1797 Albany, New York, USA
    d. 13 May 1878 Washington, DC, USA
    [br]
    American scientist after whom the unit of inductance is named.
    [br]
    Sent to stay with relatives at the age of 6 because of the illness of his father, when the latter died in 1811 Henry was apprenticed to a silversmith and then turned to the stage. Whilst he was ill himself, a book on science fired his interest and he began studying at Albany Academy, working as a tutor to finance his studies. Initially intending to pursue medicine, he then spent some time as a surveyor before becoming Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Albany Academy in 1826. There he became interested in the improvement of electromagnets and discovered that the use of an increased number of turns of wire round the core greatly increased their power; by 1831 he was able to supply to Yale a magnet capable of lifting almost a ton weight. During this time he also discovered the principles of magnetic induction and self-inductance. In the same year he made, but did not patent, a cable telegraph system capable of working over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km). It was at this time, too, that he found that adiabatic expansion of gases led to their sudden cooling, thus paving the way for the development of refrigerators. For this he was recommended for, but never received, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. Five years later he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at New Jersey College (later Princeton University), where he deduced the laws governing the operation of transformers and observed that changes in magnetic flux induced electric currents in conductors. Later he also observed that spark discharges caused electrical effects at a distance. He therefore came close to the discovery of radio waves. In 1836 he was granted a year's leave of absence and travelled to Europe, where he was able to meet Michael Faraday. It was with his help that in 1844 Samuel Morse set up the first patented electric telegraph, but, sadly, the latter seems to have reaped all the credit and financial rewards. In 1846 he became the first secretary of the Washington Smithsonian Institute and did much to develop government support for scientific research. As a result of his efforts some 500 telegraph stations across the country were equipped with meteorological equipment to supply weather information by telegraph to a central location, a facility that eventually became the US National Weather Bureau. From 1852 he was a member of the Lighthouse Board, contributing to improvements in lighting and sound warning systems and becoming its chairman in 1871. During the Civil War he was a technical advisor to President Lincoln. He was a founder of the National Academy of Science and served as its President for eleven years.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, American Association for the Advancement of Science 1849. President, National Academy of Science 1893–1904. In 1893, to honour his work on induction, the International Congress of Electricians adopted the henry as the unit of inductance.
    Bibliography
    1824. "On the chemical and mechanical effects of steam". 1825. "The production of cold by the rarefaction of air".
    1832, "On the production of currents \& sparks of electricity \& magnetism", American
    Journal of Science 22:403.
    "Theory of the so-called imponderables", Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 6:84.
    Further Reading
    Smithsonian Institution, 1886, Joseph Henry, Scientific Writings, Washington DC.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Henry, Joseph

  • 52 Wilde, Henry

    SUBJECT AREA: Electricity
    [br]
    b. 1833 Manchester, England
    d. 28 March 1919 Alderley Edge, Cheshire, England
    [br]
    English inventor and pioneer manufacturer of electrical generators.
    [br]
    After completing a mechanical engineering apprenticeship Wilde commenced in business as a telegraph and lightning conductor specialist in Lancashire. Several years spent on the design of an alphabetic telegraph resulted in a number of patents. In 1864 he secured a patent for an electromagnetic generator which gave alternating current from a shuttle-wound armature, the field being excited by a small direct-current magneto. Wilde's invention was described to the Royal Society by Faraday in March 1866. When demonstrated at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, Wilde's machine produced sufficient power to maintain an arc light. The small size of the generator provided a contrast to the large and heavy magnetoelectric machines also exhibited. He discovered, by experiment, that alternators in synchronism could be connected in parallel. At about the same time John Hopkinson arrived at the same conclusions on theoretical grounds.
    Between 1866 and 1877 he sold ninety-four machines with commutators for electroplating purposes, a number being purchased by Elkingtons of Birmingham. He also supplied generators for the first use of electric searchlights on battleships. In his early experiments Wilde was extremely close to the discovery of true self-excitation from remnant magnetism, a principle which he was to discover in 1867 on machines intended for electroplating. His patents proved to be financially successful and he retired from business in 1884. During the remaining thirty-five years of his life he published many scientific papers, turning from experimental work to philosophical and, finally, theological matters. His record as an inventor established him as a pioneer of electrical engineering, but his lack of scientific training was to restrict his later contributions.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1886.
    Bibliography
    1 December 1863, British patent no. 3,006 (alternator with a magneto-exciter).
    1866, Proceedings of the Royal Society 14:107–11 (first report on Wilde's experiments). 1900, autobiographical note, Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 29:3–17.
    Further Reading
    W.W.Haldane Gee. 1920, biography, Memoirs, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society 63:1–16 (a comprehensive account).
    P.Dunsheath, 1962, A History of Electrical Engineering, London: Faber \& Faber, pp. 110–12 (a short account).
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Wilde, Henry

  • 53 Logic

       My initial step... was to attempt to reduce the concept of ordering in a sequence to that of logical consequence, so as to proceed from there to the concept of number. To prevent anything intuitive from penetrating here unnoticed, I had to bend every effort to keep the chain of inference free of gaps. In attempting to comply with this requirement in the strictest possible way, I found the inadequacy of language to be an obstacle. (Frege, 1972, p. 104)
       I believe I can make the relation of my 'conceptual notation' to ordinary language clearest if I compare it to the relation of the microscope to the eye. The latter, because of the range of its applicability and because of the ease with which it can adapt itself to the most varied circumstances, has a great superiority over the microscope. Of course, viewed as an optical instrument it reveals many imperfections, which usually remain unnoticed only because of its intimate connection with mental life. But as soon as scientific purposes place strong requirements upon sharpness of resolution, the eye proves to be inadequate.... Similarly, this 'conceptual notation' is devised for particular scientific purposes; and therefore one may not condemn it because it is useless for other purposes. (Frege, 1972, pp. 104-105)
       To sum up briefly, it is the business of the logician to conduct an unceasing struggle against psychology and those parts of language and grammar which fail to give untrammeled expression to what is logical. He does not have to answer the question: How does thinking normally take place in human beings? What course does it naturally follow in the human mind? What is natural to one person may well be unnatural to another. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)
       We are very dependent on external aids in our thinking, and there is no doubt that the language of everyday life-so far, at least, as a certain area of discourse is concerned-had first to be replaced by a more sophisticated instrument, before certain distinctions could be noticed. But so far the academic world has, for the most part, disdained to master this instrument. (Frege, 1979, pp. 6-7)
       There is no reproach the logician need fear less than the reproach that his way of formulating things is unnatural.... If we were to heed those who object that logic is unnatural, we would run the risk of becoming embroiled in interminable disputes about what is natural, disputes which are quite incapable of being resolved within the province of logic. (Frege, 1979, p. 128)
       [L]inguists will be forced, internally as it were, to come to grips with the results of modern logic. Indeed, this is apparently already happening to some extent. By "logic" is not meant here recursive function-theory, California model-theory, constructive proof-theory, or even axiomatic settheory. Such areas may or may not be useful for linguistics. Rather under "logic" are included our good old friends, the homely locutions "and," "or," "if-then," "if and only if," "not," "for all x," "for some x," and "is identical with," plus the calculus of individuals, event-logic, syntax, denotational semantics, and... various parts of pragmatics.... It is to these that the linguist can most profitably turn for help. These are his tools. And they are "clean tools," to borrow a phrase of the late J. L. Austin in another context, in fact, the only really clean ones we have, so that we might as well use them as much as we can. But they constitute only what may be called "baby logic." Baby logic is to the linguist what "baby mathematics" (in the phrase of Murray Gell-Mann) is to the theoretical physicist-very elementary but indispensable domains of theory in both cases. (Martin, 1969, pp. 261-262)
       There appears to be no branch of deductive inference that requires us to assume the existence of a mental logic in order to do justice to the psychological phenomena. To be logical, an individual requires, not formal rules of inference, but a tacit knowledge of the fundamental semantic principle governing any inference; a deduction is valid provided that there is no way of interpreting the premises correctly that is inconsistent with the conclusion. Logic provides a systematic method for searching for such counter-examples. The empirical evidence suggests that ordinary individuals possess no such methods. (Johnson-Laird, quoted in Mehler, Walker & Garrett, 1982, p. 130)
       The fundamental paradox of logic [that "there is no class (as a totality) of those classes which, each taken as a totality, do not belong to themselves" (Russell to Frege, 16 June 1902, in van Heijenoort, 1967, p. 125)] is with us still, bequeathed by Russell-by way of philosophy, mathematics, and even computer science-to the whole of twentieth-century thought. Twentieth-century philosophy would begin not with a foundation for logic, as Russell had hoped in 1900, but with the discovery in 1901 that no such foundation can be laid. (Everdell, 1997, p. 184)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Logic

  • 54 mark

    ̈ɪmɑ:k I сущ.
    1) марка (денежная единица Германии)
    2) марка (старинная английская монета) II
    1. сущ.
    1) знак;
    метка mark of exclamation ≈ восклицательный знак - "!" accent mark, stress mark ≈ знак ударения diacritical mark ≈ диакритический знак punctuation mark ≈ знак препинания question mark, mark of interrogation ≈ знак вопроса, вопросительный знак quotation mark ≈ кавычка marks of omission ≈ многоточие
    2) а) штамп, штемпель б) фабричная марка, фабричное клеймо;
    торговая марка в) ярлык;
    ценник
    3) метка, ориентир;
    зарубка;
    веха
    4) спорт линия старта, старт
    5) а) отпечаток, след to leave, make one's mark ≈ оставлять след What made those marks on the wall? ≈ От чего остались такие следы на стене? They will leave their mark on history. ≈ Они оставят след в истории. distinguishing mark ≈ отличительный знак/признак, примета indelible mark ≈ неизгладимый след б) шрам, рубец
    6) показатель, признак mark of respect ≈ знак уважения Syn: characteristic
    7) мишень, цель If that was meant to be an apology, your words were way off the mark. ≈ Если предполагалось, что это извинение, то ваши слова не достигли цели. Syn: target, goal, objective, intent, point, track, bull's-eye
    8) норма;
    уровень, стандарт;
    критерий, мерило The employee's work has been below the mark this week. ≈ Работа служащего на этой неделе была ниже всех уровней. above the mark below the mark up to the mark within the mark Syn: standard, criterion, yardstick, touchstone
    9) балл, отметка;
    оценка( знаний) The student received passing marks in all subjects. ≈ Студент получил проходные баллы по всем предметам. Syn: grade;
    rating
    10) известность to make one's mark ≈ выдвинуться, отличиться;
    сделать карьеру;
    приобрести известность of mark ≈ известный( о человеке)
    11) ист. рубеж;
    марка (пограничная область) ∙ easy mark soft mark
    2. гл.
    1) ставить знак, ставить метку
    2) а) штамповать, штемпелевать б) ставить фабричную марку, торговую марку в) ставить цену( на товаре)
    3) отмечать, обозначать, размечать, ставить метки, вехи
    4) а) оставить след, пятно;
    тж. перен. That wet glass will mark the table. ≈ Этот мокрый стакан оставит след на столе. б) оставлять шрам, рубец (и т. п.) ∙ Syn: spot, streak, stain;
    scratch, scar, cut, nick, dent, leave an impression on, pock, pit
    5) а) ставить балл, отметку, оценивать The teacher marked the examination papers. ≈ Учитель проставил оценки в экзаменационных работах. Syn: grade, correct, judge, rate б) записывать (очки в игре)
    6) отмечать, характеризовать, показывать Well-kept houses mark a good neighborhood. ≈ Дома, которые содержатся в порядке, являются показателем хорошего соседского окружения. Syn: indicate, reveal, disclose, show, point out, designate, denote;
    characterize, typify, symbolize
    7) обращать внимание, замечать, запоминать
    8) (за) регистрировать биржевую сделку (с включением ее в официальную котировку) ∙ mark down mark off mark out mark up mark time знак - punctuation *s знаки препинания - exclamation * восклицательный знак;
    знак факториала - interrogation *, * of interrogation вопросительный знак - * of accent ударение, знак ударения - * of cadency (геральдика) знак принадлежности к младшей линии - he could not write his name but he made his * он поставил крест вместо подписи - John Smith, his * крест (поставленный вместо подписи) Джона Смита метка, пометка - to put a * against smb.'s name поставить галочку против чьего-л. имени - there were no (laundry) *s on his linen на его белье не было меток (прачечной) штамп, штемпель клеймо, тавро;
    фабричная марка, фабричное клеймо;
    торговый знак штемпель (которым ставится фабричное клеймо) ярлык (с указанием цены;
    ценник (тж. price *) ориентир;
    метка;
    зарубка;
    веха - the tower was a * for fliers башня служила ориентиром для летчиков - he went by *s left on the trees он двигался по зарубкам на деревьях, зарубки на деревьях служили ему ориентиром отметка, черта - check * (спортивное) контрольная метка - the * on the scale отметка на шкале - high-water * (морское) отметка уровня полной воды, уровень прилива;
    высшее достижение /-ая точка/;
    кульминационный пункт - low-water * (морское) отметка уровня малой воды, низшая точка отлива;
    (низший) предел, самый низкий уровень - the * on the sounding-line (морское) метка или указатель на лотлине - Plimsoll's * (морское) марка Плимсола, грузовая марка( спортивное) линия старта, старт - to get off the * стартовать, взять старт - to toe the * встать на стартовую черту - on your *s! на старт!;
    по местам! (спортивное) линия финиша след - tyre *s следы шин - you have left /made/ dirty *s on the floor вы наследили на полу шрам, рубец;
    порез, царапина - there were *s of smallpox on his face его лицо было изрыто оспой след, отпечаток - *s of illness следы болезни - your association with him has left its * on you твое общение с ним наложило на тебя отпечаток /не прошло для тебя бесследно/ - sorrow left its * on her face горе оставило следы на ее лице - his novel bears *s of haste видно, что этот роман писался в спешке( родимое) пятно, родинка (тж. mother's *) - they identified her by the * on her arm они опознали ее по родимому пятну на руке - a horse with a white * on its head лошадь с белым пятном /с белой звездой/ на голове норма;
    стандарт;
    уровень - (to be) below /beneath/ the * (быть) ниже принятой /установленной/ нормы, (быть) ниже должного уровня;
    (быть) не на высоте (положения) - to be near the * приближаться к принятой /установленной/ норме, приближаться к принятому /установленному/ стандарту - (to be) within the * (быть /находиться/) в пределах принятой /установленной/ нормы - (to be) up to the * (быть) на должной высоте - to keep smb. up to the * добиваться от кого-л. хороших показателей;
    (быть) в хорошем состоянии /в хорошей форме, в добром здравии/ - he doesn't feel quite up to the * он неважно себя чувствует, он не в форме - to overstep the *, to go beyond the * выходить за границы дозволенного, переходить границы;
    зайти слишком далеко, хватить через край отметка, балл, оценка (знаний, поведения) - bad * плохая отметка;
    что-л. говорящее не в пользу( кого-л.) ;
    то, что можно поставить в минус( кому-л.;
    тж. black *) - this is a black * against him это ему припомнят - good * хорошая отметка;
    похвала;
    почет, что-л. говорящее в пользу ( кого-л.) - good * in English хорошая отметка по английскому языку - the highest * высший балл, высшая оценка - to get a good * at an examination получить хорошую отметку на экзамене - she got top *s in the exam она сдала экзамен на "отлично" - they gave him 8 *s out of 10 он набрал восемь баллов из десяти - I give him full *s for trying я высоко ценю его старательность цель;
    мишень - to hit the * попасть в цель;
    попасть в точку;
    добиться своей цели - to miss /to fall wide of/ the * промахнуться;
    не добиться своей цели - to overshoot the * (военное) стрелять с перелетом, давать перелет(ы) - you have overshot the * (разговорное) ты зашел слишком далеко, это ты хватил - far from /wide of, short of, beside/ the * мимо цели;
    неправильно;
    не по существу;
    неуместно, некстати - an answer off the * ответ невпопад - I don't think I am far from the * я не думаю, что я далек от истины - your guess is beside the * вы не угадали - your calculation is beside the * вы неправильно рассчитали - off the * неточно;
    ошибочно, неправильно, неверно - you are right /way/ off the * ты ошибаешься;
    (разговорное) ты попал пальцем в небо - he was afraid to become a * for talkers он опасался стать мишенью для пересудов признак, показатель - a * of intelligence признак /показатель/ ума - as a * of goodwill в знак расположения - to bear the *(s) of smth. иметь /проявлять, обнаруживать/ признак(и) чего-л. - politeness and consideration for others are *s of a good upbringing вежливость и внимание к окружающим - признак хорошего воспитания /отличительные черты воспитанного человека/ известность;
    значительность - a man of * известный /знаменитый/ человек;
    значительный человек;
    человек, достойный /заслуживающий/ внимания - of great * очень известный, заслуживающий внимания - a man of great * выдающийся человек - of little * малоизвестный, не стоящий внимания - nothing worthy of * occured in your absence в твое отсутствие не произошло ничего примечательного - to make one's * выдвинуться, отличиться;
    сделать карьеру;
    иметь успех;
    приобрести известность - the books that have made their * with the general public книги, которые произвели большое впечатление на широкого читателя (историческое) рубеж, граница;
    марка (пограничная область) марка, крестьянская община в средневековой Германии (спортивное) (жаргон) подложечная ямка( грубое) то, что по вкусу помета, знак;
    признак стирание зубов у лошади, по которому можно определить ее возраст (тж. * of the mouth) > easy /(амер) soft/ * легкая добыча;
    жертва;
    доверчивый человек, простак > to toe the * подчиняться требованиям, строго придерживаться правил;
    выполнять свой долг > to be at low-water * быть без гроша( в кармане), быть на мели > (God) bless /save/ the * с позволения сказать;
    боже упаси;
    подумать только ставить знак, метку - to * the accent ставить ударение /знак ударения/ - to * books шифровать книги (в библиотеке) - to * the linen метить белье (для прачечной) - two of the pupils were *ed absent два ученика были отмечены как отсутствующие - he *ed the date in his diary он отметил этот день в своем ежедневнике штамповать, штемпелевать клеймить, таврить (скот) маркировать;
    ставить фабричную марку, фабричное клеймо или торговый знак - all furs are plainly *ed as to the country of origin на всех шкурах (мехах) стоит клеймо страны-экспортера - these goods were *ed "best quality" на этих товарах была этикетка "высшего качества" (по) ставить расценку (на товаре) - the prices of these goods are all clearly *ed on them цены этих товаров четко указаны на них отмечать, обозначать (место) ;
    размечать;
    расставлять указательные значки - he *ed the passage I was to read он отметил отрывок, который мне следовало прочесть - this sign-post *s the direction на этом столбе указано направление - to * the trees делать зарубки на деревьях наносить( на карту) - to * a place on the map отметить место на карте - is our village *ed on this map? наша деревня нанесена на эту карту? отмечать;
    указывать( на шкале) - the thermometer *ed 40 degrees in the shade термометр показывал 40 градусов в тени - this hand *s the minutes эта стрелка показывает минуты оставлять след, пятно - the wet cups have *ed the table badly стол испортили, потому что ставили на него мокрые чашки - his hobnails *ed the floor его кованые башмаки оставляли следы на паркете оставаться( о следе) - this table *s very easily, don't put the hot cup on it не ставь на этот стол горячий чайник, на нем сразу останется след оставлять шрам, рубец - his face was *ed with smallpox его лицо было обезображено оспой оставлять след, отпечаток - her face was *ed with suffering по ее лицу было видно, что она много страдала в жизни pass иметь родимые пятна или естественные метины - wings *ed with white lines крылья с белыми полосами выставлять отметку, балл (на письменной работе) - to * an exercise проверять письменные упражнения - the teacher *ed the examination papers преподаватель выставил отметки на экзаменационных письменных работах выставлять балл (за выступление в соревнованиях, в конкурсе и т. п.) - the judges *ed his performance very high судьи высоко оценили его выступление вести счет, записывать очки ( в игре) отмечать, характеризовать;
    отличать, выделять - such qualities usually * a great scientist подобные качества обычно свойственны /присущи/ большим ученым - this novel *s him as a great author этот роман ставит его в ряд великих писателей - great scientific discoveries *ed the 19th century девятнадцатый век был отмечен великими научными открытиями - his reign was *ed by great reforms его царствование ознаменовалось серьезными реформами - her manner is not *ed by politeness ее поведение не отличается вежливостью отмечать, ознаменовывать - to * the occasion отметить событие - he called for champaign to * the event он велел подать шампанского, чтобы отпраздновать это событие - the event was *ed by everyone все отметили /отпраздновали/ это событие - his discovery *ed an era in science его открытие ознаменовало новую эпоху в науке выражать, проявлять - they *ed their approval by clapping они выразили свое одобрение аплодисментами - he *ed his displeasure by a frown он выразил свое неодобрение недовольной гримасой - this *s the trend of public opinion это отражает настроение общественного мнения замечать, запоминать - * him well запомни его хорошенько - * my words запомните мои слова;
    попомните мои слова;
    помяните мое слово - * you, I don't agree with all he says заметьте, я согласен не со всем, что он говорит - * carefully how it is done /how to do it/ следи и запоминай, как это делается замечать, наблюдать - he was *ed by everyone его все заметили - I could * him well я его хорошо видел (книжное) назначать, предназначать;
    предопределять - his abilities *ed him for success его способности сулили ему успех - he was *ed for greatness by his extraordinary talents при таких необыкновенных способностях его, несомненно, ждало большое будущее - he was *ed for death by his doctors врачи приговорили его к смерти - if we are *ed to die... если нам суждено умереть... опекать, прикрывать( игрока - футбол) > to * time (военное) обозначать шаг на месте > * time, march! на месте шагом марш! (команда) ;
    топтаться на месте;
    выжидать;
    тянуть время, медлить, волынить марка (денежная единица в Германии) марка (мера веса, особ. золота или серебра) марка (старинная английская монета) ~ граница, предел;
    норма;
    уровень;
    above the mark выше принятой (или установленной) нормы;
    below the mark не на высоте (положения) accent ~ полигр. знак ударения address ~ вчт. метка адреса ~ граница, предел;
    норма;
    уровень;
    above the mark выше принятой (или установленной) нормы;
    below the mark не на высоте (положения) boundary ~ ограничительный знак certification ~ знак сертификации collective ~ общая торговая марка customs ~ таможенная отметка deceptive ~ поддельное клеймо device ~ фирменный знак устройства device ~ эмблема easy (амер. soft) ~ разг. доверчивый человек, простак easy (амер. soft) ~ разг. легкая добыча;
    жертва far from (или wide of) the ~ мимо цели;
    перен. неуместно;
    не по существу;
    beside the mark некстати freeboard ~ грузовая марка ~ спорт. линия старта, старт;
    to get off the mark стартовать, взять старт group trade ~ торговая марка группы guide ~ отметка, метка hash ~ вчт. диез hash ~ воен. разг. нарукавная нашивка highwater ~ высшее достижение;
    высшая точка( чего-л.) highwater ~ уровень полной воды ~ цель, мишень;
    to hit (to miss) the mark попасть в цель (промахнуться) identification ~ вчт. идентифицирующая метка identifying ~ идентификационная отметка landing ~ ав. посадочный знак leading ~ направляющая отметка load line ~ грузовая марка location ~ док. отметка о месте хранения ~ известность;
    to make one's mark выдвинуться, отличиться;
    сделать карьеру;
    приобрести известность;
    of mark известный (о человеке) manufacturer's ~ марка производителя mark балл, отметка;
    оценка (знаний) ~ выслеживать (дичь) ~ граница, предел;
    норма;
    уровень;
    above the mark выше принятой (или установленной) нормы;
    below the mark не на высоте (положения) ~ записывать (очки в игре) ~ знак, клеймо ~ знак ~ известность;
    to make one's mark выдвинуться, отличиться;
    сделать карьеру;
    приобрести известность;
    of mark известный (о человеке) ~ клеймить ~ клеймо ~ крест (вместо подписи неграмотного, напр.: John Smith - his mark) ~ спорт. линия старта, старт;
    to get off the mark стартовать, взять старт ~ марка (старинная английская монета) ~ марка (денежная единица Германии) ~ марка, метка ~ марка ~ вчт. маркер ~ маркировать ~ маркировка ~ метить ~ метка;
    знак;
    mark of interrogation вопросительный знак ~ метка ~ наносить маркировку ~ норма ~ обозначать ~ обращать внимание, замечать, запоминать;
    mark my words! попомни(те) мои слова!;
    запомни(те) мои слова! ~ ориентир, веха ~ оставить след, пятно, рубец ~ отметить ~ отметка ~ отмечать;
    обозначать ~ отмечать, обозначать, регистрировать (сделку) ~ отмечать ~ помета ~ пометить ~ пометка ~ помечать ~ признак, показатель ~ признак ~ пятно, шрам, рубец ~ размечать ~ (за) регистрировать биржевую сделку (с включением ее в официальную котировку) ~ регистрировать сделку ~ ист. рубеж;
    марка (пограничная область) ;
    (God) save the mark с позволения сказать;
    боже упаси ~ след, отпечаток ~ ставить балл, отметку (на школьной работе) ~ ставить знак;
    штамповать, штемпелевать;
    маркировать;
    метить (белье) ~ ставить расценку ~ ставить торговый знак ~ ставить фабричное клеймо ~ ставить фабричную марку ~ (по) ставить цену (на товаре) ~ стандарт ~ уровень, стандарт ~ уровень ~ фабричная марка ~ фабричное клеймо ~ характеризовать, отмечать ~ цель, мишень;
    to hit (to miss) the mark попасть в цель (промахнуться) ~ штамп, штемпель;
    фабричная марка, фабричное клеймо ~ штамп ~ штемпелевать ~ штемпель ~ down выделять ~ down записывать ~ down размечать ~ down снижать ~ down снизить цену;
    занижать( оценку) ~ обращать внимание, замечать, запоминать;
    mark my words! попомни(те) мои слова!;
    запомни(те) мои слова! ~ метка;
    знак;
    mark of interrogation вопросительный знак ~ off отделять;
    проводить границы;
    разграничивать ~ out выделять, предназначать ~ out размечать;
    расставлять указательные знаки to ~ time воен. обозначать шаг на месте;
    перен. топтаться на месте;
    выжидать;
    тянуть время, медлить;
    волынить ~ up вести счет ~ up делать пометки ~ up надбавлять ~ up повысить цену ~ up повышать цену ~ up покрывать метками ~ up получать продажную цену прибавлением к себестоимости накладных расходов и прибыли misleading ~ вводящий в заблуждение знак mother's ~ родимое пятно name ~ название торговой марки non-registrable trade ~ нерегистрируемая торговая марка ~ известность;
    to make one's mark выдвинуться, отличиться;
    сделать карьеру;
    приобрести известность;
    of mark известный (о человеке) Plimsoll ~ грузовая марка (на торговых судах) Plimsoll ~ грузовая марка Plimsoll ~ диск Плимсоля Plimsoll's ~ = Plimsoll line quality ~ знак качества quotation ~ вчт. апостроф quotation ~ вчт. кавычки registered trade ~ зарегистрированный товарный знак repetition ~ знак повторения ~ ист. рубеж;
    марка (пограничная область) ;
    (God) save the mark с позволения сказать;
    боже упаси sealing ~ клеймо sealing ~ пломба service ~ товарный знак standard ~ пробирное клеймо tag ~ вчт. метка признака tag ~ ярлык tape ~ вчт. ленточный маркер top ~ высшая отметка top ~ высший балл trade ~ заводская марка trade ~ товарный знак trade ~ торговая марка trade ~ фабричная марка trade ~ фабричная марка;
    торговая марка trade ~ фабричная марка trade ~ фирменный знак up to the ~ в хорошем состоянии, в добром здравии up to the ~ на должной высоте warranty ~ гарантийная отметка well-known trade ~ популярный торговый знак within the ~ в пределах принятой (или установленной) нормы word ~ словесный маркировочный знак

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > mark

  • 55 С-403

    ПОДНИМАТЬ (ПОДЫМАТЬ)/ПОДНЯТЬ НА СМЕХ кого-что coll VP subj: human to make s.o. or sth. an object of ridicule
    X поднял Y-a на смех = X made fun of Y
    X made a laughingstock of Y X made Y a laughingstock X had a laugh at person Y4s expense (in limited contexts) X started jeering at Y (when ridiculing s.o. 's suggestion, comment etc) X laughed Y down.
    ...Он (Антонович) слышал, что Надя просила выдать ей папку с несекретной перепиской Лопаткина и что ей отказали. Во время работы комиссии он осторожно заговорил об этом, и Урюпин, громко хохоча, поднял его на смех. Антонович знал, что в папке не только свобода - вся жизнь Дмитрия Алексеевича (Дудинцев 1). Не (Antonovich) had heard that Nadia had asked for the file with Lopatkin's non-secret correspondence to be handed over to her, and that this had been refused While the commission had been at work, he (Antonovich) had cautiously referred to this, and Uriupin, laughing loudly, had made fun of him. Antonovich knew that that file held, not only Lopatkin's liberty, but his whole life's work (1a).
    «Я поделился своим открытием лишь с одним человеком - с моим коллегой Мишечкиным. Он меня поднял на смех, назвал это научным мистицизмом...»(Евтушенко 1). "I shared my discovery with only one man, my colleague Mishechkin. He made a laughing stock of me and called it all 'scientific mysticism'" (1a).
    Весь тот день (Илюша) мало со мной говорил, совсем молчал даже... А в тот-то именно день мальчишки и подняли его на смех в школе...» (Достоевский 1). "All that day he (Ilyusha) hardly spoke to me, he was even quite silent... And it was precisely that day when the boys started jeering at him in school..." (1a).
    ...По бульвару на большой скорости пронеслись полдюжины броневиков-амфибий с горящими фарами и воющими сиренами... В кафе «Марсово поле» некий иностранец предположил, что подразделение мчалось «брать» Совет Министров. Его подняли на смех (Аксенов 7)....Half a dozen amphibious armored cars sped down the center of the road, their headlights glaring red and sirens going full blast....A foreigner in the Cafe Champs de Mars suggested they might be off to "take" the Council of Ministers. He was laughed down (7a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > С-403

  • 56 интерес

    (см. также интересно) interest
    • В настоящее время имеется значительный интерес к... - Currently, there is considerable interest in...
    • Данный пример имеет некоторый интерес в связи с... - This example is of some interest in connection with...
    • Другой случай, представляющий для нас интерес, получается, когда... - Another case of interest is obtained if...
    • Значительно более простая, однако имеющая практический интерес задача состоит в вычислении... - A much simpler problem, but one of practical interest, is to calculate...
    • Имеет исторический интерес проследить происхождение... - It is of historical interest to trace the origins of...
    • Имеется также нарастающий интерес к... - There is also increasing interest in...
    • Имеются несколько специальных случаев, представляющих для нас большой интерес. - There are several special cases of particular interest to us.
    • Интерес к... обострился в последние несколько лет. - Interest in... has quickened in the past few years.
    • Книга должна быть доступна читателям с широким кругом интересов. - The book should be accessible to readers having a wide variety of interests.
    • Краткие описания таких вещей (= процессов, доказательств и т. п. ) также представляют интерес... - Sketches of these patterns are also of interest.
    • Наш интерес, в основном, сфокусирован на... - Our interest is focused chiefly on...
    • Недавно наблюдался рост интереса к нахождению... - Recently there has been an upsurge in interest in finding...
    • Недавно наметился растущий интерес к... - Recently there has been growing interest in...
    • Огромный интерес вызывают свойства этого нового материала. - Great interest is focused on the properties of this new material....
    • Особый интерес вызывают случаи, когда... - Special interest attaches to cases in which...
    • Следующие моменты имеют особый интерес. - The following points are of particular interest.
    • Случаем огромного практического интереса является тот, в котором... - A case of great practical interest is that in which...
    • Случаи, имеющие практический интерес, приводятся ниже. - Cases of practical interest are given below.
    • Случай, вызывающий особый интерес, возникает, когда... - A case of special interest arises when...
    • Особый интерес представляет задача, как определить... — It is a problem of considerable interest to determine...
    • Возможно, тем не менее имеется некоторый интерес в том, чтобы... - Nevertheless, it is perhaps of some interest to...
    • Эта статья возбудила значительный интерес к задачам такого рода. - The paper have aroused considerable interest in this kind of problems.
    • Эти два результата имеют (для нас) значительный интерес. - These two results are of considerable interest.
    • Это новое открытие вызвало существенный интерес в научном сообществе. - This new discovery has aroused considerable interest in the scientific community.
    • Этот пример представляет лишь академический интерес. - This example is of academic interest only.

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > интерес

  • 57 поднимать на смех

    • ПОДНИМАТЬ < ПОДЫМАТЬ>/ПОДНЯТЬ НА СМЕХ кого-что coll
    [VP; subj: human]
    =====
    ⇒ to make s.o. or sth. an object of ridicule:
    - X поднял Y-а на смех≈ X made fun of Y;
    - [in limited contexts] X started jeering at Y;
    - [when ridiculing s.o.'s suggestion, comment etc] X laughed Y down.
         ♦...Он [АНТОНОВИЧ] слышал, что Надя просила выдать ей папку с несекретной перепиской Лопаткина и что ей отказали. Во время работы комиссии он осторожно заговорил об этом, и Урюпин, громко хохоча, поднял его на смех. Антонович знал, что в папке не только свобода - вся жизнь Дмитрия Алексеевича (Дудинцев 1). Не [Antonovich] had heard that Nadia had asked for the file with Lopatkin's non-secret correspondence to be handed over to her, and that this had been refused While the commission had been at work, he [Antonovich] had cautiously referred to this, and Uriupin, laughing loudly, had made fun of him. Antonovich knew that that file held, not only Lopatkin's liberty, but his whole life's work (1a).
         ♦ "Я поделился своим открытием лишь с одним человеком - с моим коллегой Мишечкиным. Он меня поднял на смех, назвал это научным мистицизмом..."(Евтушенко 1). "I shared my discovery with only one man, my colleague Mishechkin. He made a laughing stock of me and called it all 'scientific mysticism'" (1a).
         ♦ "Весь тот день [Илюша] мало со мной говорил, совсем молчал даже... А в тот-то именно день мальчишки и подняли его на смех в школе..." (Достоевский 1). "All that day he [Ilyusha] hardly spoke to me, he was even quite silent... And it was precisely that day when the boys started jeering at him in school..." (1a).
         ♦...По бульвару на большой скорости пронеслись полдюжины броневиков-амфибий с горящими фарами и воющими сиренами... В кафе "Марсово поле" некий иностранец предположил, что подразделение мчалось " брать" Совет Министров. Его подняли на смех (Аксенов 7)....Half a dozen amphibious armored cars sped down the center of the road, their headlights glaring red and sirens going full blast....A foreigner in the Cafig Champs de Mars suggested they might be off to "take" the Council of Ministers. He was laughed down (7a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > поднимать на смех

  • 58 поднять на смех

    • ПОДНИМАТЬ < ПОДЫМАТЬ>/ПОДНЯТЬ НА СМЕХ кого-что coll
    [VP; subj: human]
    =====
    ⇒ to make s.o. or sth. an object of ridicule:
    - X поднял Y-а на смех≈ X made fun of Y;
    - [in limited contexts] X started jeering at Y;
    - [when ridiculing s.o.'s suggestion, comment etc] X laughed Y down.
         ♦...Он [АНТОНОВИЧ] слышал, что Надя просила выдать ей папку с несекретной перепиской Лопаткина и что ей отказали. Во время работы комиссии он осторожно заговорил об этом, и Урюпин, громко хохоча, поднял его на смех. Антонович знал, что в папке не только свобода - вся жизнь Дмитрия Алексеевича (Дудинцев 1). Не [Antonovich] had heard that Nadia had asked for the file with Lopatkin's non-secret correspondence to be handed over to her, and that this had been refused While the commission had been at work, he [Antonovich] had cautiously referred to this, and Uriupin, laughing loudly, had made fun of him. Antonovich knew that that file held, not only Lopatkin's liberty, but his whole life's work (1a).
         ♦ "Я поделился своим открытием лишь с одним человеком - с моим коллегой Мишечкиным. Он меня поднял на смех, назвал это научным мистицизмом..."(Евтушенко 1). "I shared my discovery with only one man, my colleague Mishechkin. He made a laughing stock of me and called it all 'scientific mysticism'" (1a).
         ♦ "Весь тот день [Илюша] мало со мной говорил, совсем молчал даже... А в тот-то именно день мальчишки и подняли его на смех в школе..." (Достоевский 1). "All that day he [Ilyusha] hardly spoke to me, he was even quite silent... And it was precisely that day when the boys started jeering at him in school..." (1a).
         ♦...По бульвару на большой скорости пронеслись полдюжины броневиков-амфибий с горящими фарами и воющими сиренами... В кафе "Марсово поле" некий иностранец предположил, что подразделение мчалось " брать" Совет Министров. Его подняли на смех (Аксенов 7)....Half a dozen amphibious armored cars sped down the center of the road, their headlights glaring red and sirens going full blast....A foreigner in the Cafig Champs de Mars suggested they might be off to "take" the Council of Ministers. He was laughed down (7a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > поднять на смех

  • 59 подымать на смех

    • ПОДНИМАТЬ < ПОДЫМАТЬ>/ПОДНЯТЬ НА СМЕХ кого-что coll
    [VP; subj: human]
    =====
    ⇒ to make s.o. or sth. an object of ridicule:
    - X поднял Y-а на смех≈ X made fun of Y;
    - [in limited contexts] X started jeering at Y;
    - [when ridiculing s.o.'s suggestion, comment etc] X laughed Y down.
         ♦...Он [АНТОНОВИЧ] слышал, что Надя просила выдать ей папку с несекретной перепиской Лопаткина и что ей отказали. Во время работы комиссии он осторожно заговорил об этом, и Урюпин, громко хохоча, поднял его на смех. Антонович знал, что в папке не только свобода - вся жизнь Дмитрия Алексеевича (Дудинцев 1). Не [Antonovich] had heard that Nadia had asked for the file with Lopatkin's non-secret correspondence to be handed over to her, and that this had been refused While the commission had been at work, he [Antonovich] had cautiously referred to this, and Uriupin, laughing loudly, had made fun of him. Antonovich knew that that file held, not only Lopatkin's liberty, but his whole life's work (1a).
         ♦ "Я поделился своим открытием лишь с одним человеком - с моим коллегой Мишечкиным. Он меня поднял на смех, назвал это научным мистицизмом..."(Евтушенко 1). "I shared my discovery with only one man, my colleague Mishechkin. He made a laughing stock of me and called it all 'scientific mysticism'" (1a).
         ♦ "Весь тот день [Илюша] мало со мной говорил, совсем молчал даже... А в тот-то именно день мальчишки и подняли его на смех в школе..." (Достоевский 1). "All that day he [Ilyusha] hardly spoke to me, he was even quite silent... And it was precisely that day when the boys started jeering at him in school..." (1a).
         ♦...По бульвару на большой скорости пронеслись полдюжины броневиков-амфибий с горящими фарами и воющими сиренами... В кафе "Марсово поле" некий иностранец предположил, что подразделение мчалось " брать" Совет Министров. Его подняли на смех (Аксенов 7)....Half a dozen amphibious armored cars sped down the center of the road, their headlights glaring red and sirens going full blast....A foreigner in the Cafig Champs de Mars suggested they might be off to "take" the Council of Ministers. He was laughed down (7a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > подымать на смех

  • 60 mark

    1. III
    1) mark smth. mark the linen метить белье (для прачечной); mark books шифровать книги (в библиотеке), mark tools ставить [фабричное] клеймо на инструменты; mark goods ставить фабричную марку /торговый знак/ на товары; mark the trees делать зарубки на деревьях; mark the accent ставить ударение / знак ударения/; his hobnails marked the floor его кованые башмаки оставляли следы на паркете; smallpox had marked her face оспа оставила следы на ее лице
    2) mark smth. mark a place /а spot/ отмечать /обозначать/ место; this signpost marks the direction на этом столбе указано направление; this fence marks the boundary of my estate этот забор указывает на /отмечает/ границу моего поместья; the hands of the watch marked eight o'clock стрелки часов показывали восемь; mark the rhythm отмечать /выделять/ ритм; in reading poetry, as in music, remember to mark the beat при чтении стихов, как и при игре на музыкальных инструментах, не забывайте отбивать ритм; these signs mark the trend of public opinion эти признаки отражают направление общественного мнения
    3) mark smth. mark an occasion (an anniversary, an event, etc.) отмечать событие и т.д., mark an era ознаменовывать эпоху
    4) mark smth. mark a test paper (an examination-paper, an exercise, exercise-books, etc.) проверять контрольную работу и т.д. и выставлять оценку /отметку/; mark the points веста счет, записывать очки (в игре)
    5) mark smb., smth. mark a good teacher (a great leader, a scientist, the boor, etc.) характеризовать /отличать/ хорошего преподавателя /учителя/ и т.д.; such qualities usually mark a great artist подобные качества обычно свойственны /присущи/ большим художникам; mark the proceedings (a course of action, etc.) характеризовать /отличать/ данное мероприятие и т.д., great scientific discoveries (great advances in applied science, etc.) marked the
    2. XI X
    Xth century девятнадцатый век был отмечен великими научными открытиями и т.д.
    6)
    mark smth. mark the difference заметить /обратить внимание на/ разницу; mark my words а) запомните мой слова; б) попомните мой слова; mark my words, the boy will be sorry for this попомните мои слова, мальчик об этом пожалеет
    3. IV
    1) mark smth. in some manner mark smth. clearly (boldly, distinctly, carefully, etc.) отмечать /обозначать, отличать и т.п./ четко и т.д.
    2) mark smb. in some manner mark him well запомни его хорошенько
    4. VI
    || mark smb. absent (present) отмечать, что кто-л. отсутствует (присутствует), отмечать чье-л. отсутствие (присутствие)
    5. XI
    1) be marked smth. these goods were marked "best quality" ("all wool", "100 % nylon", "pure silk", etc.) на этих товарах была этикетка "высшего качества" и т.д., two of the pupils were marked absent два ученика были отмечены как отсутствующие; be marked as to smth. all furs are plainly marked as to country of origin на всех шкурках [ меха] стоят клеймо страны-экспортера; be marked on smth. the price of each article is marked on the ticket цена каждой вещи проставлена /указана/ на ценнике; be marked with smth. his face was marked with smallpox его лицо было обезображено оспой; а zebra is marked with stripes у зебры полосатая шкура; be marked by smth. the way was marked by signposts придорожные столбы указывали путь
    2) be marked by smth. the week was marked by many events of interest (his reign was marked by great victories, etc.) эта неделя была отмечена многочисленными /многими/ интересными событиями и т.д.
    3) be marked by smb., smth. the event was marked by everyone (by our family, by the whole country, etc.) все и т.д. отметили /отпраздновали/ это событие; the anniversary was marked by a large reception в честь этой годовщины был устроен большой прием
    4) be marked by smth. her manner is not marked by politeness ее поведение /манера держать себя/ не отличается вежливостью; be marked in smb. this peculiarity is more marked in the male than in the female tiger это свойство более характерно для тигра, чем для тигрицы
    6. XXI1
    1) mark smth. with smth. mark smth. with a cross (with an asterisk, with a plus sign, with a number, with spots, with stripes, etc.) пометить что-л. крестом и т.д., mark one's tools with one's initials поставить на инструментах свой инициалы; mark smth. in smth. mark smth. in pencil (in plain figures, etc.) поставить знак /отметку/ карандашом и т.д., he marked in his diary the date of the appointment with the doctor он отметил в календаре день, на который был назначен [на прием] к врачу; mark smth. on smth. mark the price on a ticket проставить цену на ценнике; mark certain parts on the road by signs выставить знаки в некоторых местах по дороге; mark a river on a map нанести реку на карту; mark smth., smb. for smth. mark timber for sawing (stones for cutting, cattle for slaughter, a person for punishment, a person for promotion, etc.) отмечать, какой лес предназначается /выделять, предназначать лес/ для распиловки и т.д.
    2) mark smth. in smth. the thermometer marked 40° in the shade термометр показывал 40 градусов в тени; his discovery marked an era in science его открытие ознаменовало новую эпоху в науке; mark smth. by smth. mark one's approval by clapping (one's displeasure by a frown, etc.) выражать /проявлять/ свое одобрение аплодисментами и т.д.
    3) mark smb. for smth. his abilities marked him for success его способности сулили ему успех
    7. XXII
    mark smth. by doing smth. he marked the occasion by giving a party (by going away for a holiday, by losing his temper, etc.) он отметил /ознаменовал/ это событие вечеринкой / тем, что устроил вечернику/ и т.д.
    8. XXV
    mark how... (what..., etc.) mark carefully how it is [to be] done следи и запоминай, как это делается; mark what I say запомните то, что я говорю

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > mark

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