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the+ruling+classes

  • 41 правящие круги

    1) General subject: ruling circles, (наиболее влиятельные) the inner circles, establishment, managerial class, ruling elite
    3) Diplomatic term: establishment (деловые, аристократические, политические и т. д.), managerial classes, vested interests
    5) Business: ruling groups
    6) Makarov: the inner circles
    7) Politico-military term: ruling quarters

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > правящие круги

  • 42 class

    1. noun
    1) (group in society) Gesellschaftsschicht, die; Klasse, die (Soziol.); (system) Klassensystem, das
    2) (Educ.) Klasse, die; (Sch.): (lesson) Stunde, die; (Univ.): (seminar etc.) Übung, die
    3) (group [according to quality]) Klasse, die

    be in a class by itself or on its own/of one's own or by oneself — eine Klasse für sich sein

    4) (coll.): (quality) Klasse, die (ugs.)
    2. transitive verb
    * * *
    1. plural - classes; noun
    1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) die Gruppe
    2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) die Schicht
    3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) der Rang
    4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) die Klasse
    5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) die Unterrichtsstunde
    6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.)
    2. verb
    (to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) einstufen
    - academic.ru/13277/classmate">classmate
    - class-room
    * * *
    [klɑ:s, AM klæs]
    I. n
    <pl -es>
    1. + sing/pl vb (pupils) [Schul]klasse f
    2. (lesson) [Unterrichts]stunde f; (teaching) Unterricht m kein pl; SPORT Kurs[us] m
    \classes have been cancelled today heute fällt der Unterricht aus
    to go to an aerobics \class einen Aerobic-Kurs besuchen, in einen Aerobic-Kurs gehen
    to go to evening \class[es] einen Abendkurs besuchen
    to attend [or go to] \class[es] am Unterricht teilnehmen
    to talk in \class während des Unterrichts reden
    to take [or teach] a German/civil law \class Deutsch/Zivilrecht unterrichten; UNIV (lecture) eine Deutschvorlesung/Vorlesung zum Zivilrecht [ab]halten; (seminar) ein Deutschseminar/Seminar in Zivilrecht [ab]halten; (course) eine Deutsch-Übung/Übung in Zivilrecht [ab]halten
    3. + sing/pl vb AM (graduates) Jahrgang m
    the \class of 1975/1980 der Jahrgang 1975/1980
    4. + sing/pl vb (stratum) Klasse f, Schicht f
    the middle/upper \class die Mittel-/Oberschicht
    the working \class die Arbeiterklasse
    5. no pl (social membership) Klassenzugehörigkeit f
    6. (category, quality) Klasse f
    shall I post the letter first or second \class? BRIT soll ich den Brief als Erste- oder Zweite-Klasse-Sendung aufgeben?
    first \class hotel Erste Klasse [o First Class] Hotel nt
    to travel first/second \class erste[r]/zweite[r] Klasse fahren
    C\class A/I COMM Handelsklasse f A/I
    all the vegetables we sell are \class A wir verkaufen nur Gemüse der Handelsklasse A
    7. BRIT, AUS (diploma) Prädikat nt, SCHWEIZ a. Note f
    what \class did you get? mit welchem Prädikat hast du [dein Examen] bestanden?
    a first-\class honours degree ein Prädikatsexamen nt
    a second-\class honours degree ein Examen nt mit dem Prädikat ‚gut‘
    8. no pl (style) Klasse, f
    to have [no] \class [keine] Klasse haben fam
    9. BIOL, ZOOL Klasse f
    10. AM FIN Aktiengattung f
    11. LAW
    C\class F charge Belastung f in Abteilung 6 fachspr
    12.
    ▶ to be in a \class of one's own [or by oneself] eine Klasse für sich akk sein
    ▶ to be out of sb's \class jdm haushoch überlegen sein, um Klassen besser [als jd] sein fam
    II. adj attr, inv (excellent) erstklassig, klasse fam
    world \class player Weltklassespieler(in) m(f)
    III. vt
    ▪ to \class sb/sth [as sth] jdn/etw [als etw akk] einstufen
    when I travel by bus I'm still \classed as a child wenn ich mit dem Bus fahre, gelte ich noch als Kind
    I would \class her among the top ten novelists ich würde sie zu den zehn besten Schriftstellern zählen
    * * *
    [klAːs]
    1. n
    1) (= group, division) Klasse f

    they're just not in the same class — man kann sie einfach nicht vergleichen

    in a class by himself/itself or of his/its own — weitaus der/das Beste

    2) (= social rank) gesellschaftliche Stellung, Stand m (dated), Klasse f (SOCIOL)

    the ruling class — die herrschende Klasse, die Herrschenden

    considerations of class — Standeserwägungen pl (dated), Klassengesichtspunkte pl

    it was class not ability that determined who... —

    what class is he from? — aus welcher Schicht or Klasse kommt er?

    are you ashamed of your class? — schämst du dich deines Standes (dated) or deiner Herkunft?

    3) (SCH, UNIV) Klasse f

    to take a Latin class — Latein unterrichten or geben; (Univ) ein Lateinseminar etc abhalten

    eating in class — Essen nt während des Unterrichts

    the class of 1980 — der Jahrgang 1980, die Schul-/Universitätsabgänger etc des Jahres 1980

    4) (BOT, ZOOL) Klasse f
    5) (Brit UNIV of degree) Prädikat nt

    second-/third-class degree — ≈ Prädikat Gut/Befriedigend

    6) (inf: quality, tone) Stil m

    to have class — Stil haben, etwas hermachen (inf); (person) Format haben

    I see we've got a bit of class in tonight, two guys in dinner jackets — heute Abend haben wir ja vornehme or exklusive Gäste, zwei Typen im Smoking

    2. adj
    (inf: excellent) erstklassig, exklusiv
    3. vt
    einordnen, klassifizieren

    he was classed with the servants — er wurde genauso eingestuft wie die Diener

    4. vi
    eingestuft werden, sich einordnen lassen
    * * *
    class [klɑːs; US klæs]
    A s
    1. Klasse f ( auch BIOL), Gruppe f, Kategorie f, Art f
    2. (Wert)Klasse f:
    be in the same class with gleichwertig sein mit;
    be (in) a class by oneself ( oder of one’s own) eine Klasse für sich sein;
    be no class umg minderwertig sein
    3. (Güte)Klasse f, Qualität f
    4. BAHN etc Klasse f
    5. a) gesellschaftlicher Rang, soziale Stellung
    b) (Gesellschafts) Klasse f, (Bevölkerungs) Schicht f:
    pull class on sb umg jemanden seine gesellschaftliche Überlegenheit fühlen lassen
    6. umg Klasse f umg, Erstklassigkeit f:
    he (it) has class er (es) ist (große) Klasse
    7. SCHULE
    a) (Schul) Klasse f:
    be at the top of one’s class der Klassenerste sein
    b) (Unterrichts)Stunde f:
    attend classes am Unterricht teilnehmen
    8. Kurs m
    9. UNIV US
    a) Studenten pl eines Jahrgangs, Studentenjahrgang m
    b) Promotionsklasse f
    c) Seminar n
    10. UNIV Br
    b) Stufe f, Gruppe f, Klasse f (Einteilung der Kandidaten nach dem Resultat der honours- Prüfung):
    11. MIL Rekrutenjahrgang m
    12. MATH Aggregat n, mehrgliedrige Zahlengröße
    B v/t klassifizieren:
    a) in Klassen einteilen
    b) in eine Klasse einteilen, einordnen, einstufen:
    class with gleichstellen mit, rechnen zu;
    a) angesehen oder betrachtet werden (as als),
    b) UNIV Br einen honours degree verliehen bekommen
    C v/i angesehen werden (as als)
    cl. abk
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (group in society) Gesellschaftsschicht, die; Klasse, die (Soziol.); (system) Klassensystem, das
    2) (Educ.) Klasse, die; (Sch.): (lesson) Stunde, die; (Univ.): (seminar etc.) Übung, die
    3) (group [according to quality]) Klasse, die

    be in a class by itself or on its own/of one's own or by oneself — eine Klasse für sich sein

    4) (coll.): (quality) Klasse, die (ugs.)
    2. transitive verb
    * * *
    Schulklasse f. n.
    (§ pl.: classes)
    = Klasse -n f.
    Kurs -e m.
    Kursus -e (Bildung) m.
    Stand ¨-e m. v.
    einordnen v.

    English-german dictionary > class

  • 43 class

    § კლასი; სახეობა, ხარისხი; დაყოფა
    §
    1 საზოგადოებრივი კლასი
    the middle / upper class საზოგადოების საშუალო / უმაღლესი ფენა
    2 ჯგუფი, კლასი (სკოლაში)
    3 გაკვეთილი
    to attend classes მეცადინეობაზე დასწრება / სიარული
    4 ხარისხი, კლასი
    he comes of the nobility / the working class კეთილშობილური წარმომავლობისაა // მუშათა კლასიდანაა
    ●●lower middle class წვრილი ბურჟუაზია
    he tried to find a pretext for missing classes საბაბს ეძებდა, რომ სკოლაში არ წასულიყო
    to recite Shakespeare's' s sonnets in class აუდიტორიაში შექსპირის სონეტების მხატვრულად წაკითხვა (ზეპირად)
    I slept in today and was late for classes გვიან გამეღვიძა და მეცადინოებაზე დამაგვიანდა
    second-class მეორეხარისხოვანი, მეორე კლასისა
    do you have a valid reason for missing classes? გაქვს გაკვეთილების გაცდენის საპატიო მიზეზი?
    this class is out of hand ეს კლასი ხელიდანაა წასული / უდისციპლინოა
    first-class §1 პირველხარისხოვანი, საუკეთესო
    first-class §2 პირველი კლასისა

    English-Georgian dictionary > class

  • 44 classe

    f class
    ( aula) classroom
    classe operaia working class
    classe turistica tourist class
    di classe classy
    * * *
    classe s.f.
    1 class: classe operaia, working class; classe dirigente, ruling class; classe imprenditoriale, entrepreneurial class; le classi lavoratrici, the working classes; classi privilegiate, privileged classes; le classi medie, the middle classes; lotta di classe, class struggle; spirito di classe, class-consciousness
    2 ( di mezzo di trasporto) class: prima, seconda classe, first, second class; classe turistica, economica, tourist class; biglietto di prima classe, first-class ticket; scompartimento, cabina di prima, di seconda classe, first-class, second-class compartment, cabin; viaggiare in prima classe, to travel first class // (mar.): classe delle navi, classification of ships; certificato di classe, certificate of classification
    3 ( a scuola) class; ( aula) classroom; ( corso) form, (amer.) grade: classe mista, mixed class; che classe fai?, what form are you in?
    4 (mil.) (annual) contingent, class: la classe del 1964, the 1964 contingent // classe di ferro, (scherz.) the best
    5 (econ.) class, bracket: classe di reddito, income bracket; classe catastale, land (o cadastral) classification // (Borsa) classe di azioni, class of shares
    6 (mat.) class: partizioni in classi, class partition; classe dei resti, residue class
    7 (gramm.) class
    8 di classe, high-class, excellent, first-rate; (fam.) classy: un ristorante di classe, a smart restaurant; una donna di classe, a woman with class.
    * * *
    ['klasse]
    sostantivo femminile
    1) scol. (gruppo di studenti) class; (anno di corso) form BE, grade AE; (aula) classroom, schoolroom

    essere il primo, l'ultimo della classe — to be top, bottom of the class

    2) sociol. pol.
    3) bot. zool. class
    4) (qualità) class

    di prima classe — [ prodotto] first-class; [ albergo] high-class

    5) (stile, eleganza) class, style

    di classe — stylish, classy colloq.

    biglietto di prima, seconda classe — first, second class ticket

    classe turistica — aer. economy o tourist class

    prima classe — aer. business o first class

    * * *
    classe
    /'klasse/
    sostantivo f.
     1 scol. (gruppo di studenti) class; (anno di corso) form BE, grade AE; (aula) classroom, schoolroom; essere il primo, l'ultimo della classe to be top, bottom of the class; che classe fai? which form are you in? compagno di classe classmate
     2 sociol. pol. le -i sociali the social classes; la classe operaia the working class; lotta di classe class struggle
     3 bot. zool. class
     4 (qualità) class; di prima classe [ prodotto] first-class; [ albergo] high-class
     5 (stile, eleganza) class, style; avere classe to have class o style; di classe stylish, classy colloq.
     6 (nei transporti) biglietto di prima, seconda classe first, second class ticket; classe turistica aer. economy o tourist class; prima classe aer. business o first class.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > classe

  • 45 ♦ class

    ♦ class /klɑ:s/
    A n.
    1 classe; categoria; tipo; ordine; livello: a first-class actor, un attore di prim'ordine; low-class goods, merce di qualità scadente; I'm not in his class, non sono al suo livello; to be in a class of one's own, essere senza pari; essere un fuoriclasse; non avere eguali
    2 (biol.) classe
    3 [uc] classe (sociale); ceto: the middle classes, i ceti medi; la borghesia; the working class, la classe operaia; class divisions, divisioni sociali; social class, classe sociale; the ruling class, la classe dirigente
    4 (al pl.) (arc.) – the classes, le classi alte
    5 [u] (fam.) classe; stile: That woman has class, quella donna ha classe
    6 ( a scuola) classe ( di studenti); scolaresca: in front of the class, davanti a tutta la classe; to be bottom [top] of the class, essere l'ultimo [il primo] della classe; class size, dimensioni di una classe; numero di studenti per classe; to repeat a class, ripetere una classe
    7 lezione; (al pl.) corso: I've got a class at ten, ho una lezione alle dieci; What time do classes begin?, a che ora cominciano le lezioni?; to give a class, fare lezione; to take classes in French, seguire un corso di francese; evening classes, corso serale
    8 ( trasporti) classe: to travel first class, viaggiare in prima classe; tourist class, classe turistica; a second-class ticket, un biglietto di seconda classe
    9 (GB, università) livello di classificazione agli esami: She got a first class in History, ottenne il massimo dei voti in storia
    10 ( USA) studenti che si laureano in un dato anno: the class of 1955, i laureati del 1955
    12 (comput.) classe ( di un programma): class hierarchy, gerarchia delle classi
    B a. (fam.)
    1 (attr.) eccellente; di prim'ordine: a class player, un giocatore di prim'ordine
    2 (pred.) che ha stile; che ha classe: Jane is real class, Jane ha davvero classe
    ● (fam. USA) class act, persona o cosa eccellente □ (leg.) class action, azione contro una società o un ente, intentata da un individuo a nome di un'intera categoria di danneggiati; azione di categoria □ class-conscious, che ha coscienza di classe; ( anche) sensibile alle differenze di classe sociale, classista □ class consciousness, coscienza di classe; ( anche) classismo □ class list, elenco dei laureati in base al voto di laurea □ (ling.) class marker, classificatore □ class-ridden, dominato dalle differenze sociali □ class struggle, lotta di classe.
    NOTA D'USO: - the class is o the class are?- (to) class /klɑ:s/
    v. t.
    ● ( nelle mostre) not classed, fuori concorso.

    English-Italian dictionary > ♦ class

  • 46 class

    I
    [kla:s] n դասակարգ, դաս. դասընթաց. the middle class միջին դաս. the upper class խոշոր բուրժուազիա, արիտոկրատիա. the lower classes ցածր դասերը/խավերը. the proprietory class ունևոր դաս. landed classes կալվածատերեր. ruling/governing classes տիրող/իշխող դաս
    II
    [kla:s] n դաս, խումբ. կարգ, տեսակ. class of mammals կաթնասունների դաս. a hotel of the best class բարձր կարգի հյուրանոց. travel first class առաջին կարգով ճամփորդել a first class ticket առաջին կարգի տոմս. attend evening classes երեկոյան դասընթացներ հաճախել. top of the class առաջին աշակերտը. հմկրգ. class interface չքողարկված տվյալ նե րի նկա րա գրություն և գործողություն. class member դասի անդամ. class scope գործողության տի րույթ/դաս. class variable դասի փոփոխական
    [kla:s] a դասակարգային. class barriers/divisions դասային/դասակարգային պատնեշներ/բա ժանումներ
    IV
    [kla:s] v դասել, դասակարգել. class together /with մի շարքում դասել. class with the beginners սկսնակների հետ խմբավորել

    English-Armenian dictionary > class

  • 47 partido

    adj.
    cut, cleft, split, riven.
    m.
    1 party.
    2 game (Sport).
    un partido de baloncesto/rugby a game of basketball/rugby
    3 match.
    buen/mal partido good/bad match
    4 advantage, profit, gain.
    sacar partido de take advantage of...
    5 team.
    6 hair parting, part, part in one's hair.
    7 prospect, prospect for marriage.
    past part.
    past participle of spanish verb: partir.
    * * *
    1 (grupo político) party, group
    2 (provecho) profit, advantage
    3 DEPORTE (equipo) team; (juego) game, match
    ————————
    1→ link=partir partir
    1 (dividido) divided
    2 (roto) broken, split
    1 (grupo político) party, group
    2 (provecho) profit, advantage
    3 DEPORTE (equipo) team; (juego) game, match
    \
    sacar partido de to profit from
    ser un buen partido familiar to be a good catch
    tomar partido to take sides
    tomar partido por alguien to side with somebody
    partido amistoso friendly game
    partido de exhibición exhibition match
    partido de ida first leg
    partido de vuelta second leg
    partido judicial administrative area
    partido político political party
    sistema de partidos party system
    * * *
    noun m.
    2) game, match
    3) play
    4) tie
    •
    * * *
    SM
    1) (Pol) party

    tomar partido por algo/algn — to side with sth/sb

    2) (Dep) game, match

    partido de dobles — (Tenis) doubles match, game of doubles

    partido de ida — away game o match, first leg

    partido de vuelta — return game o match, second leg

    3) (=provecho)
    4)

    ser un buen partido — [persona] to be a good match

    5) (=distrito) district, administrative area

    partido judicial — district under the jurisdiction of a local court

    6) frm (=apoyo) support
    7) frm

    darse a partido, venir(se) a partido — to give way

    8) Cono Sur (Naipes) hand
    9) And, Caribe (=aparcería) crop share
    * * *
    I
    - da adjetivo
    1) < labios> chapped; < barbilla> cleft
    2) (Mat)

    nueve partido por tres da... — nine divided by three gives...

    II
    1)
    a) ( de fútbol) game, match (BrE); ( de tenis) match
    b) (AmL) ( partida) game
    2) (Pol) party

    un partido de izquierda/centro — a left-wing/center party

    sistema de partido único — one-party o single-party system

    3) ( provecho)
    5) ( comarca) administrative area
    * * *
    I
    - da adjetivo
    1) < labios> chapped; < barbilla> cleft
    2) (Mat)

    nueve partido por tres da... — nine divided by three gives...

    II
    1)
    a) ( de fútbol) game, match (BrE); ( de tenis) match
    b) (AmL) ( partida) game
    2) (Pol) party

    un partido de izquierda/centro — a left-wing/center party

    sistema de partido único — one-party o single-party system

    3) ( provecho)
    5) ( comarca) administrative area
    * * *
    partido1
    1 = party.

    Ex: Surely the concept 'Conservative party' appears last in the citation order of this class number.

    * aparato del partido = party machinery.
    * buen partido = eligible party, eligible bachelor.
    * de dos partidos políticos = bipartisan [bi-partisan].
    * obtener partido de = capitalise on/upon [capitalize, -USA].
    * partido conservador = conservative party.
    * partido de derechas = right wing party.
    * partido de izquierdas = left-wing party.
    * partido de la oposición = opposition party.
    * partido disidente = splinter party.
    * partido en el gobierno = governing party.
    * partido en el poder, el = ruling party, the.
    * partido gobernante = governing party.
    * Partido Laborista, el = Labour Party, the.
    * Partido Liberal Democrático, el = Liberal Democrats, the.
    * partido político = political party.
    * Partido Socialista Nacional, el = National Socialist Party, the.
    * sacar el máximo partido = exploit + full potential, take + full advantage (of), take + the best advantage.
    * sacar el máximo partido a = get + the most out of.
    * sacar el máximo partido a Algo = reach + the full potential of.
    * sacar el máximo partido de = harness + the power of, make + the best of.
    * sacar el máximo partido de Algo = make + the most of.
    * sacar el mayor partido al dinero de uno = get + the most for + Posesivo + money.
    * sacar el mejor partido de = get + the best out of.
    * sacar el mejor partido de Algo = make + the best advantage of, make + the best use of, make + the best possible use of.
    * sacar el mejor partido posible = get + the best of both worlds, get + the best of all worlds.
    * sacarle partido a = make + an opportunity (out) of.
    * sacar más partido = get + more for + Posesivo + money.
    * sacar mayor partido a = squeeze + more life out of.
    * sacar mejor partido = get + more for + Posesivo + money.
    * sacar partido = take + advantage (of), exploit + benefits.
    * sacar partido a una oportunidad = capitalise on + opportunity.
    * sin afiliación a un partido político = non-partisan [nonpartisan].
    * tomar partido = take + sides.
    * tomar partido por = side with.
    * tomar partido por Alguien = side in + Posesivo + favour.
    * un buen partido = a good catch.

    partido2
    2 = sports match, game, match, fixture.

    Ex: School events may be regular and seasonal, like Christmas and vacations, or occasional and minor like sports matches.

    Ex: A game is a set of materials designed for play according to prescribed rules.
    Ex: That was one of the finest matches they ever played.
    Ex: New fixtures for the rest of the season have been issued along with some changes in the First Division.
    * partido amistoso = friendly match.
    * partido de competición = club game.
    * partido de fútbol = football game, soccer game, football match.
    * partido de ida = away game, first leg.
    * partido de liga = league game.
    * partido de vuelta = second leg, home game.
    * partido entre equipos rivales = local derby.
    * partido oficial = official game.
    * partido que se juega en casa = home game.
    * partido que se juega fuera de casa = away game.
    * perder un partido = lose + match.
    * resultado de un partido = score.
    * tres goles en un mismo partido = hat trick.

    partido3
    3 = cloven, forked.

    Ex: It is a very old belief that the Devil always appears with a cloven foot as a distinguishing mark.

    Ex: One theory suggests that the forked section of the hieroglyph represents an animal's legs with the central shaft as the body or elongated neck (like a giraffe).
    * con el corazón partido = broken-hearted.
    * luchar a brazo partido = fight + tooth and nail.
    * pelear a brazo partido = fight + tooth and nail.

    * * *
    partido1 -da
    A ‹labios› chapped; ‹barbilla› cleft
    B ( Mat):
    siete partido por diez seven over ten
    este número, partido por tres, nos da el valor de X this number, divided by three, gives us the value of X
    A
    1 (de fútbol) game, match ( BrE)
    vamos a echar un partido de tenis let's have a game of tennis
    el partido de tenis entre Gómez y Rendall the tennis match between Gómez and Rendall
    2 ( AmL) (partida) game
    un partido de ajedrez a game of chess
    Compuestos:
    friendly game o match, friendly
    replay, deciding game
    exhibition game o match
    benefit game o match, benefit
    first leg
    second leg
    home game o ( BrE also) match
    away game o ( BrE also) match
    B
    1 ( Pol) party
    partido político political party
    partido de la oposición opposition party
    un partido de izquierda(s)/derecha(s)/centro a left-wing/right-wing/center party
    sistema de partido único one-party o single-party system
    tomar partido to take sides
    2 (partidarios) following
    su música tiene mucho partido entre la juventud his music has a big following among young people
    esta postura tiene mucho partido entre los agricultores this position enjoys wide support among farmers o is widely supported by farmers
    Compuesto:
    C
    (provecho): le sabe sacar partido a cualquier situación he knows how to make the most of any situation
    trata de sacar el mejor partido de tus conocimientos try to make the best use of o try to take full advantage of your knowledge
    D
    (para casarse): un buen partido a good catch
    no pudo encontrar peor partido para casarse she couldn't have found anyone worse to marry
    E (comarca) administrative area
    Compuesto:
    ( Esp) administrative area
    * * *

     

    Del verbo partir: ( conjugate partir)

    partido es:

    el participio

    Multiple Entries:
    partido    
    partir
    partido 1
    ◊ -da adjetivo

    1 ‹ labios› chapped;
    ‹ barbilla› cleft
    2 (Mat):

    nueve partido por tres da … nine divided by three gives …
    partido 2 sustantivo masculino
    1
    a) ( de fútbol) game, match (BrE);

    ( de tenis) match;

    un partido de béisbol a baseball game;
    partido amistoso friendly game o match;
    partido de desempate deciding game, decider;
    partido en casa/fuera de casa home/away match
    b) (AmL) ( partida) game;


    2 (Pol) party;

    tomar partido to take sides
    3 ( provecho):

    sacarle partido a algo to make the most of sth
    4 ( para casarse):

    partir ( conjugate partir) verbo transitivo
    a) ( con cuchillo) ‹tarta/melón› to cut;


    b) ( romper) ‹piedra/coco› to break, smash;

    ‹nuez/avellana› to crack;
    ‹rama/palo› to break

    ‹ cabeza› to split open
    d) [ frío] ‹ labios› to chap

    verbo intransitivo
    1
    a) (frml) ( marcharse) to leave, depart (frml)

    b) [ auto] (Chi) to start

    2
    a) partido DE algo ‹de una premisa/un supuesto› to start from sth

    b)


    a partido de ahora/ese momento from now on/that moment on;
    a partido de hoy (as o starting) from today
    partirse verbo pronominal
    a) [mármol/roca] to split, smash

    b) ( refl) ‹ labio› to split;

    ‹ diente› to break, chip
    partido,-a sustantivo masculino
    1 Pol party
    2 Dep match, game
    partido de vuelta, return match
    3 (beneficio, oportunidades, jugo) advantage, benefit: sácale partido a la vida, make the most of life 4 ser un buen partido, to be a good catch
    ♦ Locuciones: tomar partido por, to side with
    partir
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (romper, quebrar) to break: me parte el corazón verte tan desalentada, it's heartbreaking to see you so depressed
    partir una nuez, to shell a walnut
    2 (dividir) to split, divide
    (con un cuchillo) to cut
    II vi (irse) to leave, set out o off
    ♦ Locuciones: a partir de aquí/ahora, from here on/now on
    a partir de entonces no volvimos a hablarnos, we didn't speak to each other from then on
    ' partido' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acabar
    - adhesión
    - antológica
    - antológico
    - arrojadiza
    - arrojadizo
    - bajón
    - baño
    - barrer
    - beneficio
    - centenaria
    - centenario
    - continuismo
    - convoy
    - correligionaria
    - correligionario
    - cotización
    - cualquiera
    - decidir
    - depurar
    - desempate
    - desmembrarse
    - despeje
    - dirección
    - dirigir
    - dirigente
    - disputada
    - disputado
    - engranaje
    - entrar
    - épica
    - épico
    - ser
    - escaño
    - europeísta
    - fila
    - fracturar
    - fruto
    - ganarse
    - grupúsculo
    - imperante
    - independiente
    - izquierda
    - izquierdo
    - judicial
    - laborista
    - liberal
    - lucha
    - mayoría
    - mayoritaria
    English:
    about
    - amid
    - brain
    - brokenhearted
    - call off
    - cancel
    - capital
    - cardholder
    - centre
    - close
    - closely
    - decider
    - derby
    - disappoint
    - double
    - equal
    - eventual
    - fair
    - fixture
    - football match
    - fortunately
    - friendly
    - game
    - GOP
    - grass roots
    - heart-broken
    - hooligan
    - hot up
    - international
    - job
    - join
    - kick-off
    - labour
    - Liberal Party
    - line
    - machine
    - majority
    - match
    - member
    - membership
    - minority
    - office
    - opponent
    - opposing
    - ostracize
    - party line
    - pep talk
    - play
    - profit
    - quite
    * * *
    1. [político] party;
    partido político political party;
    un partido de izquierda(s) a left-wing party;
    el partido en el gobierno the ruling party;
    un partido de (la) oposición an opposition party
    partido bisagra = minority party holding the balance of power
    2. [deportivo] game, Br match;
    un partido de baloncesto/rugby a game of basketball/rugby;
    un partido de liga/copa a league/cup game o Br match
    partido amistoso friendly;
    partido benéfico benefit game o Br match;
    partido de clasificación qualifying game o Br match, qualifier;
    partido de consolación consolation final;
    partido de dobles game of doubles, doubles game o Br match;
    partido de entrenamiento practice game o Br match;
    partido de las estrellas all-star game;
    partido de exhibición exhibition game o Br match;
    partido (de) homenaje testimonial (game);
    partido de ida [en copa] first leg;
    partido internacional international, Br international match;
    partido de vuelta [en copa] second leg
    3. Am [partida] game;
    un partido de ajedrez a game of chess
    4. [futuro cónyuge]
    ser buen/mal partido to be a good/bad match
    5. Esp partido judicial = area under the jurisdiction of a court of first instance
    6. Comp
    sacar partido de, sacarle partido a to make the most of;
    tomar partido por [ponerse de parte de] to side with;
    [decidir] to decide on;
    tomar partido por hacer algo to decide to do sth
    * * *
    m
    1 POL party
    2 DEP game;
    partido en casa home game
    3
    :
    sacar partido de take advantage of;
    tomar partido take sides
    * * *
    1) : (political) party
    2) : game, match
    partido de futbol: soccer game
    3) apoyo: support, following
    4) provecho: profit, advantage
    sacar partido de: to profit from
    * * *

    Spanish-English dictionary > partido

  • 48 Klasse

    Klasse f 1. GEN class; 2. PAT category, class; 3. POL class; 4. STEUER bracket, class • Klasse wiederholen BIL repeat a year
    * * *
    f 1. < Geschäft> class; 2. < Patent> category, class; 3. < Pol> class; 4. < Steuer> bracket, class
    * * *
    Klasse
    class, category, rate, (Qualität) class, quality, sort, brand, (Schicht) order, estate, (Schiff) rating, (Steuerklasse) bracket, (Wertpapiere) denomination;
    • in der zweiten Klasse (Krankenhaus) semiprivate;
    • nach Klassen eingeteilt classified;
    • die arbeitenden Klassen the working-class population;
    • begüterte Klassen leisured classes;
    • besitzende Klassen proprietary (propertied, moneyed) classes;
    • dritter Klasse third class;
    • erster Klasse grade A (US), (Abteil) first-class, (Krankenhaus) private, (Ware) first-rate;
    • herrschende Klassen ruling classes;
    • einseitig offene Klassen (Statistik) open-ended classes;
    • zweiter Klasse (Bahn) second (tourist, US) class;
    • alle Klassen der Bevölkerung [be]treffen (Preisanstieg) to affect all classes;
    • Klasse für sich darstellen to hold a position all its own;
    • in Klassen einteilen to classify;
    • erster Klasse fahren to go first;
    • zu einer Klasse gehören to belong to a class;
    • erster Klasse liegen (Krankenhaus) to have a private room;
    • zweiter Klasse reisen to travel second class;
    • zu einer Klasse zählen to rate.

    Business german-english dictionary > Klasse

  • 49 contratiempo

    m.
    1 mishap (accidente).
    2 setback, set-back, difficulty, mishap.
    * * *
    1 (contrariedad) setback, hitch; (accidente) mishap
    \
    a contratiempo MÚSICA on the offbeat
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=revés) setback, reverse; (=accidente) mishap, accident
    2) (Mús)
    * * *
    masculino ( problema) setback, hitch; ( accidente) mishap

    sufrir or tener un contratiempo — to have a setback/a mishap

    * * *
    = mishap, setback, adversity, misfortune, hiccup, mischance, problem, misadventure.
    Ex. The operations staff makes special backup copies of the catalogs in the network, reconstructs the files in case of a serious mishap, enters new system logon names, assigns authorization levels, and so forth.
    Ex. This article traces the beginning of library automation in Denmark, outlining the plans and setbacks which were experienced.
    Ex. But adversity is fertile ground for innovation, and for this reason librarians should consider adopting from the entrepreneurial model.
    Ex. The economic misfortunes of the decade had removed much of the opposition to the working classes using public libraries.
    Ex. The book 'The Last Hiccup of the Old Demographic Regime' examines the impact of epidemics and disease on population growth in the late seventeenth century.
    Ex. Lawyers find it problematic to consult psychologists, partly because psychological research may turn up unfavorable data through sheer mischance, eg, an invalid sample.
    Ex. When the cataloguer turns to the description of a piece of music a common problem will be the absence of a title page to be used as the chief source of information.
    Ex. This is a wholly truthful account of her various discoveries and misadventures recounted, to the best of her recollection, in four parts.
    ----
    * contratiempos = pitfalls and potholes.
    * sin contratiempos = smoothly.
    * si no hay ningún contratiempo = all being well.
    * sufrir un contratiempo = suffer + bruises.
    * * *
    masculino ( problema) setback, hitch; ( accidente) mishap

    sufrir or tener un contratiempo — to have a setback/a mishap

    * * *
    = mishap, setback, adversity, misfortune, hiccup, mischance, problem, misadventure.

    Ex: The operations staff makes special backup copies of the catalogs in the network, reconstructs the files in case of a serious mishap, enters new system logon names, assigns authorization levels, and so forth.

    Ex: This article traces the beginning of library automation in Denmark, outlining the plans and setbacks which were experienced.
    Ex: But adversity is fertile ground for innovation, and for this reason librarians should consider adopting from the entrepreneurial model.
    Ex: The economic misfortunes of the decade had removed much of the opposition to the working classes using public libraries.
    Ex: The book 'The Last Hiccup of the Old Demographic Regime' examines the impact of epidemics and disease on population growth in the late seventeenth century.
    Ex: Lawyers find it problematic to consult psychologists, partly because psychological research may turn up unfavorable data through sheer mischance, eg, an invalid sample.
    Ex: When the cataloguer turns to the description of a piece of music a common problem will be the absence of a title page to be used as the chief source of information.
    Ex: This is a wholly truthful account of her various discoveries and misadventures recounted, to the best of her recollection, in four parts.
    * contratiempos = pitfalls and potholes.
    * sin contratiempos = smoothly.
    * si no hay ningún contratiempo = all being well.
    * sufrir un contratiempo = suffer + bruises.

    * * *
    (problema) setback, hitch; (accidente) mishap
    sufrimos or tuvimos un pequeño contratiempo en el camino we had a little mishap on the way
    * * *

    contratiempo sustantivo masculino ( problema) setback, hitch;
    ( accidente) mishap;
    sufrir or tener un contratiempo to have a setback/a mishap
    contratiempo sustantivo masculino setback, hitch
    ' contratiempo' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    golpe
    - tropiezo
    - varapalo
    - complicación
    - faena
    - percance
    - revés
    English:
    hang on
    - hang-up
    - hiccough
    - hiccup
    - hitch
    - mishap
    - setback
    - upset
    * * *
    [accidente] mishap; [dificultad] setback;
    me ha surgido un contratiempo y no voy a poder acudir a problem has come up and I won't be able to attend;
    el fallo judicial supone un enorme contratiempo the court's ruling means an enormous setback
    * * *
    m setback, hitch
    * * *
    1) percance: mishap, accident
    2) dificultad: setback, difficulty
    * * *
    1. (revés) setback
    2. (accidente) problem

    Spanish-English dictionary > contratiempo

  • 50 ideology

    n ідеологія, світогляд
    - crisis-rooted ideology ідеологія, породжена кризою
    - ideology of "political ecologists" ідеологія "політичних екологів"

    English-Ukrainian diplomatic dictionary > ideology

  • 51 governing

    1. a руководящий, управляющий; контролирующий
    2. a правящий
    3. a главный, основной
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. dominant (adj.) ascendant; common; controlling; dominant; first; important; master; predominant; regnant; ruling
    2. exercising authority (adj.) administrative; commanding; executive; exercising authority; in office; managing; overseeing; supervisory
    3. running (verb) administering; administrating; carrying out; controlling; directing; dominating; executing; governing; handling; heading; managing; overruling; regulating; reigning; rendering; ruling; running; superintending; swaying

    English-Russian base dictionary > governing

  • 52 hakim

    1. i.1) (ölkənin) ruler, governer
    2) judge (məhkəmədə)
    3) idm. referee, umpire
    2. s. ruling, dominating
    hakim partiya – the party in power
    hakim siniflər – ruling classes

    Məktəblilər üçün Azərbaycanca-İngiliscə lüğət > hakim

  • 53 profit

    profit [pʀɔfi]
    masculine noun
       a. ( = gain) profit
       b. ( = avantage) benefit
    • tirer profit de [+ leçon, affaire] to benefit from
       c. (locutions)
    • mettre à profit [+ idée, invention] to turn to account ; [+ temps libre] to make the most of► au profit de for ; ( = pour aider) in aid of
    * * *
    pʀɔfi
    nom masculin
    1) ( avantage) benefit, advantage

    tirer profit de — to make the most of, to take advantage of

    faire du profit — (colloq) [nourriture] to go a long way; [objet, appareil] to be good value

    ce manteau m'a fait du profit — (colloq) I've had a lot of wear out of this coat

    abandonner le charbon au profit du nucléaire — to drop coal in favour [BrE] of nuclear energy

    mettre à profit — to make the most of [temps libre, stage]; to turn [something] to good account [situation]; to make good use of [idée, résultat]

    2) ( gains) profit
    ••

    il n'y a pas de petits profits — Proverbe look after the pennies and the pounds will look after themselves Proverbe GB, a dollar is a dollar US

    * * *
    pʀɔfi nm
    1) (= avantage)

    mettre à profit [occasion] — to take advantage of, [connaissance, capacité] to turn to good account

    2) COMMERCE, FINANCE profit

    La société a fait des profits importants. — The company made significant profits.

    * * *
    profit nm
    1 ( avantage) benefit, advantage; faire qch avec profit to benefit from doing sth; vous consulterez ce guide avec profit you'll find this guide very useful; il a appliqué avec profit les nouvelles méthodes he's made good use of the new methods; tirer profit de to make the most of, to take advantage of; il a tiré profit de mes conseils he put my advice to good use; il n'a pas su tirer profit de ce qui lui est arrivé il y a deux ans he didn't learn from what happened to him two years ago; faire son profit de qch to use sth to one's advantage, to make use of sth; faire du profit○ [nourriture] to go a long way; [objet, appareil] to be good value; ce manteau m'a fait du profit○ I've had a lot of wear out of this coat; être d'un grand profit à qn to be of great benefit ou value to sb, to benefit sb greatly; ce stage linguistique leur a été d'un grand profit that language course has been of great benefit ou value to them, they got a lot out of that language course; pour le plus grand profit de to the great benefit of; trouver (son) profit à faire to find it to one's advantage to do; s'il le fait c'est qu'il y trouve son profit he's doing it because he gets something out of it; organiser un concert au profit des handicapés/de la recherche sur le cancer to organize a concert in aid of the handicapped/of cancer research; accusé d'espionnage au profit d'un pays étranger accused of spying for a foreign country; la réforme s'est faite au profit des grands propriétaires the reform benefited land owners; abandonner le charbon au profit du nucléaire to drop coal in favourGB of nuclear energy; le candidat de la majorité a perdu des voix au profit des écologistes the ruling party's candidate lost votes to the ecologists; tourner au profit de qn to work in sb's favourGB; mettre à profit to make the most of, to take advantage of [temps libre, stage]; to turn [sth] to good account ou to one's advantage [situation]; to make good use of [idée, découverte, résultat];
    2 Écon ( gains) profit; dégager des profits, faire des profits to make a profit; réaliser 10 millions de profit to make a profit of 10 million; profits illicites/illimités illicit/unlimited profits; profits pétroliers oil revenues; être une source de profit pour to be a source of wealth for.
    il n'y a pas de petits profits Prov look after the pennies and the pounds will look after themselves Prov GB, a penny saved is a penny earned Prov GB, a dollar is a dollar US.
    [prɔfi] nom masculin
    1. [avantage] profit, advantage
    mettre quelque chose à profit to take advantage of ou to make the most of something
    il y a trouvé son profit, sinon il ne l'aurait pas fait he got something out of it otherwise he wouldn't have done it
    2. COMMERCE & FINANCE [bénéfice] profit
    faire ou réaliser des profits to make profits ou a profit
    le profit réalisé sur la vente de la propriété the return on ou the revenue from the sale of the property
    profit brut/net gross/net profit
    ————————
    au profit de locution prépositionnelle
    à son/mon seul profit for his/my sole benefit

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > profit

  • 54 sfe|ra

    f 1. książk. (zakres, domena) sphere
    - sfera wpływów the sphere of influence
    - (czyjaś) sfera działalności sb’s sphere of activity
    - sfera duchowa/emocjonalna the spiritual/emotional sphere
    - sfera życia społecznego/politycznego the social/political sphere
    2. zw. pl książk. (środowisko, warstwa) class, circle
    - sfery rządzące/dyplomatyczne/wojskowe the ruling/diplomatic/military spheres
    - sfery kulturalne/towarzyskie/naukowe cultural/social/scientific circles
    - wyższe sfery high society, upper classes
    - obracał się w lepszych sferach he mixed with the top drawer pot.
    3. Astron. firmament, the vault of the sky 4. Geog. zone
    - sfera podbiegunowa the Arctic zone
    - sfera wiecznych śniegów the zone of eternal snow
    5. Mat. sphere, spherical surface
    - □ sfera armilarna Hist., Astron. armillary sphere
    - sfera budżetowa Ekon. ≈ the public sector
    - sfera niebieska Astron. celestial sphere
    - muzyka a. harmonia sfer Filoz. music a. harmony of the spheres

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > sfe|ra

  • 55 идеология господствующих эксплуататорских классов

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > идеология господствующих эксплуататорских классов

  • 56 клас

    class; ( у школі) form; ( кімната) classroom

    Українсько-англійський словник > клас

  • 57 class

    ̈ɪklɑ:s
    1. сущ.
    1) а) (общественный) класс working class ≈ рабочий класс middle class ≈ средний класс upper class ≈ крупная буржуазия;
    аристократия б) (the classes) имущие классы
    2) а) группа, класс ( в колледже, школе) the top of the class ≈ первый ученик( в классе) б) занятие, урок;
    курс обучения, курс лекций When is class? ≈ Когда будут занятия? Syn: course
    1., session;
    lesson
    1. в) амер. выпуск( группа студентов или учащихся, поступивших в одном и том же году, прослушавших единый курс обучения и окончивших в одном и том же году) the class of 1975 ≈ выпуск 1975 года class-system ≈ групповая система, система групп (при которой группа проходит единый курс обучения в отличие от 'university system' ≈ университетской системы, при которой такого единого курса нет)
    3) воен. призывники одного и того же года рождения
    4) отличие;
    степень отличия (разделение на основе результатов экзамена) He will be lucky if he gets his class at all. ≈ Ему повезет, если его вообще аттестуют. to get a class, obtain a class ≈ окончить курс с отличием
    5) класс, категория, тип;
    разряд;
    качество, сорт( разделение вещей на основе их достоинств, качества) Pine trees belong to the evergreen class. ≈ Сосны принадлежат к классу вечнозеленых растений. I came by the second class, and so saved the nine shillings. ≈ Я приехал вторым классом и сэкономил девять шиллингов. class of problems ≈ круг вопросов Syn: kind I, sort
    1., division, category, group
    1.
    6) разг. класс, высокое качество;
    шик, блеск There's not much class about her. ≈ Ничего классного в ней нет. Real class your sister is. ≈ Твоя сестра просто блеск. no class Syn: distinction, excellence, style
    1.
    2. прил.
    1) классовый class struggle ≈ классовая борьба class morality ≈ классовая мораль
    2) учебный, классный (относящийся к занятиям) The class system is essential to energetic common college life. ≈ Классная система полезна для активной общественной жизни в колледже.
    3) классификационный
    4) разг. шикарный, классный It was a class neighbourhood, thought Foxy, surveying the elegant, freshly-painted houses. ≈ "Отличные соседи", - подумал Фокси, разглядывая элегантные свежевыкрашенные дома.
    3. гл.
    1) классифицировать, систематизировать Since they can and do successfully inter-breed they cannot be classed as different species. ≈ Так как они могут скрещиваться и успешно это делают, их нельзя относить к разным видам. I class myself as an ordinary working person. ≈ Я отношу себя к обычному рабочему человеку. Syn: classify
    2) аттестовать, распределять( студентов или школьников) по степеням отличия (в результате экзаменов) Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed. ≈ Томпкинс получил диплом, но без отличия. At a second year's examination Tom was not classed at all. ≈ По итогам экзаменов на втором году обучения Том вообще не был аттестован. ∙ class with( общественный) класс - the working * рабочий класс - the middle * (политэкономия) буржуазия;
    среднее сословие;
    средний слой общества - the upper * аристократия, дворянство;
    высшее сословие, высшие слои общества;
    крупная буржуазия - lower middle * мелкая буржуазия;
    низы среднего класса;
    мещанство, мещане - landed *es помещики, землевладельцы( редкое) имущие классы - the *es and masses все слои общества - to back the masses against the *es поддерживать трудящихся в борьбе против имущих классовый - * society классовое общество - * struggle классовая борьба - * differences классовые различия - * alien классово чуждый элемент класс;
    разряд;
    группа;
    категория;
    вид, род - ship's * класс судна - *es of weight( спортивное) весовые категории - open * (спортивное) свободный класс - * of fit (техническое) тип посадки - two *es of poets поэты двух родов - different *es of intellect разный склад ума - a good * of man порядочный человек - a poor * of house плохой дой - the best * of hotel первоклассная гостиница, гостиница высшего разряда - in a * by itself единственный в своем роде;
    неподражаемый, неповторимый, незаменимый класс (поезда, парохода) - to travel first * ездить первым классом( морское) тип (корабля) сорт, качество - first * первоклассный, высшего сорта класс ( в школе) ;
    группа (в колледже) - the top of the * первый ученик (в классе) - to take a * of beginners взять группу начинающих - listen, *! послушайте, дети! (обращение учителя) - * dismissed! урок окончен!, занятие окончено!;
    можете идти! кружок( по изучению чего-л) занятие;
    занятия;
    курс обучения - to take *es учиться( чему-л) ;
    проходить курс обучения (какому-л. предмету) - to take *es in cookery учиться на курсах кулинарии - what time does the * begin? когда начинаются занятия? - when is *? когда начало занятий?, когда приходить в школу? выпуск студентов или учащихся (одного года) ;
    - * of 1980 выпуск 1980 года (биология) класс отличие - to get * окончить (курс) с отличием (разговорное) достоинство( поведения) ;
    высокие качества (характера) - the new teacher's got real * новая учительница держится с большим достоинством - to be no * (разговорное) ничего не стоить, никуда не годиться - he is no * это человек низкого пошиба (сленг) "класс", шик;
    привлекательность - that girl's got *! классная девчонка! (военное) ранг (американизм) (морское) статья;
    - seaman 1st * матрос 1-й статьи( военное) призывники одного года рождения - the * of 1937 призывники 1937 года рождения классификационный - * heading широкая рубрика( систематической классификации) - * letter( морское) буква, означающая тип корабля;
    (специальное) буква классификационного знака, буква индекса - * mark классификационный знак учебный;
    относящийся к классу, к занятиям - * hours учебные часы - * day (американизм) выпускной акт с выступлениями выпускников (школы, колледжа) классифицировать, сортировать - the vessel is *ed A1 at Lloyds регистром Ллойда судну присвоен первый класс причислять - he cannot be *ed amond the best его нельзя отнести к лучшим зачислять в одну категорию, ставить наряду( с чем-л) - to * justice with wisdom ценить справедливость не меньше, чем мудрость присуждать диплом той или иной категории (в результате экзаменов) - Smith got a degree but was not *ed Смит получил диплом, но без отличия abstract ~ вчт. абстрактный класс age ~ возрастная группа annual ~ годичный класс base ~ вчт. базовый класс business ~ бизнес-класс ~ распределять отличия (в результате экзаменов) ;
    Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed Томпкинс получил степень, но без отличия class вид ~ время начала занятий (в школе) ;
    when is class? когда начинаются занятия? ~ амер. выпуск (студентов или учащихся такого-то года) ~ группа ~ занятие ~ категория ~ качество ~ класс (на железной дороге, пароходе) ;
    to travel third class ездить в третьем классе ~ класс (в школе) ;
    the top of the class первый ученик (в классе) ~ биол. класс ~ класс;
    разряд;
    группа;
    категория;
    class of problems круг вопросов ~ класс (общественный) ;
    the working class рабочий класс;
    the middle class средняя буржуазия ~ вчт. класс ~ класс ~ классифицировать ~ классный ~ классовый;
    class alien классово чуждый элемент ~ курс (обучения) ;
    to take classes (in) проходить курс обучения (где-л.) ~ курс обучения ~ отличие;
    to get (или to obtain) a class окончить курс с отличием ~ воен. призывники одного и того же года рождения;
    the 1957 class призывники 1957 года (рождения) ~ воен. призывники одного и того же года рождения;
    the 1957 class призывники 1957 года (рождения) ~ разряд ~ распределять отличия (в результате экзаменов) ;
    Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed Томпкинс получил степень, но без отличия ~ сорт, качество;
    in a class by itself первоклассный;
    it is no class разг. это никуда не годится ~ сорт ~ сортировать ~ составить себе мнение, оценить;
    class with ставить наряду с ~ мор. тип корабля ~ классовый;
    class alien классово чуждый элемент ~ ~ вчт. класс классов ~ of creditor in bankruptcy категория неплатежеспособности кредитора ~ of events вчт. класс событий ~ of goods категория товара ~ of goods сорт товара ~ of heir категория наследника ~ of insurance тип страхования ~ класс;
    разряд;
    группа;
    категория;
    class of problems круг вопросов ~ of risk степень риска ~ of shares класс акций ~ составить себе мнение, оценить;
    class with ставить наряду с the upper ~ крупная буржуазия;
    аристократия;
    the classes имущие классы classes: classes: equivalence ~ вчт. класс эквивалентности complexity ~ вчт. класс сложности danger ~ категория риска data structure ~ вчт. класс структур данных deep-sea ~ глубоководный класс economy ~ экономический класс environmental ~ категория экологического состояния first ~ торг. первый класс ~ отличие;
    to get (или to obtain) a class окончить курс с отличием ~ сорт, качество;
    in a class by itself первоклассный;
    it is no class разг. это никуда не годится ~ сорт, качество;
    in a class by itself первоклассный;
    it is no class разг. это никуда не годится job ~ вчт. класс задания lower ~ низший класс lower middle ~ мелкая буржуазия lower middle ~ низы среднего класса lower: ~ middle class мелкая буржуазия;
    lower orders низшие сословия, классы media ~ категория средств рекламы ~ класс (общественный) ;
    the working class рабочий класс;
    the middle class средняя буржуазия middle ~ средний класс middle ~ средний слой naming ~ вчт. класс идентификаторов nonlife ~ категория ущерба object ~ вчт. класс объектов ocean-going ~ океанский класс output ~ вчт. выходной класс poison ~ третий класс privilege ~ вчт. класс привилегий productivity ~ класс продуктивности quality ~ произ. категория качества risk ~ класс риска ruling ~ правящий класс second ~ второй класс share ~ класс акций social ~ социальный класс storage ~ вчт. класс памяти system ~ вчт. системный класс ~ курс (обучения) ;
    to take classes (in) проходить курс обучения (где-л.) ~ распределять отличия (в результате экзаменов) ;
    Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed Томпкинс получил степень, но без отличия ~ класс (в школе) ;
    the top of the class первый ученик (в классе) tourist ~ второй класс tourist: ~ attr. туристский, относящийся к туризму, путешествиям;
    tourist agency бюро путешествий;
    tourist class второй класс (на океанском пароходе или в самолете) traffic ~ вчт. класс трафика travel business ~ путешествовать бизнес-классом travel business ~ путешествовать деловым классом travel economy ~ путешествовать туристическим классом travel first ~ путешествовать первым классом ~ класс (на железной дороге, пароходе) ;
    to travel third class ездить в третьем классе the upper ~ крупная буржуазия;
    аристократия;
    the classes имущие классы upper ~ аристократия upper ~ верхушка общества upper middle ~ верхушка среднего класса middle: the upper (lower) ~ class крупная (мелкая) буржуазия vehicle ~ класс автотранспортного средства ~ время начала занятий (в школе) ;
    when is class? когда начинаются занятия? ~ класс (общественный) ;
    the working class рабочий класс;
    the middle class средняя буржуазия working ~ рабочий класс

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > class

  • 58 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 59 class

    [̈ɪklɑ:s]
    abstract class вчт. абстрактный класс age class возрастная группа annual class годичный класс base class вчт. базовый класс business class бизнес-класс class распределять отличия (в результате экзаменов); Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed Томпкинс получил степень, но без отличия class вид class время начала занятий (в школе); when is class? когда начинаются занятия? class амер. выпуск (студентов или учащихся такого-то года) class группа class занятие class категория class качество class класс (на железной дороге, пароходе); to travel third class ездить в третьем классе class класс (в школе); the top of the class первый ученик (в классе) class биол. класс class класс; разряд; группа; категория; class of problems круг вопросов class класс (общественный); the working class рабочий класс; the middle class средняя буржуазия class вчт. класс class класс class классифицировать class классный class классовый; class alien классово чуждый элемент class курс (обучения); to take classes (in) проходить курс обучения (где-л.) class курс обучения class отличие; to get (или to obtain) a class окончить курс с отличием class воен. призывники одного и того же года рождения; the 1957 class призывники 1957 года (рождения) class воен. призывники одного и того же года рождения; the 1957 class призывники 1957 года (рождения) class разряд class распределять отличия (в результате экзаменов); Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed Томпкинс получил степень, но без отличия class сорт, качество; in a class by itself первоклассный; it is no class разг. это никуда не годится class сорт class сортировать class составить себе мнение, оценить; class with ставить наряду с class мор. тип корабля class классовый; class alien классово чуждый элемент class class вчт. класс классов class of creditor in bankruptcy категория неплатежеспособности кредитора class of events вчт. класс событий class of goods категория товара class of goods сорт товара class of heir категория наследника class of insurance тип страхования class класс; разряд; группа; категория; class of problems круг вопросов class of risk степень риска class of shares класс акций class составить себе мнение, оценить; class with ставить наряду с the upper class крупная буржуазия; аристократия; the classes имущие классы classes: classes: equivalence class вчт. класс эквивалентности complexity class вчт. класс сложности danger class категория риска data structure class вчт. класс структур данных deep-sea class глубоководный класс economy class экономический класс environmental class категория экологического состояния first class торг. первый класс class отличие; to get (или to obtain) a class окончить курс с отличием class сорт, качество; in a class by itself первоклассный; it is no class разг. это никуда не годится class сорт, качество; in a class by itself первоклассный; it is no class разг. это никуда не годится job class вчт. класс задания lower class низший класс lower middle class мелкая буржуазия lower middle class низы среднего класса lower: class middle class мелкая буржуазия; lower orders низшие сословия, классы media class категория средств рекламы class класс (общественный); the working class рабочий класс; the middle class средняя буржуазия middle class средний класс middle class средний слой naming class вчт. класс идентификаторов nonlife class категория ущерба object class вчт. класс объектов ocean-going class океанский класс output class вчт. выходной класс poison class третий класс privilege class вчт. класс привилегий productivity class класс продуктивности quality class произ. категория качества risk class класс риска ruling class правящий класс second class второй класс share class класс акций social class социальный класс storage class вчт. класс памяти system class вчт. системный класс class курс (обучения); to take classes (in) проходить курс обучения (где-л.) class распределять отличия (в результате экзаменов); Tompkins obtained a degree, but was not classed Томпкинс получил степень, но без отличия class класс (в школе); the top of the class первый ученик (в классе) tourist class второй класс tourist: class attr. туристский, относящийся к туризму, путешествиям; tourist agency бюро путешествий; tourist class второй класс (на океанском пароходе или в самолете) traffic class вчт. класс трафика travel business class путешествовать бизнес-классом travel business class путешествовать деловым классом travel economy class путешествовать туристическим классом travel first class путешествовать первым классом class класс (на железной дороге, пароходе); to travel third class ездить в третьем классе the upper class крупная буржуазия; аристократия; the classes имущие классы upper class аристократия upper class верхушка общества upper middle class верхушка среднего класса middle: the upper (lower) class class крупная (мелкая) буржуазия vehicle class класс автотранспортного средства class время начала занятий (в школе); when is class? когда начинаются занятия? class класс (общественный); the working class рабочий класс; the middle class средняя буржуазия working class рабочий класс

    English-Russian short dictionary > class

  • 60 class

    1. plural - classes; noun
    1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) clase
    2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; (also adjective) the class system.) clase
    3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) clase
    4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) clase
    5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) clase
    6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) clase, lección

    2. verb
    (to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) clasificar
    - class-room
    class n clase
    what class are you in? ¿en qué clase estás?
    tr[klɑːs]
    ■ working/middle/upper class clase obrera/media/alta
    2 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL clase nombre femenino
    3 (kind) clase nombre femenino, tipo
    4 (of plant, animal) clase nombre femenino
    5 (style) clase nombre femenino, estilo
    1 clasificar, catalogar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be in a class of its/one's own no tener igual, ser único,-a, ser inigualable
    the class struggle la lucha de clases
    class ['klæs] vt
    : clasificar, catalogar
    1) kind, type: clase f, tipo m, especie f
    2) : clase f, rango m social
    the working class: la clase obrera
    3) lesson: clase f, curso m
    English class: clase de inglés
    4) : conjunto m de estudiantes, clase f
    the class of '97: la promoción del 97
    n.
    (§ pl.: classes) = categoría s.f.
    • clase s.f.
    • elegancia s.f.
    • estado s.m.
    • estofa s.f.
    • grado s.m.
    • género s.m.
    • linaje s.m.
    • línea s.f.
    • rango s.m.
    • tipo s.m.
    v.
    • clasificar v.

    I klæs, klɑːs
    1) c u ( social stratum) clase f; (before n)
    2) c ( group of students) clase f; ( lesson) clase f
    3) c (group, type) clase f

    to be in a class of one's/its own — ser* único or inigualable

    4) u
    a) ( Transp) clase f
    b) ( in UK) ( Post)

    send the letter first/second class — manda la carta por correo preferente/normal

    c) ( in UK) ( Educ) tipo de título que se concede según las calificaciones obtenidas durante la carrera y/o exámenes finales; (before n)

    he got a first class degree — ≈se recibió con la nota más alta ( en AmL), ≈sacó matrícula de honor en la carrera ( en Esp)

    5) u ( style) (colloq) clase f, estilo m

    II
    transitive verb catalogar*
    [klɑːs]
    1. N
    1) (also Scol, Bio, Sociol) clase f

    ruling/middle/working class — clase f dirigente/media/obrera

    upper class — clase f alta

    2) (=category) categoría f

    class of degree — (Brit) (Univ) tipo de título universitario según la nota con que se ha obtenido

    it's in a class by itself — no tiene par or igual, es único en su género

    3) (=style)
    2.
    3.
    ADJ (=classy) [player, actor] de primera clase
    4.
    CPD

    class action N — (Jur) querella f colectiva

    class background N — (=social class) clase f social

    class conflict N — conflicto m de clases

    class differences NPL — diferencias fpl de clases

    class distinction N — (Sociol) diferencia f de clase

    class list N — (Scol) lista f de clase; (Univ) lista f de estudiantes aprobados para la licenciatura

    class president N — (US) ≈ delegado(-a) m / f de clase

    class society N — (Pol) sociedad f formada por clases

    class struggle N — (Sociol) lucha f de clases

    class system N — sistema m de clases sociales

    class teacher N — (Brit) tutor(a) m / f

    class war(fare) N — = class struggle

    * * *

    I [klæs, klɑːs]
    1) c u ( social stratum) clase f; (before n)
    2) c ( group of students) clase f; ( lesson) clase f
    3) c (group, type) clase f

    to be in a class of one's/its own — ser* único or inigualable

    4) u
    a) ( Transp) clase f
    b) ( in UK) ( Post)

    send the letter first/second class — manda la carta por correo preferente/normal

    c) ( in UK) ( Educ) tipo de título que se concede según las calificaciones obtenidas durante la carrera y/o exámenes finales; (before n)

    he got a first class degree — ≈se recibió con la nota más alta ( en AmL), ≈sacó matrícula de honor en la carrera ( en Esp)

    5) u ( style) (colloq) clase f, estilo m

    II
    transitive verb catalogar*

    English-spanish dictionary > class

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