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  • 121 niveler

    niveler [niv(ə)le]
    ➭ TABLE 4 transitive verb
    [+ surface] to level ; [+ fortunes, conditions sociales] to level out
    * * *
    nivle
    1) ( aplatir) to level [sol]; to flatten [relief]
    2) ( égaliser) to bring [something] to the same level [revenus]

    niveler par le bas/haut — to level down/up

    * * *
    niv(ə)le vt
    * * *
    niveler verb table: appeler vtr
    1 ( aplatir) to level [sol]; to flatten [relief];
    2 ( égaliser) to bring [sth] to the same level [revenus]; niveler par le bas/haut to level down/up; la souffrance nivelle les différences suffering is a great leveller.
    [nivle] verbe transitif
    1. [aplanir] to level (off) (separable)
    2. (figuré) [égaliser] to level (off) (separable), to even out (separable)

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > niveler

  • 122 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 123 время

    ср.
    1) time сколько времени? ≈ how long?;
    what's the time? иметь мало времени ≈ to be pressed for time время не ждет ≈ time presses время терпит ≈ there is no hurry, there is plenty of time время не позволяет ≈ time forbids, there is no time всему свое время ≈ there is time for everything, everything is good in its season вернуть потерянное время ≈ to make up for lost time тянуть время ≈ to stall for time, to temporize хорошо провести время ≈ have a good time летнее время ≈ summer-time, summertime дополнительное время ≈ extra time, overtime декретное время ≈ standard time свободное время ≈ spare/free time в свободное время ≈ at leisure, in one's spare time все время ≈ all the time, always, constantly, at all times во всякое время ≈ at any time в то время ≈ at that time много времени ≈ a long time/while;
    much time, plenty of time на время ≈ for a (certain) time, for a while, temporarily;
    in (the long) run до сего времени ≈ hitherto до того времени ≈ till then, up to that time с того времени ≈ since then со времени ≈ since со временем, с течением времени ≈ in (the course of) time, with time, as times goes by к тому времени ≈ by that time в скором времени ≈ in a short time, shortly, before long, in the near future ко времени ≈ on time, at the right/proper time к этому времени ≈ by this, by now занятый столько-то времени ≈ - timer время закрытия ≈ (магазинов, учреждений и т. п.) closing-time
    2) (эпоха) time;
    times мн. отстать от времени ≈ to lag behind the times во все времена ≈ at all times во времена ≈ (кого-л./чего-л.) in (smb.'s) time в наше время ≈ in our time, nowadays с незапамятных времен ≈ from time immemorial по тем временам ≈ for those times/days во времена оно ≈ of yore, in the old days
    3) грам. tense ∙ одно время ≈ at one time самое время ≈ разг. just the time (to/for) в настоящеевремя, в данное время ≈ at (the) present (moment), today время от времени, от времени до времени, по временам ≈ from time to time, (every) now and then, sometimes, at times, now and again время года ≈ season в то время как ≈ whereas, while (в) первое время ≈ at first (за/в) последнее время ≈ lately, recently до поры до времени ≈ for the time being на первое время ≈ for the initial period, initially тем временем ≈ meanwhile раньше времени ≈ prematurely, too soon во время ≈ during, at the time of в то же время ≈ at the same time в свое время ≈ in one's time (раньше) ;
    in due time/course (в нужное время)
    врем|я - с.
    1. time;
    солнечное ~ solar time;
    промежуток ~ени interval;
    местное ~ local time;
    полётное ~ airborne time;
    поясное ~ standard time, zone time;
    сталийное ~ lay days;
    экранное ~ screen time;
    эфирное ~ air (radio) time;
    расчётное ~ в полёте estimated time of flight;
    расчётное ~ в пути estimated time en-route;
    расчётное ~ прибытия estimated time of arrival;
    среднее ~ по Гринвичу Greenwich mean time;
    Zulu time;
    косм. жарг. ;
    среднее ~ простоя meandown time;
    фактическое ~ вылета departure actual time;
    ~ вступления в силу effective date, date of entering into force;
    ~ вылета off time;
    ~ действия лицензии lease period;
    ~ на погрузку time for loading;
    ~ начала регистрации check-on-time, reporting time;
    ~ посадки пассажиров boarding time;
    ~ прибытия arrival time;
    ~ простоя down-time, demurrage;
    ~ в рейсе Уblock-to-blockФ time;
    ~ летит time flies;
    ~ идёт time goes by, time is passing;
    пространство и ~ space and time;
    до настоящего ~ени up to the present;
    до последнего ~ени till quite recently;
    на будущее ~ in future, henceforth;
    с того ~ени since then;
    в свободное ~ at one`s leisure, in one`s spare time;
    у меня есть ~ читать I have time to read;
    в это ~ at that time;
    (между тем) meanwhile;
    in the meanwhile;
    а в это ~... meanwhile...;
    во ~ during;
    во ~ работы while working;
    за это ~ in this period, since then;
    за короткое ~ in a very short time;
    в то ~ at that/the time;

    2. (пора) time;
    (года тж.) season;
    лучшее ~ суток the best time of the day;
    вечернее ~ evening hours pl. ;
    утреннее ~ morning hours pl. ;
    ~ жатвы harvest time;
    дождливое ~ the rainy season;
    ненастное ~ bad spell of weather;

    3. (эпоха) time(s), age;
    дух ~ени the spirit of the age/times;
    в наше ~ (о прошлом) in our day;
    (о настоящем) nowadays, in this day and age;
    в мирное ~ in peace-time;
    было ~ когда... the time was when..., there was a time when...;
    во ~ена Екатерины in the days of Catherine;
    в те ~ена in those days;

    4. грам. tense;
    в последнее ~, за последнее ~ lately, of late;
    (в) первое ~ at first, in the beginning;
    ~ от ~ени from time to time;
    в своё ~
    1) (когда-то) at one time;

    2) (в известный период жизни) in one`s day;

    3) (своевременно) in due time, when the time comes;
    всё в своё ~ all in good time;
    всему своё ~ there`s a time for everything;
    (теперь) не ~ this is not the moment;
    не ~ шутить no time for joking;
    (теперь) самое ~ it`s the very moment, it`s just the time;
    в то же ~ all the time;
    раньше ~ени prematurely;
    с незапамятных ~ён from the time immemorable;
    во ~ оно at one time;
    во все ~ена at all times;
    до поры, до ~ени for the time being.

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > время

  • 124 level

    ˈlevl
    1. сущ.
    1) уровень at, on a level ≈ на уровне( чего-л.) at sea level ≈ на уровне моря on a level with smth. ≈ на одном уровне с чем-л. to reach a level ≈ достичь уровня eye level ≈ уровень глаз ground level ≈ уровень земли water level ≈ уровень воды
    2) степень, ступень, уровень at the highest levels ≈ на высшем уровне on the international level ≈ на международном уровне to bring smb. to his level ≈ сбить спесь с кого-л., поставить кого-л. на место to rise to higher levels ≈ подниматься на более высокую ступень the analysis of meaning at the phonetic, morphological, syntactical, and semantic levels ≈ анализ значения на фонетическом, морфологическом, синтаксическом и семантическом уровнях to land on the street level ид. ≈ потерять работу, оказаться на улице action level ≈ пороговая доза вещества (особ. вредного для организма) ;
    предельно допустимая концентрация( нежелательного вещества в пищевом продукте) high level ≈ высокая ступень level of confidence, level of significance ≈ уровень достоверности, степень уверенности low level ≈ низкая ступень energy level ≈ энергетический уровень poverty level ≈ прожиточный минимум international level ≈ международный уровень state level ≈ государственный уровень find one's own level
    3) а) плоская, горизонтальная поверхность б) равнина
    4) ватерпас, нивелир;
    уровень (инструмент)
    5) измерять горизонтальность поверхности уровнем, нивелиром
    6) горн. этаж, горизонт;
    штольня
    7) авиац. горизонтальный полет (тж. level flight) to give a level ≈ перейти в горизонтальный полет
    2. прил.
    1) а) плоский, ровный The floor was level. ≈ Пол был ровный. a plateau of fairly level ground ≈ довольно плоское плато the level waves of broad Garonne ≈ гладкая водная поверхность широкой Гаронны б) находящийся на одном уровне (с чем-л.) He leaned over the counter so his face was almost level with the boy's. ≈ Он перегнулся через стойку, так что его лицо оказалось почти на одном уровне с лицом мальчика. Amy knelt down so that their eyes were level. ≈ Эми опустилась на колени, и их глаза оказались на одном уровне. в) горизонтальный Syn: horizontal
    2. г) кул. полный без верха Stir in 1 level teaspoon of yeast. ≈ Размешайте 1 чайную ложку без верха закваски. Ant: heaped
    2) одинаковый, равный I have done my best to keep level with the latest results of foreign investigation. ≈ Я старался не отставать от самых последних зарубежных исследований. The teams were level at the end of extra time. ≈ В дополнительное время команды сравнялись в счете. Syn: equal
    1., identical
    3) а) твердый, устойчивый She gave him a level look. ≈ Она твердо на него посмотрела. Syn: steady
    1. б) спокойный, уравновешенный to speak in level tones ≈ говорить спокойным тоном He forced his voice to remain level. ≈ Он заставил себя говорить спокойным тоном. Syn: balanced, calm
    1., even-tempered в) сбалансированный, разумный arrive at a justly proportional and level judgement on this affair( Sir Winston Churchill) ≈ достигли справедливого по отношению ко всем сторонам и разумного решения по этому вопросу level life ≈ размеренный образ жизни Syn: reasonable ∙ to do one's level best ≈ проявить максимум энергии;
    сделать все от себя зависящее
    3. нареч. вровень, ровно to fill the glass level with the top ≈ наполнить стакан до краев the horses ran level with one another ≈ лошади бежали голова в голову Syn: even, abreast
    4. гл.
    1) равнять, выравнивать to level a field ≈ выровнять поле Syn: smooth
    3., smooth over, smooth away
    2) уничтожить, сравнять с землей Further tremors could level more buildings. ≈ Последующие толчки могли бы уничтожить еще больше домов. The storm levelled sugar plantations and destroyed homes. ≈ Ураган полностью уничтожил сахарные плантации и разрушил дома. Syn: raze
    3) геод. определять разность высот;
    нивелировать
    4) уравнивать love levels all ranks (W. S. Gilbert) ≈ любовь сглаживает все различия Iglesias scored twice to level the score. ≈ Иглесиас выиграл два очка и сравнял счет. Syn: equalize
    5) а) наводить оружие, целиться (at) He said thousands of Koreans still levelled guns at one another along the demilitarised zone. ≈ Он сказал, что тысячи корейцев до сих пор направляют ружья друг на друга в демилитаризованной зоне. б) направлять, нацеливать (at, against - против кого-л.) Allegations of corruption were levelled at him and his family. ≈ Ему и его семье были брошены обвинения в коррупции. He leveled bitter criticism against the government. ≈ Он направил резкую критику в адрес правительства. ∙ Syn: aim
    2., direct
    3.
    6) сл. быть откровенным (with - с кем-л.) I'll level with you, I'm no great detective. ≈ Буду с вами откровенным, я не являюсь великим сыщиком. He has leveled with the American people about his role in the affair. ≈ Он честно рассказал американскому народу о своей роли в этом деле. ∙ level against level at level down level off level out level up level with уровень - the * of the sea, sea * уровень моря - the * of the coast высота берега над уровнем моря - * of significance уровень значимости (в статистике) - * gauge уровнемер - * indicator (техническое) указатель горизонтального положения, указатель уровня - at the same * на том же /таком же, одинаковом/ уровне - to be high above the * of the sea находиться высоко над уровнем моря - to reduce to one * довести до одного уровня одинаковый уровень - on a * на одном уровне - on a * with the banks вровень с берегами (о разлившейся реке) - to be on a * with smb. находиться /стоять, быть/ на одном уровне с кем-л.;
    быть игроком одного класса с кем-л. - they are on a * mentally они не уступают друг другу в уме, по уму они равны ступень, степень;
    уровень - a high * of excellence высокий уровень мастерства /совершенства/ - on /at/ the highest * на самом высоком уровне;
    на уровне глав правительств /государств/;
    в верхах, в высших сферах - on /at/ a low * на низком уровне;
    в низших инстанциях - to rise to higher *s подниматься на более высокую ступень, достигать более высокого уровня - to bring smb. to his * поставить кого-л. на место;
    сбить спесь с кого-л. - acting on the * of amateurs исполнение( роли) на любительском уровне - he is not of her * он ей не пара плоскость, ровная горизонтальная поверхность;
    горизонтальная линия - the shining * of the lake сияющая гладь озера - dead * совершенно ровная однообразная местность;
    монотонный ландшафт;
    однообразие, монотонность;
    совершенно гладкая строго горизонтальная поверхность - (L.) равнина (в географических названиях) - Bedford L. Бедфордская равнина горизонтальное положение (the *) (редкое) поверхность Земли уровень (инструмента) ;
    ватерпас;
    нивелир - spirit * спиртовой уровень - plumb * уровень с отвесом измерения уровня с нивелиром ряд( в цирке, на стадионе) (горное) этаж;
    горизонт горизонтальная выработка, штольня дренахная труба или канава( в штольне) (авиация) горизонтальный полет (тж. flignt) - to give a * перейти в горизонтальный полет (радиотехника) уровень (передачи) (устаревшее) прицеливание > on the * честно;
    прямо, открыто, правдиво;
    честный, прямой, правдивый > on the *! честное слово! > is it on the *? это правда?;
    а ты не врешь? > is he on the *? ему можно верить? > to land on the street * оказаться на улице (потеряв работу) > to find one's (own) * найти себе равных;
    найти свое место (в жизни, в науке) > he has found his own * он нашел себе подходящих друзей > he found his * among the older students он нашел свое место /прижился/ среди учащихся постарше > let the child find his own * не перегружай ребенка, пусть он развивается естественно ровный;
    плоский;
    горизонтальный - * road ровная /гладкая/ дорога - * surface ровная /плоская/ поверхность - * flyover горизонтальный полет - to make * выравнивать, сглаживать - the prairies are vast stretches of nearly * land прерии представляют собой обширные равнинные пространство находящийся на одном уровне (тж. перен.) - to attempt no work that is not * with one's capacities, to apply oneself to that which is * to one's capacities заниматься посильным делом - in the spring the rivers are often * with their bank весной реки часто поднимаются до самых берегов - buildings whose roofs are * with one another здания, крыши которых находятся на одном (и том же) уровне (кулинарное) (полный) без верха - two * spoonfuls of sugar две ложки сахара без верха равный, одинаковый;
    ровный, равномерный - * life размеренная, спокойная жизнь - to speak in a * voice /in * tones/ говорить ровным голосом /тоном/;
    не повышать голоса - to give smb. a * look пристально посмотреть на кого-л. преим. (спортивное) равный (по силе, подготовке и т. п.) - a * race гонки равных противников - to be * with other runners не отставать от других бегунов уравновешенный;
    спокойный;
    ровный - a * appraisal of the situation беспристрастная /объективная/ оценка положения - to have a * head иметь спокойный /уравновешенный/ характер;
    быть рассудительным, быть хладнокровным - to keep a * head сохранять спокойствие;
    не впадать в панику > to do one's * best сделать все возможное, сделать все от себя зависящее ровно;
    вровень;
    наравне - to fill a basin * with the brim наполнять таз до краев - to run * with another бежать вровень с кем-л.;
    не отставать от кого-л. - to draw * with the other runners догнать других бегунов выравнивать, делать ровным, гладким (тж. * off) - to * a road выровнять дорогу - to * the tennis court with a roller укатать корт катком приводить в горизонтальное положение наводить (оружие) ;
    нацеливать;
    направлять (удар и т. п. против кого-л.) - to * one's gun at a tiger прицелиться в тигра направлять, бросать - to * looks /eyes/ on smb., smth. бросать взгляды на кого-л., что-л. - to * an accusation at /against/ smb. выдвинуть обвинение против кого-л. сровнять с землей;
    полностью уничтожить - to * a building with the ground снести дом до основания - the city was *led by one atomic bomb город был стерт с лица земли одной единственной атомной бомбой (редкое) сбить с ног;
    свалить на землю нивелировать, уравнивать, сглаживать различия - death *s all men перед смертью все равны (геодезия) определять разность высот, нивелировать сводить два или несколько звуков к одному( with) (сленг) говорить правду;
    быть откровенным или честным (с кем-л.) appellate ~ уровень апелляции assurance ~ степень безопасности at the ~ на уровне bonus ~ размер премии breakeven ~ безубыточный уровень breakeven ~ объем реализации на уровне самоокупаемости to find one's (own) ~ занять подобающее место;
    to bring smb.) to his level сбить спесь (с кого-л.), поставить (кого-л.) на место Cabinet ~ правительственный уровень confidence ~ доверительный уровень ~ уравновешенный, спокойный;
    to have a level head быть уравновешенным;
    to do one's level best проявить максимум энергии;
    сделать все от себя зависящее employment ~ уровень занятости exchange rate ~ уровень валютного курса ~ ровно, вровень;
    to fill the glass level with the top наполнить стакан до краев;
    the horses ran level with one another лошади бежали голова в голову to find one's (own) ~ занять подобающее место;
    to bring smb.) to his level сбить спесь (с кого-л.), поставить (кого-л.) на место to find one's (own) ~ найти себе равных ~ ав. горизонтальный полет (тж. level flight) ;
    to give a level перейти в горизонтальный полет ~ уравновешенный, спокойный;
    to have a level head быть уравновешенным;
    to do one's level best проявить максимум энергии;
    сделать все от себя зависящее ~ ровно, вровень;
    to fill the glass level with the top наполнить стакан до краев;
    the horses ran level with one another лошади бежали голова в голову income ~ уровень дохода indirection ~ уровень косвенности intensity ~ уровень яркости interest ~ уровень ставок процента interest rate ~ уровень ставок процента intermediate ~ промежуточный уровень intervention ~ уровень интервенции investment ~ уровень инвестирования to land on the street ~ разг. потерять работу, оказаться на улице level ватерпас, нивелир;
    уровень (инструмент) ~ выравнивать ~ выравнивать;
    сглаживать;
    to level to (или with) the ground сносить с лица земли;
    сровнять с землей ~ горизонтальный, плоский, ровный ~ горизонтальный;
    плоский, ровный;
    расположенный на одном уровне (с чем-л. другим) ;
    level road ровная дорога;
    level crossing железнодорожный переезд ~ ав. горизонтальный полет (тж. level flight) ;
    to give a level перейти в горизонтальный полет ~ находящийся на одном уровне ~ одинаковый, равномерный, level life размеренный образ жизни;
    they are level in capacity у них одинаковые способности ~ одинаковый ~ определять разность высот;
    нивелировать ~ плоская, горизонтальная поверхность;
    равнина ~ равномерный ~ равный ~ ровно, вровень;
    to fill the glass level with the top наполнить стакан до краев;
    the horses ran level with one another лошади бежали голова в голову ~ ровный ~ сглаживать различия ~ степень ~ ступень ~ уравнивать ~ уравнивать;
    to level up (down) повышать (понижать) (до какого-л. уровня) ~ уравновешенный, спокойный;
    to have a level head быть уравновешенным;
    to do one's level best проявить максимум энергии;
    сделать все от себя зависящее ~ уравновешенный ~ уровень ~ уровень;
    ступень;
    sea level уровень моря;
    on a level with на одном уровне с;
    to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень ~ целиться (at) ;
    направлять (at, against - против кого-л.) ~ горн. этаж, горизонт;
    штольня ~ одинаковый, равномерный, level life размеренный образ жизни;
    they are level in capacity у них одинаковые способности ~ of activity уровень деловой активности ~ of confidence степень уверенности ~ of costs уровень затрат ~ of detail степень детализации ~ of economic activity уровень экономической активности ~ of interest rates уровень процентных ставок ~ of investment уровень инвестирования ~ of living уровень жизни ~ of management уровень управления ~ of prices уровень цен ~ of probability степень вероятности ~ of prosperity уровень благосостояния ~ of unemployment уровень безработицы ~ of wages уровень ставок заработной платы ~ off выравнивать, делать ровным ~ off ав. выравнивать самолет( перед посадкой) ~ out выравнивать ~ out сглаживать ~ горизонтальный;
    плоский, ровный;
    расположенный на одном уровне (с чем-л. другим) ;
    level road ровная дорога;
    level crossing железнодорожный переезд ~ выравнивать;
    сглаживать;
    to level to (или with) the ground сносить с лица земли;
    сровнять с землей ~ уравнивать;
    to level up (down) повышать (понижать) (до какого-л. уровня) levels of abstract machine вчт. логические уровни market ~ уровень рынка minimum ~ минимальный уровень ministerial ~ правительственный уровень national ~ государственный уровень national ~ национальный уровень national price ~ уровень цен внутри страны nesting ~ вчт. уровень вложенности nesting ~s вчт. уровни вложенности ~ уровень;
    ступень;
    sea level уровень моря;
    on a level with на одном уровне с;
    to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень on the ~ честно, откровенно;
    on the level! честное слово! on the ~ честно, откровенно;
    on the level! честное слово! poverty ~ уровень бедности premium ~ размер страхового взноса premium ~ размер страхового вознаграждения price ~ уровень цен quality ~ уровень качества reliability ~ уровень безотказности reliability ~ уровень надежности ~ уровень;
    ступень;
    sea level уровень моря;
    on a level with на одном уровне с;
    to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень salary ~ уровень заработной платы ~ уровень;
    ступень;
    sea level уровень моря;
    on a level with на одном уровне с;
    to rise to higher levels подниматься на более высокую ступень significance ~ stat. уровень значимости stock ~ уровень запасов subsistence ~ минимальный уровень жизни subsistence ~ прожиточный минимум ~ одинаковый, равномерный, level life размеренный образ жизни;
    they are level in capacity у них одинаковые способности threshold ~ пороговый уровень to find one's (own) ~ занять подобающее место;
    to bring smb.) to his level сбить спесь (с кого-л.), поставить (кого-л.) на место tolerance ~ величина допусков unemployment ~ уровень безработицы unsable ~s вчт. различимая градация user ~ вчт. уровень пользователя vacant ~ вчт. незанятый уровень wage ~ уровень заработной платы water ~ уровень воды water ~ mark отметка уровня воды

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > level

  • 125 come

    [kʌm] v (came; come)
    I
    1. 1) приходить: идти

    to come to the office [to the meeting] - приходить на службу [на собрание]

    to come home - приходить домой [см. тж. ♢ ]

    to come down - спускаться, опускаться

    please ask him to come down - пожалуйста, попросите его сойти вниз

    to come up - подниматься, идти вверх

    I saw him coming up the hill - я видел, как он поднимался в гору

    the diver came up at last - наконец водолаз появился на поверхности /вынырнул/

    I saw him coming along the road - я видел, как он шёл по дороге

    I will wait here until he comes by - я буду ждать здесь, пока он не пройдёт (мимо)

    to come forward - выходить вперёд, выступить (из рядов и т. п.)

    volunteers, come forward - добровольцы, (шаг) вперёд!

    to come into a room - входить, в комнату

    when he came out (of the house) it was dark - когда он вышел (из дома), было уже темно

    to come back - вернуться, прийти назад

    to come late [early] - приходить поздно [рано]

    to come to smb. for advice - прийти к кому-л. за советом

    come and see what I have found - приходите посмотреть, что я нашёл

    2) приезжать, прибывать

    he has come a long way - он приехал издалека [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    2. идти; ехать

    come! - пошли!, идём!

    coming! - иду! сейчас!

    are you coming my way? - вам со мной по пути?

    the soldier had orders not to let anybody come past - солдат получил приказ никого не пропускать

    to come and go - ходить /сновать/ взад и вперёд

    3. ( часто to) подходить, приближаться

    come nearer! - подойди ближе!

    the girl started when he came near - девочка вздрогнула, когда он приблизился

    4. (обыкн. to)
    1) доходить, достигать

    does the railway come right to the town? - подходит ли железнодорожная линия к самому городу?

    his voice came to me through the mist - его голос доносился /долетал/ до меня сквозь туман

    through the open window came the sounds of a piano - из открытого окна раздавались звуки рояля

    it came to me /to my ears/ that... - до меня дошло, что..., мне стало известно, что...

    it came to me at last that... - наконец до моего сознания дошло, что... [ср. тж. 6, 1)]

    2) равняться, достигать

    your bill comes to £10 - ваш счёт равняется десяти фунтам

    his earnings come to £1,000 a year - его заработок составляет тысячу фунтов стерлингов в год

    let us put it all together and see what it will come to - давайте сложим всё это и посмотрим, что получится

    3) сводиться (к чему-л.)

    to come to nothing /to naught/ - окончиться ничем, свестись к нулю; сойти на нет

    4) прийти (к чему-л.); достичь (чего-л.)

    to come to an understanding - прийти к соглашению, договориться

    to come to an end - прийти к концу, окончиться

    5. 1) наступать, приходить

    spring came - пришла /наступила/ весна

    his turn came - наступила его очередь, настал его черёд

    dinner came at last - наконец подали обед /обед был подан/

    2) ожидаться, предстоять
    6. 1) появляться, возникать

    an idea came into his head - ему пришла в голову мысль, у него возникла идея

    it came to me - а) у меня появилась /возникла/ мысль; б) я припомнил; [ср. тж. 4, 1)]

    it comes to me that I owe you money - я припоминаю, что я вам должен (деньги)

    his colour came and went - он то краснел, то бледнел

    he tried to speak but no word would come from his mouth - он хотел что-то сказать, но не мог вымолвить ни слова

    2) находиться

    on what page does it come? - на какой это странице?

    7. случаться; происходить; проистекать

    how did it come that you quarrelled? - как это (случилось, что) вы поссорились?

    no harm will come to you - с тобой ничего не случится; тебе ничего не грозит

    8. выходить, получаться, приводить

    to come to harm - пострадать; попасть в беду, неприятность и т. п.

    it will come all right in the end - в конце концов всё будет в порядке /образуется/

    no good will come of it - ничего хорошего из этого, не получится, это до добра не доведёт

    the dress would not come as she wanted - платье получилось не таким, как ей хотелось

    9. происходить, иметь происхождение
    10. доставаться

    the house is coming to his son after his death - после его смерти дом достанется /перейдёт к/ сыну

    11. прорастать, всходить, расти
    12. амер. разг. устроить, сделать (что-л.)
    13. разг. испытать оргазм, кончить
    14. (тж. come on, come now) в грам. знач. междометия выражает
    1) побуждение к совершению какого-л. действия ну!, живо!, давай!

    come out with it, boy - ну, парень, выкладывай

    2) упрёк, протест ну что вы!

    what? He here! Oh! come, come! - как? Он здесь?! Да оставьте /бросьте/ вы!

    3) увещевание полно!, ну, ну!

    come, come, you shouldn't speak like that! - ну полно, вы не должны так говорить!

    now come! be patient! - ну потерпите; имей(те) терпение

    come, come, don't be so foolish! - ну, ну, не дури /не глупи/!

    15. в грам. знач. сущ. (the to come) будущее
    16. в грам. знач. предлога (если) считать, считая с ( такого-то дня)

    a fortnight come Sunday - через две недели (считая) со следующего воскресенья

    it'll be a year come Monday since lie left - в будущий понедельник год, как он уехал

    II А
    1. становиться ( известным); приобретать (какое-л. положение)

    author who is beginning to come into notice - автор, который начинает завоёвывать известность

    2. вступать ( во владение); получить ( в наследство)

    he came into some money [a property, an estate] - он получил в наследство немного денег [недвижимое имущество, поместье]

    3. вступать (в должность и т. п.)
    4. 1) вступать ( в конфликт в сговор)

    to come into collision - столкнуться, войти в противоречие

    2) переходить ( в другую фазу)

    to come into flower /bloom/ - расцвести, выходить в цветок; вступать в пору цветения

    to come into ear - колоситься, выходить в колос

    5. войти (в употребление, обиход и т. п.)

    to come into use [into fashion] - войти в употребление [в моду]

    6. вступить (в силу и т. п.)

    to come into effect /force/ - вступать в силу

    to come into operation - начать действовать или применяться; вступать в силу

    7. входить (в компетенцию, обязанности кого-л.)

    to come within the terms of reference - относиться к ведению /компетенции/

    II Б
    1. to come across smb., smth. случайно встретить кого-л., что-л.; случайно встретиться с кем-л., чем-л., натолкнуться на кого-л., что-л.

    he came across the man in the street - он случайно встретил этого человека на улице

    I came across these lines by chance - я случайно натолкнулся на эти строки

    I came across a very interesting book - мне попалась, очень интересная книга

    2. to come after smb., smth.
    1) домогаться чего-л., преследовать кого-л.

    to come after a situation - искать место /службу/

    2) следовать, идти за
    ❝N❞comes after ❝M❞ - за буквой «М» следует «Н»
    3) наследовать
    3. 1) to come against smb. нападать на кого-л., атаковать кого-л.

    the enemy now came against us in larger numbers - теперь противник атаковал нас более крупными силами

    2) to come against smth. столкнуться с чем-л., наткнуться на что-л.

    one does not often come (up) against an experience of this nature - такое не часто встретишь

    4. to come at smb., smth.
    1) нападать, набрасываться на кого-л., что-л.

    just let me come at you! - дай мне только добраться до тебя!

    2) налететь; натолкнуться
    3) амер. подразумевать, намекать

    what are you coming at? - что вы имеете в виду?, на что вы намекаете?

    4) добираться до сути и т. п.; доискиваться чего-л.

    to come at the truth - раскрыть /обнаружить/ правду

    5) получать, добывать что-л.

    money was very hard to come at - деньги было очень трудно добыть,

    6) пройти, попасть, кому-л.

    if only I could come at his secretary - если бы только я смог повидать его секретаря

    7) австрал., новозел. разг. взяться за что-л., предпринять что-л.

    I told you before I wouldn't come at that again - я вам уже сказал, что я не возьмусь за это снова

    5. to come before smth.
    1) быть или считаться более важным
    2) предстать
    3) подлежать рассмотрению

    these cases come before a conciliation court - эти дела подсудны суду примирительного производства

    6. to come between smb., smth. вмешиваться

    he came between us - он встал между нами; он разлучил нас

    you must not let play come between you and your work - развлечения не должны мешать вашей работе

    7. to come by smth. приобрести, получить, достать что-л.

    how did you come by that money? - откуда у вас эти деньги?

    8. to come into smth.
    1) принять участие в чём-л.; присоединиться к чему-л.

    to come into a scheme - присоединиться к плану; принять участие в проекте

    2) появляться на свет и т. п., возникать

    to come into being /existence/ - возникать, появляться

    9. to come off smth. сходить, слезать с чего-л.

    come off the ladder! - слезь с лестницы!

    come off the grass! - по траве не ходить!, сойдите с газона [см. тж. ♢ ]

    to come off (the) curve - спорт. выйти на прямую ( из поворота)

    10. to come on smth. натыкаться, наталкиваться на что-л.

    we shall come on it sooner or later - рано или поздно мы столкнёмся с этим

    11. to come out of smth. вытекать, являться результатом чего-л.

    it comes out of the economy with which work is managed - это является результатом экономии, с которой ведётся работа

    can good come out of such scenes? - могут ли такие сцены довести до добра?

    12. to come over smb.
    1) овладевать кем-л., захватывать кого-л.

    sadness came over his spirit - им овладела грусть, он загрустил

    whatever has come over you to speak like that? - что на вас нашло, почему вы так разговариваете?

    2) разг. взять верх, перехитрить, обойти кого-л.

    you are not going to come over me in this manner! - уж не хотите ли вы перехитрить меня таким образом?

    13. разг.
    1) to come round smb. обмануть, перехитрить, обойти кого-л.

    he is certain to come round his uncle - он, конечно, обойдёт /перехитрит/ своего дядюшку

    2) to come round smth. обойти что-л., уклониться от чего-л.

    to come round an objection [a difficulty] - обойти возражение [трудность]

    14. to come through smth.
    1) проникать сквозь что-л.

    no chink of light came through the closed shutters - сквозь закрытые ставни совсем не проникал свет

    2) перенести, пережить что-л.

    to come through an illness - благополучно перенести болезнь, выжить

    she has come through the anaesthetic remarkably well - она прекрасно перенесла анестезию

    15. to be coming to smb. амер. разг. причитаться, следовать кому-л.; доставаться кому-л.

    you will get what's coming to you - а) ты получишь, что тебе причитается; б) ты не уйдёшь от расплаты

    a small sum of money was coming to him - ему причиталась небольшая сумма денег

    16. to come under smth.
    1) подходить, подпадать
    2) подвергаться действию чего-л.

    to come under smb.'s influence - подпасть под чьё-л. влияние

    to come under smb.'s notice - обращать на себя чьё-л. внимание

    to come under the penalty of the law - подлежать, наказанию по закону

    17. to come upon smb., smth.
    1) натолкнуться на кого-л., что-л.; случайно встретиться с кем-л., чем-л.
    2) напасть на кого-л., атаковать кого-л., что-л.

    the brush fire came upon them from all sides - лесной пожар окружил их стеной огня

    18. to come upon smb. прийти в голову кому-л. (о мысли и т. п.)

    it came upon me that I had seen this man before - мне показалось, что я видел раньше /где-то встречал/ этого человека

    I cannot think what has come upon you - я не понимаю, что на вас нашло

    19. to come upon smb. for smth. предъявить кому-л. требование в отношении чего-л.

    to come upon smb. for £20 damage - предъявить претензию на 20 фунтов в покрытие убытков

    20. to come to do smth. начинать делать что-л.

    to come to love smb. - полюбить кого-л.

    to come to know one's opponent - изучить, противника

    how did you come to hear of it? - как случилось, что вы узнали /услышали, прослышали/ об этом?, как вы узнали об этом?, как вам удалось узнать, об этом?

    to come to stay - укорениться, привиться, получить признание

    this material has come to be used in many branches of industry - этот материал стал использоваться во многих отраслях промышленности

    21. to come to á condition приходить в какое-л. состояние

    to come to a full stop - остановиться, зайти в тупик

    to come to a standstill - а) остановиться; б) зайти в тупик

    to come to rest - стр. остановиться ( об осадке сооружения)

    to come to the front - выйти на передний план, выдвинуться, занять ведущее место

    22. to come out of á condition выходить из какого-л. состояния

    he came out of his reverie - он очнулся от своих мыслей /мечтаний/

    23. to come near smth. разг. быть на грани чего-л.

    I come near forgetting my glasses! - я чуть не позабыл очки!

    III А
    1) становиться

    to come undone - а) расстегнуться, развязаться; your shoe-laces have come undone /untied, loose/ - у вас развязались шнурки; б) раскрыться

    the dead things seemed to come alive - казалось, что мёртвые предметы ожили

    to come true - сбываться, осуществляться, претворяться в жизнь

    to come unstuck - разг. провалиться, не осуществиться, пойти прахом

    2) быть, являться

    to come natural (to smb.) - быть естественным (для кого-л.)

    to come easy (to smb.) - не представлять трудностей (для кого-л.)

    it will come very cheap [expensive] to you - это обойдётся /станет/ вам очень дёшево [дорого]

    3) выпускаться; продаваться

    they come in all shapes - они бывают /встречаются/ всех видов, они бывают разные

    the dress comes in three sizes - (в продаже) имеются три размера этого платья

    this soup comes in a can - этот суп продаётся в жестяных банках /расфасован в жестяные банки/

    2. в сочетании с последующим причастием настоящего времени называет действие, выраженное причастием:

    ♢

    to come home - а) попасть в цель; ≅ попасть не в бровь, а в глаз; б) задеть за живое; [см. тж. I 1, 1)]

    to come home to smb. - а) доходить до чьего-л. сознания; б) растрогать кого-л. до глубины души, найти отклик в чьей-л. душе

    to come short of smth. - а) испытывать недостаток в чём-л.; б) не хватать; her money came short of her expenditure - ей не хватило денег на расходы; в) не соответствовать; не оправдать ожиданий /надежд/; this comes short of accepted standards - это не соответствует /уступает/ принятым нормам

    to come to a head - а) созреть ( о нарыве); б) назреть, перейти в решающую стадию

    to come to light - обнаружиться, стать известным

    to come in(to) sight /into view/ - появиться, показаться

    oh, come off it! - амер. груб. а) заткнись!, брось трепаться!; б) перестань!, хватит!, прекрати!

    come off your perch /your high horse/! - не зазнавайтесь!, не задирайте нос!

    come off the grass! - а) не вмешивайтесь не в свои дела!; б) брось задаваться!; брось преувеличивать!; не ври!

    to come out of action - а) воен. выйти из боя; б) выйти /выбыть/ из строя

    come out of that! - перестань вмешиваться!, не суйся!, не лезь!

    to come a long way - преуспеть [ср. тж. I 1, 2)]

    to come the old soldier over smb. - а) поучать кого-л., командовать кем-л.; б) обманывать, надувать кого-л.

    come quick! - радио сигнал общего вызова /«всем»/

    to come one's way /амер. ways/ - выпасть на чью-л. долю (особ. о чём-л. благоприятном)

    to come to the point - а) говорить по существу дела; б) делать стойку ( о собаке)

    to come into play - а) начать действовать; б) быть полезным, пригодиться

    to come it strong - сл. а) зайти слишком далеко; хватить через край; б) действовать решительно, быть напористым

    that is coming it a little too strong - это уж слишком!

    not to know whether /if/ one is coming or going - растеряться, потерять голову; не знать, на каком ты свете

    come day, go day - ≅ день да ночь, сутки прочь

    it's come day, go day with him - ему ни до чего нет дела; день прожил - и ладно

    everything comes to him who waits - кто ждёт, тот дождётся; ≅ терпение и труд всё перетрут

    after dinner comes the reckoning - поел - плати!; ≅ любишь кататься, люби и саночки возить

    he who comes uncalled, sits unserved - пришёл без приглашения - не жди угощения

    НБАРС > come

  • 126 level

    1. [ʹlev(ə)l] n
    1. 1) уровень

    the level of the sea, sea level - уровень моря

    the level of the coast [plateau] - высота берега [плато] над уровнем моря

    level indicator - тех. указатель горизонтального положения, указатель уровня

    at the same level - на том же /таком же, одинаковом/ уровне

    to be high above the level of the sea - находиться высоко над уровнем моря

    2) одинаковый уровень

    on a level - на одном уровне [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    to be on a level with smb. - а) находиться /стоять, быть/ на одном уровне с кем-л.; б) быть игроком одного класса с кем-л.

    they are on a level mentally - они не уступают друг другу в уме, по уму они равны

    3) ступень, степень; уровень

    a high level of excellence - высокий уровень мастерства /совершенства/

    on /at/ the highest level - а) на самом высоком уровне; на уровне глав правительств /государств/; б) в верхах, в высших сферах

    on /at/ a low level - а) на низком уровне; б) в низших инстанциях

    to rise to higher levels - подниматься на более высокую ступень, достигать более высокого уровня

    to bring smb. to his level - поставить кого-л. на место; сбить спесь с кого-л.

    acting on the level of amateurs - исполнение (роли) на любительском уровне

    2. 1) плоскость, ровная горизонтальная поверхность; горизонтальная линия

    dead level - а) совершенно ровная однообразная местность; монотонный ландшафт; б) однообразие, монотонность; в) совершенно гладкая строго горизонтальная поверхность

    Bedford [the Great] Level - Бедфордская [Великая] равнина

    3) горизонтальное положение
    4) (the level) редк. поверхность Земли
    3. 1) уровень ( инструмент); ватерпас; нивелир
    2) измерение уровня нивелиром
    4. ряд (в цирке, на стадионе)
    5. горн.
    1) этаж, горизонт
    2) горизонтальная выработка, штольня
    3) дренажная труба или канава ( в штольне)
    6. ав. горизонтальный полёт (тж. level flight)
    7. радио уровень ( передачи)
    8. уст. прицеливание

    ♢ on the level - а) честно; прямо, открыто, правдиво; б) честный, прямой, правдивый; [ср. тж. 1, 2)]

    on the level! - честное слово!

    is it on the level? - это правда?; ≅ а ты не врёшь?

    is he on the level? - ему можно верить?

    to find one's (own) level - найти себе равных; найти своё место (в жизни, в науке)

    he found his level among the older students - он нашёл своё место /прижился/ среди учащихся постарше

    let the child find his own level - ≅ не перегружай ребёнка, пусть он развивается естественно

    2. [ʹlev(ə)l] a
    1. 1) ровный; плоский; горизонтальный

    level road - ровная /гладкая/ дорога

    level surface - ровная /плоская/ поверхность

    to make level - выравнивать, сглаживать

    the prairies are vast stretches of nearly level land - прерии представляют собой обширные равнинные пространства

    2) находящийся на одном уровне (тж. перен.)

    to attempt no work that is not level with one's capacities, to apply oneself to that which is level to one's capacities - заниматься посильным делом

    in the spring the rivers are often level with their bank - весной реки часто поднимаются до самых берегов

    buildings whose roofs are level with one another - здания, крыши которых находятся на одном (и том же) уровне

    3) кул. (полный) без верха
    2. 1) равный, одинаковый; ровный, равномерный

    level life - размеренная, спокойная жизнь

    to speak in a level voice /in level tones/ - говорить ровным голосом /тоном/; не повышать голоса

    to give smb. a level look - пристально посмотреть на кого-л.

    2) преим. спорт. равный (по силе, подготовке и т. п.)
    3. уравновешенный; спокойный; ровный

    a level appraisal of the situation - беспристрастная /объективная/ оценка положения

    to have a level head - иметь спокойный /уравновешенный/ характер; быть рассудительным, быть хладнокровным

    to keep a level head - сохранять спокойствие; не впадать в панику

    ♢ to do one's level best - сделать всё возможное, сделать всё от себя зависящее

    3. [ʹlev(ə)l] adv
    ровно; вровень; наравне

    to run level with another - бежать вровень с кем-л.; не отставать от кого-л.

    4. [ʹlev(ə)l] v
    1. выравнивать, делать ровным, гладким (тж. level off)
    2. 1) приводить в горизонтальное положение
    2) наводить ( оружие), нацеливать; направлять (удар и т. п. против кого-л.)
    3) направлять, бросать

    to level looks /eyes/ on smb., smth. - бросать взгляды на кого-л., что-л.

    to level an accusation at /against/ smb. - выдвинуть обвинение против кого-л.

    3. 1) сровнять с землёй; полностью уничтожить

    the city was levelled by one atomic bomb - город был стёрт с лица земли одной единственной атомной бомбой

    2) редк. сбить с ног; свалить на землю
    4. нивелировать, уравнивать, сглаживать различия
    5. геод. определять разность высот, нивелировать
    6. лингв. сводить два или несколько звуков к одному
    7. (with) сл. говорить правду; быть откровенным или честным (с кем-л.)

    НБАРС > level

  • 127 level

    1. [ʹlev(ə)l] n
    1. 1) уровень

    the level of the sea, sea level - уровень моря

    the level of the coast [plateau] - высота берега [плато] над уровнем моря

    level indicator - тех. указатель горизонтального положения, указатель уровня

    at the same level - на том же /таком же, одинаковом/ уровне

    to be high above the level of the sea - находиться высоко над уровнем моря

    2) одинаковый уровень

    on a level - на одном уровне [ср. тж. ♢ ]

    to be on a level with smb. - а) находиться /стоять, быть/ на одном уровне с кем-л.; б) быть игроком одного класса с кем-л.

    they are on a level mentally - они не уступают друг другу в уме, по уму они равны

    3) ступень, степень; уровень

    a high level of excellence - высокий уровень мастерства /совершенства/

    on /at/ the highest level - а) на самом высоком уровне; на уровне глав правительств /государств/; б) в верхах, в высших сферах

    on /at/ a low level - а) на низком уровне; б) в низших инстанциях

    to rise to higher levels - подниматься на более высокую ступень, достигать более высокого уровня

    to bring smb. to his level - поставить кого-л. на место; сбить спесь с кого-л.

    acting on the level of amateurs - исполнение (роли) на любительском уровне

    2. 1) плоскость, ровная горизонтальная поверхность; горизонтальная линия

    dead level - а) совершенно ровная однообразная местность; монотонный ландшафт; б) однообразие, монотонность; в) совершенно гладкая строго горизонтальная поверхность

    Bedford [the Great] Level - Бедфордская [Великая] равнина

    3) горизонтальное положение
    4) (the level) редк. поверхность Земли
    3. 1) уровень ( инструмент); ватерпас; нивелир
    2) измерение уровня нивелиром
    4. ряд (в цирке, на стадионе)
    5. горн.
    1) этаж, горизонт
    2) горизонтальная выработка, штольня
    3) дренажная труба или канава ( в штольне)
    6. ав. горизонтальный полёт (тж. level flight)
    7. радио уровень ( передачи)
    8. уст. прицеливание

    ♢ on the level - а) честно; прямо, открыто, правдиво; б) честный, прямой, правдивый; [ср. тж. 1, 2)]

    on the level! - честное слово!

    is it on the level? - это правда?; ≅ а ты не врёшь?

    is he on the level? - ему можно верить?

    to find one's (own) level - найти себе равных; найти своё место (в жизни, в науке)

    he found his level among the older students - он нашёл своё место /прижился/ среди учащихся постарше

    let the child find his own level - ≅ не перегружай ребёнка, пусть он развивается естественно

    2. [ʹlev(ə)l] a
    1. 1) ровный; плоский; горизонтальный

    level road - ровная /гладкая/ дорога

    level surface - ровная /плоская/ поверхность

    to make level - выравнивать, сглаживать

    the prairies are vast stretches of nearly level land - прерии представляют собой обширные равнинные пространства

    2) находящийся на одном уровне (тж. перен.)

    to attempt no work that is not level with one's capacities, to apply oneself to that which is level to one's capacities - заниматься посильным делом

    in the spring the rivers are often level with their bank - весной реки часто поднимаются до самых берегов

    buildings whose roofs are level with one another - здания, крыши которых находятся на одном (и том же) уровне

    3) кул. (полный) без верха
    2. 1) равный, одинаковый; ровный, равномерный

    level life - размеренная, спокойная жизнь

    to speak in a level voice /in level tones/ - говорить ровным голосом /тоном/; не повышать голоса

    to give smb. a level look - пристально посмотреть на кого-л.

    2) преим. спорт. равный (по силе, подготовке и т. п.)
    3. уравновешенный; спокойный; ровный

    a level appraisal of the situation - беспристрастная /объективная/ оценка положения

    to have a level head - иметь спокойный /уравновешенный/ характер; быть рассудительным, быть хладнокровным

    to keep a level head - сохранять спокойствие; не впадать в панику

    ♢ to do one's level best - сделать всё возможное, сделать всё от себя зависящее

    3. [ʹlev(ə)l] adv
    ровно; вровень; наравне

    to run level with another - бежать вровень с кем-л.; не отставать от кого-л.

    4. [ʹlev(ə)l] v
    1. выравнивать, делать ровным, гладким (тж. level off)
    2. 1) приводить в горизонтальное положение
    2) наводить ( оружие), нацеливать; направлять (удар и т. п. против кого-л.)
    3) направлять, бросать

    to level looks /eyes/ on smb., smth. - бросать взгляды на кого-л., что-л.

    to level an accusation at /against/ smb. - выдвинуть обвинение против кого-л.

    3. 1) сровнять с землёй; полностью уничтожить

    the city was levelled by one atomic bomb - город был стёрт с лица земли одной единственной атомной бомбой

    2) редк. сбить с ног; свалить на землю
    4. нивелировать, уравнивать, сглаживать различия
    5. геод. определять разность высот, нивелировать
    6. лингв. сводить два или несколько звуков к одному
    7. (with) сл. говорить правду; быть откровенным или честным (с кем-л.)

    НБАРС > level

  • 128 form

    I
    1. fo:m noun
    1) ((a) shape; outward appearance: He saw a strange form in the darkness.) forma
    2) (a kind, type or variety: What form of ceremony usually takes place when someone gets a promotion?) clase, tipo
    3) (a document containing certain questions, the answers to which must be written on it: an application form.) formulario
    4) (a fixed way of doing things: forms and ceremonies.) formalidad
    5) (a school class: He is in the sixth form.) curso

    2. verb
    1) (to make; to cause to take shape: They decided to form a drama group.) formar, constituir
    2) (to come into existence; to take shape: An idea slowly formed in his mind.) formarse
    3) (to organize or arrange (oneself or other people) into a particular order: The women formed (themselves) into three groups.) organizarse
    4) (to be; to make up: These lectures form part of the medical course.) constituir
    •
    - be in good form
    - in the form of
    II fo:m noun
    (a long, usually wooden seat: The children were sitting on forms.) banco
    form1 n
    1. curso
    I'm in the third form hago tercero / estoy en el tercer curso
    2. forma
    3. impreso / formulario
    form2 vb formar / formarse
    tr[fɔːm]
    1 (shape, mode etc) forma
    2 (kind) clase nombre femenino, tipo
    ■ what is the form? ¿qué hay que hacer?
    5 (mood, spirit) humor nombre masculino
    6 (document) formulario, impreso, hoja
    ■ sign this form, please firme esta hoja, por favor
    7 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL (age group) curso; (class) clase nombre femenino
    8 (bench) banco
    9 SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL slang (criminal record) antecedentes nombre masculino plural penales
    1 (mould) moldear, modelar; (make) hacer, formar; (character) formar
    2 (set up) formar
    3 (be, constitute) formar, constituir
    4 figurative use (idea) hacerse; (impression, opinion) formarse; (relationship) hacer; (habit) adquirir; (plan) concebir
    1 formarse
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as a matter of form por educación, por cortesía
    in any shape or form de cualquier forma
    to be bad form ser de mala educación
    to be on form estar en forma
    to be off form estar en baja forma
    to take form tomar forma
    form ['fɔrm] vt
    1) fashion, make: formar
    2) develop: moldear, desarrollar
    3) constitute: constituir, formar
    4) acquire: adquirir (un hábito), formar (una idea)
    form vi
    : tomar forma, formarse
    form n
    1) shape: forma f, figura f
    2) manner: manera f, forma f
    3) document: formulario m
    4) : forma f
    in good form: en buena forma
    true to form: en forma consecuente
    5) mold: molde m
    6) kind, variety: clase f, tipo m
    7) : forma f (en gramática)
    plural forms: formas plurales
    n.
    • calaña s.f.
    • conformación s.f.
    • figura s.f.
    • forma s.f.
    • formación s.f.
    • formalidad s.f.
    • formulario s.m.
    • hechura s.f.
    • impreso s.m.
    • modelo s.m.
    • modo s.m.
    • molde s.m.
    v.
    • adquirir v.
    • configurar v.
    • formar v.
    • integrar v.
    • modelar v.
    fɔːrm, fɔːm
    I
    1) c u (shape, manner) forma f

    what form should our protest take? — ¿cómo deberíamos manifestar nuestra protesta?

    2)
    a) c u (type, kind) tipo
    b) c u ( style) forma f
    3) u (fitness, ability) forma f

    to be on/off form — estar* en forma/en baja forma

    on past form it seems unlikely that... — conociendo su historial, no parece probable que...

    4) u ( etiquette)

    to be bad/good form — (esp BrE) ser* de mala/buena educación

    5) c ( document) formulario m, impreso m, forma f (Méx)
    6) c (BrE Educ) ( class) clase f; ( year) curso m, año m

    II
    1.
    1)
    a) (shape, mold) formar; \<\<character\>\> formar, moldear
    b) ( take shape of) \<\<line/circle\>\> formar
    2) ( develop) \<\<opinion\>\> formarse; \<\<habit\>\> adquirir*
    3) ( constitute) \<\<basis/part\>\> formar, constituir*
    4) (set up, establish) \<\<committee/government/company\>\> formar

    2.
    form vi \<\<idea/plan\>\> tomar forma; \<\<ice/fog\>\> formarse
    [fɔːm]
    1. N
    1) (=shape) forma f ; (=figure, shadow) bulto m, silueta f

    form and content — forma f y contenido

    to take form — concretarse, tomar or cobrar forma

    what form will the ceremony take? — ¿en qué consistirá la ceremonia?

    2) (=kind, type) clase f, tipo m
    3) (=way, means) forma f

    form of payment — modo m de pago

    what's the form? — ¿qué es lo que hemos de hacer?

    4) (Sport) (also fig) forma f
    5) (=document) (gen) formulario m, impreso m

    to fill in or out a form — rellenar un formulario or un impreso

    6) (Brit) frm (=etiquette) apariencias fpl

    for form's sake — por pura fórmula, para guardar las apariencias

    7) (=bench) banco m
    8) (Brit) (Scol) curso m, clase f
    9) (Brit)
    (Racing)
    2.
    VT (=shape, make) formar; [+ clay etc] modelar, moldear; [+ company] formar, fundar; [+ plan] elaborar, formular; [+ sentence] construir; [+ queue] hacer; [+ idea] concebir, formular; [+ opinion] hacerse, formarse; [+ habit] crear

    he formed it out of clay — lo modeló or moldeó en arcilla

    3.
    VI tomar forma, formarse

    how do ideas form? — ¿cómo se forman las ideas?

    4.
    CPD

    form feed N — (Comput) salto m de página

    form letter N — (US) carta f tipo

    form of words N — (=formulation) formulación f

    * * *
    [fɔːrm, fɔːm]
    I
    1) c u (shape, manner) forma f

    what form should our protest take? — ¿cómo deberíamos manifestar nuestra protesta?

    2)
    a) c u (type, kind) tipo
    b) c u ( style) forma f
    3) u (fitness, ability) forma f

    to be on/off form — estar* en forma/en baja forma

    on past form it seems unlikely that... — conociendo su historial, no parece probable que...

    4) u ( etiquette)

    to be bad/good form — (esp BrE) ser* de mala/buena educación

    5) c ( document) formulario m, impreso m, forma f (Méx)
    6) c (BrE Educ) ( class) clase f; ( year) curso m, año m

    II
    1.
    1)
    a) (shape, mold) formar; \<\<character\>\> formar, moldear
    b) ( take shape of) \<\<line/circle\>\> formar
    2) ( develop) \<\<opinion\>\> formarse; \<\<habit\>\> adquirir*
    3) ( constitute) \<\<basis/part\>\> formar, constituir*
    4) (set up, establish) \<\<committee/government/company\>\> formar

    2.
    form vi \<\<idea/plan\>\> tomar forma; \<\<ice/fog\>\> formarse

    English-spanish dictionary > form

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