Перевод: с английского на все языки

со всех языков на английский

coastal river

  • 1 coastal river

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > coastal river

  • 2 coastal river

    n
    WATER río costero m

    English-Spanish technical dictionary > coastal river

  • 3 coastal

    1 adj
    GEOL, HYDROL, WATER TRANSP geography con litoral, costero
    2

    English-Spanish technical dictionary > coastal

  • 4 Alabama River

    Река на юге США, главным образом в штате Алабама. Образуется при слиянии рек Куса [ Coosa River] и Талапуса [Talapoosa River], стекающих с Аппалачей [ Appalachian Mountains]. Длина (от истоков Кусы) 1064 км. Площадь бассейна 115 тыс. кв. км. Протекает по Примексиканской низменности [Gulf Coastal Plain]. Сливаясь с р. Томбигби [ Tombigbee River], образует р. Мобил [ Mobile River], впадает в залив Мобил [ Mobile Bay]. Судоходна от г. Монтгомери, шт. Алабама. В устье - порт Мобил [ Mobile]

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Alabama River

  • 5 Delaware River

    Река, впадающая в Атлантический океан. Длина 660 км. Площадь бассейна 31,1 тыс. кв. км. Берет начало в горах Катскилл [ Catskill Mountains]. Пересекает плато Пидмонт [ Piedmont Plateau], Приатлантическую низменность [Coastal Plain] (образуя границу между штатами Нью-Йорк и Пенсильвания), а затем поворачивает на юг по Делавэрскому ущелью [Delaware Water Gap] и впадает в залив Делавэр [ Delaware Bay]. Судоходна до г. Трентон. На реке гг. Филадельфия, Камден. Водохранилища на притоках реки - один из источников водоснабжения г. Нью-Йорка [Delaware Aqueduct]. На западе соединена с Чесапикским заливом [ Chesapeake Bay] каналом Чесапик-Делавэр [ Chesapeake and Delaware Canal]. Река была впервые исследована Г. Хадсоном [ Hudson, Henry] в 1609. С 1978 имеет статус национального ландшафтного заповедника [ national scenic river (riverway)]

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Delaware River

  • 6 RPC

    1) Биология: reversed phase chromatography
    2) Американизм: Regional Protection Code
    6) Сельское хозяйство: Rice Polishing Concentrate
    8) Юридический термин: Rules of Professional Conduct (Court Rules)
    10) Автомобильный термин: remote parameter test
    11) Сокращение: Regional Processing Center (new naming convention, 2005), Remote Procedure Call (Internet), Royal Pioneer Corps (Now RLC (British Army)), РПЦ (республиканский перинатальный центр - republican perinatal centre)
    12) Физиология: Reports Of Patents Cases
    13) Вычислительная техника: Region Playback Control (DVD), Remote Procedure Call (Sun, Xerox, OSF, ECMA, RFC 1831)
    14) Нефть: каталог запасных частей (repair parts catalog), комитет по технической политике в области надёжности (reliability policy committee)
    16) Биотехнология: retinal progenitor cell
    17) Транспорт: Regional Preparedness Committee (US)
    18) Фирменный знак: Root Person And Company
    20) SAP. route and process chart
    23) Полимеры: remote position control
    24) Программирование: (Remote Procedure Call) сервис вызова удаленных процедур (см. Remote Procedure Call)
    25) Химическое оружие: Project correspondence to client from Pasadena on RWCDC
    26) Безопасность: Region Protection Control
    27) Расширение файла: Remote Procedure Call
    29) Должность: Registered Professional Counselor

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > RPC

  • 7 rpc

    1) Биология: reversed phase chromatography
    2) Американизм: Regional Protection Code
    6) Сельское хозяйство: Rice Polishing Concentrate
    8) Юридический термин: Rules of Professional Conduct (Court Rules)
    10) Автомобильный термин: remote parameter test
    11) Сокращение: Regional Processing Center (new naming convention, 2005), Remote Procedure Call (Internet), Royal Pioneer Corps (Now RLC (British Army)), РПЦ (республиканский перинатальный центр - republican perinatal centre)
    12) Физиология: Reports Of Patents Cases
    13) Вычислительная техника: Region Playback Control (DVD), Remote Procedure Call (Sun, Xerox, OSF, ECMA, RFC 1831)
    14) Нефть: каталог запасных частей (repair parts catalog), комитет по технической политике в области надёжности (reliability policy committee)
    16) Биотехнология: retinal progenitor cell
    17) Транспорт: Regional Preparedness Committee (US)
    18) Фирменный знак: Root Person And Company
    20) SAP. route and process chart
    23) Полимеры: remote position control
    24) Программирование: (Remote Procedure Call) сервис вызова удаленных процедур (см. Remote Procedure Call)
    25) Химическое оружие: Project correspondence to client from Pasadena on RWCDC
    26) Безопасность: Region Protection Control
    27) Расширение файла: Remote Procedure Call
    29) Должность: Registered Professional Counselor

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > rpc

  • 8 лиман

    Англо-русский словарь технических терминов > лиман

  • 9 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 10 plain

    1. равнина 2 плоскость 3. ровный, гладкий
    plain of abrasion абразионная равнина
    plain of denudation денудационная равнина
    plain of lateral planation предгорная равнина, поверхность боковой планации
    plain of marine denudation абразионная равнина
    plain of marine erosion морская эрозионная равнина
    plain of subaerial denudation поверхность выравнивания
    plain of submarine denudation абразионная равнина
    plain of submergence равнина в области тектонического погружения
    plain of transgression абразионная равнина
    abyssal plain абиссальная равнина
    aggradation plain намывная равнина
    aggraded valley plain намывное ложе долины
    alluvial plain аллювиальная равнина
    apron plain долина размыва
    bar plain баровая пойма
    base-level plain денудационная равнина
    beach plain береговая равнина
    belted plain расчленённая равнина
    belted coastal plain поясовая расчленённая береговая равнина
    belted outcrop plain поясовая денудационная равнина
    bolson plain больсонная равнина (широкая межгорная равнина)
    chenier plain грядово-ложбинная равнина в прибрежной приливной зоне
    coast plain 1. береговая денудационная равнина 2. береговой уровень, уровень берега
    coastal plain морская [береговая] равнина
    confluence plain равнина [долина] слияния
    constructional plain 1. аккумулятивная равнина 2. равнина на которую воздействовали процессы эрозии
    covered plain закрытая равнина
    cut plain расчленённая равнина
    debris plain равнина, покрытая обломочным материалом
    deep-sea plain глубоководная равнина (почти ровная большая часть дна океана)
    delta(l) plain дельтовая равнина
    desert plain 1. пустынная равнина 2. педиплен
    desert rock plain скалистая предгорная равнина
    destructional plain деструкционная равнина (равнина, созданная разрушением или выравниванием форм рельефа)
    dip plain консеквентная наклонная равнина
    dissected plain расчленённая равнина
    drift plain ледниковая равнина
    erosion plain эрозионная равнина
    erosional flood plain эрозионная пойма
    filled lake plain равнина, образовавшаяся заполнением озера осадками
    flat plain плоская равнина
    flood plain долина разлива, пойма
    fluvial plain флювиальная [аллювиальная] равнина
    fossil plain ископаемая равнина, погребённая под осадками и позднее вновь вскрытая эрозией
    frontal plain зандровая равнина
    gibber plain каменистая равнина
    glacial plain ледниковая равнина
    glacial sand plain ледниковая песчаная равнина
    glaciofluvial plain флювиогляциальная равнина
    high plain высокая равнина; плато, возвышенная или нагорная равнина
    ice contact plain камовая равнина
    ice-scoured plain выровненная льдом равнина
    intermediate plain промежуточная равнина
    kame plain камовая равнина
    karst plain 1. карстовая равнина 2. карстовый ландшафт
    kettle plain равнина с котлообразными углублениями, западинная зандровая равнина
    lagoon plain лагунная равнина
    lake plain озёрная равнина
    lake-bottom plain равнина озёрного дна
    lake-delta plain равнина озёрной дельты
    lake swamp plain заболоченный берег озера, заболоченная равнина (на берегу озера)
    lava plain плато застывшей лавы, лавовая равнина
    living flood plain современная пойма
    lunar walled plain равнина с рельефом типа лунных цирков или кратеров
    marginal plain зандровая равнина
    marine plain 1. приморская равнина 2. морская эрозионная равнина
    mature plain равнина, относящаяся к зрелой стадии развития рельефа
    maturely dissected plain изрезанная [расчленённая] зрелая равнина
    old plain пенеплен
    open plain открытая равнина
    outwash plain зандровая равнина
    patterned plain обработанная льдом равнина
    peak plain вершинная поверхность
    pediment plain равнина педимента, цокольная равнина
    perched sinkhole plain подвешенная карстовая равнина
    piedmont plain предгорная равнина
    piedmont alluvial plain предгорная аллювиальная равнина
    pimple plain бугристая равнина
    pitted (outwash) plain западинная зандровая равнина
    plateau plain равнинное плато
    residual plain остаточная равнина (равнина, образовавшаяся на месте расчленённого рельефа в результате его длительного денудационного снижения и выравнивания)
    ring plain лунный кратер большого диаметра и с плоским дном
    river plain аллювиальная равнина
    river-cut plain изрезанная [расчленённая] рекой равнина
    rock plain педимент
    salt-marsh plain засолонённая маршевая равнина
    sand plain песчаная равнина
    scarped plain уступчатая равнина
    sea plain морская абразионная равнина
    sea-bottom plain равнина морского дна
    sinkhole plain карстовая равнина
    stepped plain ступенчатая равнина
    strand plain береговая равнина
    stratum [structural] plain структурная [консеквентная] равнина, страторавнина
    subcoastal plain затопленная [покрытая морем] равнина континентального шельфа
    submarine plain морская эрозионная равнина
    submerged coastal plain затопленная береговая равнина
    summit plain вершинная поверхность
    terrace plain террасовая равнина
    terre plain пояс прибрежных равнин
    till plain моренная равнина
    toe-tap flood plain пальцевидное ответвление поймы
    torrential plain педимент
    undulating plain волнистая равнина
    valley plain 1. протяжённая непрерывная пойма 2. дно долины
    volcanic plain вулканическая равнина
    wash plain 1. зандровая равнина 2. намывная равнина
    washed-gravel plain зандровая равнина
    washout plain равнина размыва
    waste plain предгорная равнина (равнина, образованная слиянием конусов выноса у подножия горы)
    worn-down plain пенеплен; сглаженная волнистая равнина
    young coastal plain йолодая береговая равнина
    plaining выравнивание
    glacial plain ледниковое выравнивание
    * * *

    English-Russian dictionary of geology > plain

  • 11 pilot

    1. noun
    1) (a person who flies an aeroplane: The pilot and crew were all killed in the air crash.) pilot
    2) (a person who directs a ship in and out of a harbour, river, or coastal waters.) lods
    2. adjective
    (experimental: a pilot scheme (= one done on a small scale, eg to solve certain problems before a larger, more expensive project is started).) pilot-
    3. verb
    (to guide as a pilot: He piloted the ship/plane.) lodse; flyve; navigere
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (a person who flies an aeroplane: The pilot and crew were all killed in the air crash.) pilot
    2) (a person who directs a ship in and out of a harbour, river, or coastal waters.) lods
    2. adjective
    (experimental: a pilot scheme (= one done on a small scale, eg to solve certain problems before a larger, more expensive project is started).) pilot-
    3. verb
    (to guide as a pilot: He piloted the ship/plane.) lodse; flyve; navigere

    English-Danish dictionary > pilot

  • 12 water

    'wo:tə
    1. noun
    (a colourless, transparent liquid compound of hydrogen and oxygen, having no taste or smell, which turns to steam when boiled and to ice when frozen: She drank two glasses of water; `Are you going swimming in the sea?' `No, the water's too cold'; Each bedroom in the hotel is supplied with hot and cold running water; (also adjective) The plumber had to turn off the water supply in order to repair the pipe; transport by land and water.) agua

    2. verb
    1) (to supply with water: He watered the plants.) regar; (animales) abrevar
    2) ((of the mouth) to produce saliva: His mouth watered at the sight of all the food.) hacerse la boca agua
    3) ((of the eyes) to fill with tears: The dense smoke made his eyes water.) llorar
    •
    - watery
    - wateriness
    - waterborne
    - water-closet
    - water-colour
    - watercress
    - waterfall
    - waterfowl
    - waterfront
    - waterhole
    - watering-can
    - water level
    - waterlily
    - waterlogged
    - water main
    - water-melon
    - waterproof
    3. noun
    (a coat made of waterproof material: She was wearing a waterproof.) impermeable

    4. verb
    (to make (material) waterproof.) impermeabilizar
    - water-skiing
    - water-ski
    - watertight
    - water vapour
    - waterway
    - waterwheel
    - waterworks
    - hold water
    - into deep water
    - in deep water
    - water down
    water1 n agua
    water2 vb regar
    have you watered the plants? ¿has regado las plantas?

    wáter /'(g)water/ or (Esp) /'bater/ sustantivo masculino
    b) ( cuarto) bathroom (esp AmE), toilet (BrE)

    wáter m fam toilet ' wáter' also found in these entries: Spanish: abastecimiento - acrecentar - actuar - acuática - acuático - agua - aguar - aguatera - aguatero - amarar - amaraje - apercibirse - bautizar - bomba - bucear - buscar - calar - caliza - calizo - cantimplora - chorro - concienciar - conducción - consistente - corte - descenso - dimanar - dulce - echar - esquí - estancarse - flotación - ir - gallina - gorgotear - gorgoteo - gotera - granulada - granulado - hidroeléctrica - hidroeléctrico - hidrosoluble - irrigar - jarro - juntura - llave - llover - manar - masa - método English: board - bring - coastguard - conserve - contaminate - cress - dilute - distil - distill - drinking - expanse - fish - flounder - forced - garden - gush - head - hot - hot water - hot-water bottle - little - lukewarm - meter - mineral water - mist - mixture - mouth - murky - nightstand - none - of - outflow - plant - prefer - proof - quench - quinine water - repellent - revive - rose water - run - running - rupture - sea-water - shortage - splash about - spout - temperature - toilet-water - tread
    tr['wɔːtəSMALLr/SMALL]
    1 (gen) agua
    ■ can I have a drink of water? ¿puedo beber un vaso de agua?
    ■ the water's lovely! ¡el agua está buenísima!
    2 (tide) marea
    ■ high/low water marea alta/baja
    1 (plant, river) regar
    2 (animals) abrevar
    1 (eyes) llorar, lagrimear; (mouth) hacerse la boca agua
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    by water en barco
    to spend money like water gastar el dinero como si fuera agua
    to be in deep water estar con el agua al cuello
    to be water off a duck's back ser como quien oye llover
    to get into hot water meterse en un buen lío
    to hold water estar bien fundado,-a, ser coherente
    not to hold water caer por su propio peso
    to keep one's head above water mantenerse a flote
    to take the waters tomar las aguas
    under water (flooded) inundado,-a 2 (submerged) sumergido,-a
    hot water bottle bolsa de agua caliente
    water biscuit galleta seca
    water bottle (flask) cantimplora
    water buffalo búfalo acuático
    water cannon tanqueta antidisturbios
    water chestnut castaña de agua
    water cycle ciclo del agua
    water hole charca
    water level (in reservoir) nivel del agua 2 (of ship) línea de flotación
    water line línea de flotación
    water main conducción nombre femenino del agua
    water nymph ondina
    water on the brain SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL hidrocefalia
    water on the knee SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL derrame nombre masculino sinovial
    water pipe cañería
    water pistol pistola de agua
    water polo waterpolo
    water power energía hidráulica
    water rat rata de agua
    water rate tarifa del agua
    water ski (equipment) esquí acuático
    water softener ablandador nombre masculino del agua
    water supply abastecimiento de agua, suministro de agua
    water table nivel nombre masculino freático
    water tank depósito de agua
    water tower depósito de agua
    water wheel (for power) rueda hidráulica 2 (for irrigation) noria
    water wings manguitos
    water ['wɔt̬ər, 'wɑ-] vt
    1) : regar (el jardín, etc.)
    2)
    to water down dilute: diluir, aguar
    water vi
    : lagrimar (dícese de los ojos), hacérsele agua la boca a uno
    my mouth is watering: se me hace agua la boca
    : agua f
    v.
    • abrevar v.
    • hacerse agua v.
    • regar v.
    adj.
    • acuático, -a adj.
    • de agua adj.
    • para agua adj.
    n.
    • agua s.f.
    'wɔːtər, 'wɔːtə(r)
    I
    mass noun
    1) agua f‡

    drinking/running water — agua potable/corriente

    to be/lie under water — estar*/quedar inundado

    high/low water — marea f alta/baja

    to go across o over the water — cruzar* a la otra orilla, cruzar* el charco (fam)

    to spend money like water — gastar a manos llenas

    like water off a duck's back — como quien oye llover

    to be in/get into hot water — estar*/meterse en una buena (fam)

    to hold water — tenerse* en pie

    that theory just doesn't hold water — esa teoría hace agua por todos lados

    to pour o throw cold water over something — ponerle* trabas a algo

    to test the water — tantear el terreno

    water under the bridge: that's all water under the bridge eso ya es agua pasada; (before n) <bird, plant> acuático; water heater calentador m (de agua); water power energía f hidráulica; water pump bomba f hidráulica; water sports — deportes mpl acuáticos

    2)
    a) ( urine) (frml & euph)

    to pass o make water — orinar, hacer* aguas (menores) (euf), hacer* de las aguas (Méx euf)

    b) ( Med)

    water on the knee — derrame m sinovial

    3) waters pl
    a) (of sea, river) aguas fpl

    to muddy the waters — enmarañar or enredar las cosas

    still waters run deep — del agua mansa líbreme Dios, que de la brava me libro yo

    b) ( at spa)
    c) ( amniotic fluid) aguas fpl

    the/her waters broke — rompió aguas, rompió la bolsa de aguas


    II
    1.

    her eyes began to water — empezaron a llorarle los ojos or a saltársele las lágrimas

    his mouth watered — se le hizo la boca agua, se le hizo agua la boca (AmL)


    2.
    vt
    a) \<\<plant/garden/land\>\> regar*
    b) \<\<horse/cattle\>\> dar* de beber a, abrevar
    Phrasal Verbs:
    ['wɔːtǝ(r)]
    1. N
    1) agua f

    • to back water — ciar

    • bottled water — agua f mineral

    • by water — por mar

    • fresh water — agua f dulce

    • hard water — agua f dura

    • high water — marea f alta

    • on land and water — por tierra y por mar

    • low water — marea f baja

    • salt water — agua f salada

    • soft water — agua f blanda

    • to turn on the water, turn the water on — (at main) hacer correr el agua; (at tap) abrir el grifo

    • under water, the High Street is under water — la Calle Mayor está inundada

    to swim under water — nadar bajo el agua, bucear

    - pour cold water on an idea
    - be in hot water
    - get into hot water
    - spend money like water
    - test the waters
    drinking 2., running 1., 1), still I, 1., 1)
    2) waters (at spa, of sea, river) aguas fpl

    to drink or take the waters at Harrogate — tomar las aguas en Harrogate

    3) (=urine) aguas fpl menores, orina f

    • to make or pass water — orinar, hacer aguas (menores)

    4) (Med)

    • water on the brain — hidrocefalia f

    • her waters broke — rompió aguas

    • water on the knee — derrame m sinovial

    5) (=essence)

    lavender/rose water — agua f de lavanda/rosa

    6)
    2.
    VT [+ garden, plant] regar; [+ horses, cattle] abrevar, dar de beber a; [+ wine] aguar, diluir, bautizar * hum

    the river waters the provinces of... — el río riega las provincias de...

    3.
    VI
    (Physiol)
    4.
    CPD

    water bed N — cama f de agua

    water bird N — ave f acuática

    water biscuit N — galleta f de agua

    water bomb N — bomba f de agua

    water bottle N — (for drinking) cantimplora f; (also: hot-water bottle) bolsa f de agua caliente, guatona f (Chile)

    water buffalo N — búfalo m de agua, carabao m

    water butt N — (Brit) tina f para recoger el agua de la lluvia

    water cannon N — cañón m de agua

    water cart N — cuba f de riego, carro m aljibe; (motorized) camión m de agua

    water chestnut N — castaña f de agua

    water closet N — frm wáter m, baño m

    water cooler N — enfriadora f de agua

    water cooling N — refrigeración f por agua

    water divining N — arte m del zahorí

    water feature N — fuente f ornamental

    water heater N — calentador m de agua

    water ice N — (Brit) sorbete m, helado m de agua (LAm)

    water inlet N — entrada f de agua

    water jacket N — camisa f de agua

    water jump N — foso m (de agua)

    water level N — nivel m del agua; (Naut) línea f de agua

    water line N — línea f de flotación

    water main N — cañería f principal

    water meadow N — (esp Brit) vega f, ribera f

    water meter N — contador m de agua

    water metering N — control del agua mediante instalación de un contador de agua

    water mill N — molino m de agua

    water park N — parque m acuático

    water pipe N — caño m de agua

    water pistol N — pistola f de agua

    water plant N — planta f acuática

    water polo N — waterpolo m, polo m acuático

    water power N — energía f hidráulica

    water pressure N — presión f del agua

    water pump N — bomba f de agua

    water purification plant N — estación f depuradora de aguas residuales

    water rat N — rata f de agua

    water rate N — (Brit) tarifa f de agua

    water snake N — culebra f de agua

    water softener N — ablandador m de agua

    water sports NPL — deportes mpl acuáticos

    water supply N — abastecimiento m de agua

    water table N — capa f freática, nivel m freático

    water tank N — (for village, in house) depósito m de agua; (on lorry) cisterna f

    water tower N — depósito f de agua

    water vapour, water vapor (US) N — vapor m de agua

    water vole N — rata f de agua

    water wagon N — (US) vagón-cisterna m

    water wheel N — rueda f hidráulica; (Agr) noria f

    water wings NPL — manguitos mpl, flotadores mpl para los brazos

    * * *
    ['wɔːtər, 'wɔːtə(r)]
    I
    mass noun
    1) agua f‡

    drinking/running water — agua potable/corriente

    to be/lie under water — estar*/quedar inundado

    high/low water — marea f alta/baja

    to go across o over the water — cruzar* a la otra orilla, cruzar* el charco (fam)

    to spend money like water — gastar a manos llenas

    like water off a duck's back — como quien oye llover

    to be in/get into hot water — estar*/meterse en una buena (fam)

    to hold water — tenerse* en pie

    that theory just doesn't hold water — esa teoría hace agua por todos lados

    to pour o throw cold water over something — ponerle* trabas a algo

    to test the water — tantear el terreno

    water under the bridge: that's all water under the bridge eso ya es agua pasada; (before n) <bird, plant> acuático; water heater calentador m (de agua); water power energía f hidráulica; water pump bomba f hidráulica; water sports — deportes mpl acuáticos

    2)
    a) ( urine) (frml & euph)

    to pass o make water — orinar, hacer* aguas (menores) (euf), hacer* de las aguas (Méx euf)

    b) ( Med)

    water on the knee — derrame m sinovial

    3) waters pl
    a) (of sea, river) aguas fpl

    to muddy the waters — enmarañar or enredar las cosas

    still waters run deep — del agua mansa líbreme Dios, que de la brava me libro yo

    b) ( at spa)
    c) ( amniotic fluid) aguas fpl

    the/her waters broke — rompió aguas, rompió la bolsa de aguas


    II
    1.

    her eyes began to water — empezaron a llorarle los ojos or a saltársele las lágrimas

    his mouth watered — se le hizo la boca agua, se le hizo agua la boca (AmL)


    2.
    vt
    a) \<\<plant/garden/land\>\> regar*
    b) \<\<horse/cattle\>\> dar* de beber a, abrevar
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-spanish dictionary > water

  • 13 Pennsylvania

    Официальное название - Содружество Пенсильвания [Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]. Штат на северо-востоке США, в группе Среднеатлантических штатов [ Middle Atlantic States]. На севере граничит со штатом Нью-Йорк [ New York], на северо-западе имеет выход к озеру Эри [ Erie, Lake], на востоке граничит со штатом Нью-Джерси [ New Jersey], на юге - со штатами Делавэр [ Delaware] и Мэриленд [ Maryland], на юге и западе с Западной Вирджинией [ West Virginia], на западе - с Огайо [ Ohio]. Южная граница проходит по т.н. линии Мэйсона-Диксона [ Mason-Dixon Line]. Площадь 117,3 тыс. кв. км. Население 12,2 млн. человек (2000) (шестое место среди штатов). Столица Гаррисберг [ Harrisburg]. Крупнейшие города: Филадельфия [ Philadelphia], Питсбург [ Pittsburgh], Эри [ Erie], Аллентаун [ Allentown]. В рельефе присутствуют практически все черты, характерные для востока страны. Большая часть Пенсильвании расположена в районе Аппалачских гор [ Appalachian Mountains] (высшая точка гора Маунт-Дэвис [ Davis, Mount], 980 м), состоящих из нескольких хребтов, разделенных продольными долинами. На западе они переходят в Аппалачское плато [ Appalachian Plateau], на крайнем юго-востоке штата расположена узкая полоса Приатлантической низменности [Atlantic Coastal Plain] вдоль р. Делавэр [ Delaware River]. Юго-восточную часть штата занимает холмистое плато Пидмонт [ Piedmont Plateau], западнее - Голубые горы [ Blue Mountains] и Линия водопадов [ Fall Line]. Реки многоводные, преимущественно быстрые, порожистые, особенно на плато Пидмонт. Наиболее крупные из них судоходны: Саскуэханна [ Susquehanna River], Огайо [ Ohio River] с ее истоками Аллегейни [ Allegheny River] и Мононгахила [ Monongahela River]. Много озер. Более 60 процентов территории покрыто лесами. Штат обладает крупными запасами угля, является крупнейшим производителем антрацита. На северо-западе есть запасы нефти и природного газа. На основной части территории штата континентальный влажный климат. На юго-востоке долгое, жаркое лето, мягкая зима; на Аппалачском плато более долгая зима и короткое лето. До появления поселенцев на территории будущего штата жили племена делаваров [ Delaware], шауни [ Shawnee] и саскуэханна [Susquehanna], племена из Ирокезской лиги [ Iroquois League] и др. В XVII в. о своих правах на эти земли заявляли Голландия, Швеция, Англия. В 1614 голландцы исследовали долину р. Делавэр. В 1643 шведы создали первые постоянные поселения на о. Тиникум [Tinicum Island] и Новый Готтенбург [New Gottenburg] в окрестностях современного г. Честера [ Chester]. В 1655 Новая Швеция [ New Sweden] была завоевана голландцами во главе с П. Стайвесантом [ Stuyvesant, Peter] и вошла в состав Новых Нидерландов [ New Netherland], но в 1664 англичане, в свою очередь, взяли под контроль эту голландскую колонию. В 1681 квакер [ Quakers] У. Пенн [ Penn, William, Jr.] получил в дар от английского короля Карла II территорию, известную под названием "Пенсильванское провидение" [Providence of Pennsylvania]. Колония была названа Пенсильванией в честь отца У. Пенна, адмирала Уильяма Пенна. Первое английское поселение Филадельфия было основано здесь в 1682, вскоре она стала столицей колонии и одним из крупнейших городов в Новом Свете. Пенн-младший задумал создать образцовое общество, основанное на демократических принципах, и назвал его "Священный эксперимент" [ Holy Experiment]. По "Великому закону Пенсильвании" ["The Great Law of Pennsylvania"] - конституции, было создано представительное собрание, провозглашались право каждого на жизнь и свободу и полная веротерпимость; смертная казнь предусматривалась только за убийство и предательство, был введен суд присяжных, участие в выборах ограничивалось незначительным имущественным цензом. Пенн и его последователи заключили соглашения о дружбе с индейцами, что обеспечило достаточно длительный (около 70 лет) период стабильных отношений между поселенцами и местными племенами. В Пенсильванию, кроме квакеров, стали переселяться французские протестанты, шотландцы, немцы [ Pennsylvania Dutch]. К 1750 из-за интенсивного заселения земель начались конфликты с индейцами, со временем приведшие к их вытеснению или уничтожению. Поток английских переселенцев и торговцев в западную Пенсильванию хлынул в середине XVIII в. Французы построили цепь фортов от оз. Эри до устья р. Огайо. В 1754-63 Пенсильвания стала ареной войн с французами и индейцами [ French and Indian wars]. После взятия французского форта Дюкен [ Fort Duquesne] (1758) в 1759-61 на месте современного г. Питсбурга под руководством генерала Дж. Форбса [ Forbes, John] был построен форт Питт [ Fort Pitt], ставший важным форпостом повстанцев в период Войны за независимость [ Revolutionary War]. В 1763 произошло крупное восстание индейцев под предводительством Понтиака [ Pontiac's Conspiracy]. Пенсильвания сыграла существенную роль в борьбе за независимость. Пенсильванцы участвовали во многих битвах в других колониях, в том числе в осаде Бостона (1775), создали собственный флот. На территории будущего штата произошли битвы за форт Миффлин [Fort Mifflin, Battle of], Джермантаун [ Germantown, Battle of] и сражение на ручье Брэндивайн [ Brandywine, Battle of the]. В 1777-78 Дж. Вашингтон [ Washington, George] зимовал со своей армией в Вэлли-Фордж [ Valley Forge] в 40 км западнее Филадельфии. Сам город был центром политической активности в колониях. В июле 1774 здесь проходили выборы делегатов на первый Континентальный конгресс [First Continental Congress; Continental Congresses], который также был проведен в Филадельфии. В 1776 на втором Континентальном конгрессе [Second Continental Congress] была подписана Декларация независимости [ Declaration of Independence]. В 1787 делегаты Конституционного конвента [ Constitutional Convention] в Филадельфии составили проект Конституции США [ Constitution, U.S.]. 12 декабря 1787 Пенсильвания стала вторым по счету штатом США. В 1790-1800 Филадельфия была столицей молодого государства. В 1794 и 1799 штат стал местом первых фермерских восстаний [ Whiskey Rebellion; Fries Rebellion]. Современные границы Пенсильвании возникли в 1792, когда в ее состав была включена территория на северо-западе, известная как "Треугольник Эри" ["Erie Triangle"], что расширило ее выход к побережью этого озера. В 1799 столицей штата стал г. Ланкастер [ Lancaster], а в 1812 она была перенесена в Гаррисберг. Важную роль Пенсильвания сыграла в Гражданской войне [ Civil War], что определялось многими факторами, в том числе аболиционистскими [ abolition] взглядами квакеров, крупными материальными и людскими ресурсами штата и его географическим положением. Основные дороги с Юга [ South] проходили через Гаррисберг, Филадельфию и Питсбург, поэтому, чтобы получить контроль над ними, армия конфедератов Северной Вирджинии [ Army of Northern Virginia] вторглась в Пенсильванию в 1863. Геттисбергское сражение [ Gettysburg, Battle of] (1863) на территории штата стало одним из самых значительных и кровопролитных за время войны. Около трети участников сражения со стороны Армии Союза [ Union Army] были пенсильванцами. В 1873 была принята ныне действующая конституция штата [ state constitution]. Верховный суд штата - один из старейших в стране (создан в 1722). Штат, жители которого поддерживали демократов в 1800-60, после войны стал одним из оплотов Республиканской партии [ Republican Party]. В 1859 у г. Титусвилла [Titusville] начала действовать одна из первых в мире нефтяных скважин. После войны в штате стала интенсивно развиваться промышленность, особенно сталелитейная. В 1867 был впервые использован бессемеровский процесс производства стали. К 1870 крупнейшим индустриальным центром стал г. Питсбург, где производилось до двух третей всей стали США. К концу XIX в. сложилась крупнейшая сталелитейная империя Э. Карнеги [ Carnegie, Andrew], которая после продажи Дж. П. Моргану [ Morgan, John Pierpont] (1901) стала основой корпорации "Юнайтед Стейтс стил" [ United States Steel Corp.]. В штате создана многоотраслевая экономика, в которой важнейшее место принадлежит промышленному производству, сконцентрированному прежде всего в Филадельфии и Питсбурге. По числу занятых в промышленности штат уступает только Калифорнии и Нью-Йорку. Ведущие отрасли - сталелитейная, черная металлургия, транспортное машиностроение, производство металлоизделий, промышленного оборудования, электронных компонентов, инструментов, приборов, химикатов, стройматериалов, изделий из пластмасс, продуктов питания, одежды; развиты полиграфия и энергетика, в том числе ядерная. Географическое положение и высокоразвитая сеть дорог делают штат "воротами" Среднего Запада [ Midwest] и Юга [ South]. Высоко развито сельское хозяйство: Пенсильвания лидирует в производстве молока и молочных продуктов, бройлеров, яиц, яблок, шампиньонов. Основные посевные культуры - кукуруза, сеяные травы, соя, пшеница. Один из наиболее доходных секторов экономики - туризм. В целом, бурный рост экономического развития прерывался только во время разрушительного Джонстаунского наводнения [ Johnstown flood] в 1899 и в период Великой депрессии [ Great Depression] 1930-х. В годы второй мировой войны штат играл важную роль в военном производстве. Ныне Пенсильвания продолжает оставаться лидером в области сталелитейной промышленности и добычи угля. В конце XIX - начале XX в. в политической жизни штата господствовали республиканские боссы [ bossism]. Конец этой эпохи наступил с кончиной Б. Пенроуза [ Penrose, Boies] в 1921. В последние годы ни одна из основных партий не имеет постоянного превосходства на выборах различного уровня. По мере промышленного роста росло и рабочее движение, создавались профсоюзы. Штат стал местом крупных забастовок железнодорожников - в Питсбурге (1877), сталелитейщиков [ Homestead Steel Strike] (1892), горняков [ Anthracite Strike of 1902] (1902). В Пенсильвании берет начало АФТ-КПП [ AFL-CIO].

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Pennsylvania

  • 14 Texas

    Штат на юге центральной части США, в группе штатов Юго-Западного Центра [ West South Central States]. Граничит с Мексикой на юго-западе и со штатами Нью-Мексико [ New Mexico] на западе, Оклахома [ Oklahoma] на северо-востоке, Арканзас [ Arkansas] и Луизиана [ Louisiana] на востоке. С юго-востока омывается водами Мексиканского залива [ Mexico, Gulf of]. Площадь 1244 тыс. кв. км (второй по площади штат после Аляски). Население 20,8 млн. человек (2000; второе место по численности населения в США после штата Калифорния). Столица - г. Остин [ Austin], крупнейшие города: Хьюстон [ Houston] (СМА [ SMA] Хьюстон-Галвестон-Бразориа), Даллас - Форт-Уэрт [Dallas - Fort Worth], Сан-Антонио [ San Antonio], Эль-Пасо [ El Paso], Корпус-Кристи [ Corpus Christi], Лаббок [ Lubbock], Амарилло [ Amarillo], Абилин [ Abilene], Уэйко [ Waco] и др. Рельеф Техаса разнообразен: Примексиканская низменность [Gulf Coastal Plain], протянувшейся полосой 80-100 км в ширину вдоль Мексиканского залива, повышается в центральной и юго-западной части штата; далее простираются Великие равнины [ Great Plains], южная часть которых известна как плато Эдвардс [ Edwards Plateau]. Западнее лежит плато Льяно-Эстакадо [ Llano Estacado] (максимальные высоты до 1200 м). Наивысшая точка штата - пик Гуадалупе [Guadalupe Peak] (2667 м) в горах Транс-Пекос [Trans-Pecos Mountains] на крайнем западе. Крупнейшие реки: Рио-Гранде [ Rio Grande River], образующая границу между Техасом и Мексикой, а также Ред [ Red River], Колорадо [ Colorado River], Пекос [ Pecos River], Сабин [ Sabine River] и др. Многочисленные водохранилища, используемые для ирригации. Разнообразные, достаточно плодородные почвы. Климат континентальный, на юго-востоке теплый и влажный, на севере и западе сухой, пустынный или полупустынный. Нередки засухи, особенно в районе Высоких равнин [ High Plains]. Для долины р. Ред характерны торнадо. Крупные месторождения нефти (до одной трети всех разведанных запасов в США) и газа. На Примексиканской низменности залежи урановых руд. Древнейшие следы пребывания человека на территории нынешнего Техаса связаны с культурой строителей курганов [ Mound Builders]. К моменту прихода европейцев эти земли населяли индейцы апачи [ Apache], кэддо [ Caddo] и команчи [ Comanche]. Первыми на территории Техаса высадились испанцы А. Кабеса де Вака [Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez] (1528) и Ф. Коронадо [Coronado, Francisco] (1541) со своими отрядами. В 1685 свой первый форт основали французы во главе с Р. К. де Ласаллем [ La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de]. К середине XVIII в. территория Техаса была подробно исследована испанцами. Покупка Луизианы [ Louisiana Purchase] в 1803 вызвала рост темпов заселения техасских земель американцами. В 1820 М. Остин [Austin, Moses] получил разрешение испанцев, владевших тогда Мексикой, на организацию американских поселений в Техасе. Умирая, он завещал продолжить начатое им дело своему сыну Стивену [Austin, Stephen; Texas Fever]. Борьба за независимость от Мексики 1835-36, известная под названием Техасская революция [ Texas Revolution], привела к провозглашению в 1836 Республики Техас [ Republic of Texas]. В 1845 Техас вошел в состав США как рабовладельческий штат. В результате американо-мексиканской войны 1846 [ Mexican War] к США отошла половина территории Мексики, и юго-западная граница Техаса была окончательно проведена по реке Рио-Гранде [см Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Compromise of 1850]. Во время Гражданской войны [ Civil War] рабовладельческий Техас выступил на стороне южан, но крупных сражений на территории штата не происходило. Период послевоенной Реконструкции стал временем наплыва в штат "саквояжников" [ carpetbaggers]. В экономике Техаса ведущую роль начали играть крупные скотоводческие хозяйства; перегон скота к железной дороге осуществлялся по знаменитой Чизхолмской тропе [ Chisholm Trail]. Первый нефтяной фонтан в Техасе забил в 1901; крупнейшие месторождения нефти, открытые в 1930 на востоке штата, помогли ему без больших потерь пережить годы Великой депрессии [ Great Depression]. Важнейшим политическим вопросом в Техасе вплоть до 1960-х была расовая дискриминация. Экономика штата, долгое время получавшая большую часть доходов от нефтяного бизнеса, серьезно пострадала от падения цен на нефть в 1980-е; сейчас усиливается стремление к ее диверсификации. Техас является крупнейшим сельскохозяйственным штатом: первое место в США по производству говядины, значительные посевы хлопка и сорго, выращивание бахчевых культур, овощей и зерновых. Ведущее место в рыболовстве занимает ловля креветок. Промышленность в основном занимается переработкой нефти и газа, а также сельскохозяйственного сырья. Около 80 процентов населения проживает в городах, в том числе почти половина в агломерациях Даллас - Форт-Уэрт и Хьюстон-Галвестон-Бразориа. Белые составляют 75 процентов населения, чернокожие - около 12. Более 25 процентов техасцев - латиноамериканского происхождения [ Hispanic Americans]. С Техасом тесно связаны биографии президентов США Л. Джонсона [ Johnson, Lyndon Baines (LBJ)], Дж. Буша [ Bush, George Herbert Walker] и Дж. У. Буша [ Bush, George W(alker)]. Большинство техасцев поддерживают Демократическую партию [ Democratic Party].

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Texas

  • 15 creek

    noun
    1) (Brit.): (inlet on sea-coast) [kleine] Bucht
    2) (short arm of river) [kurzer] Flussarm
    3)

    be up the creek — (coll.): (be in difficulties or trouble) in der Klemme od. Tinte sitzen (ugs.)

    * * *
    [kri:k]
    1) (a small inlet, especially off a river.) kleiner Wasserlauf
    2) ((American) a small river.) das Flüßchen
    * * *
    [kri:k]
    n
    1. BRIT (coastal inlet) kleine Bucht; (narrow waterway) Wasserlauf m
    2. AM, AUS (stream) Bach m; (tributary) Nebenfluss m
    3.
    ▶ to be up the \creek [without a paddle] ( fam) in der Patsche sitzen fam
    * * *
    [kriːk]
    n
    (esp Brit: inlet) (kleine) Bucht; (US = brook) Bach m;
    * * *
    creek [kriːk; US auch krık] s
    1. US Bach m
    2. besonders Br kleine Bucht
    a) in der Klemme sein oder sitzen oder stecken,
    b) falsch sein (Information etc)
    * * *
    noun
    1) (Brit.): (inlet on sea-coast) [kleine] Bucht
    2) (short arm of river) [kurzer] Flussarm
    3)

    be up the creek — (coll.): (be in difficulties or trouble) in der Klemme od. Tinte sitzen (ugs.)

    * * *
    n.
    Flüsschen n.

    English-german dictionary > creek

  • 16 Louisiana

    Штат в группе штатов Юго-Западного Центра [ West South Central States]; целиком расположен на Примексиканской низменности [Gulf Coastal Plain]. Площадь - 134,2 тыс. кв. км. Население - 4,4 млн. человек (2000). Столица - г. Батон-Руж [ Baton Rouge]. Крупнейшие города: Новый Орлеан [ New Orleans], Шривпорт [ Shreveport], Лафейетт [ Lafayette], Кеннер [ Kenner]. Административно штат поделен на 64 "прихода" (округа) [ parish]. На востоке граничит со штатом Миссисипи [ Mississippi], на западе с Техасом [ Texas], на севере с Арканзасом [ Arkansas], на юге примыкает к Мексиканскому заливу [ Mexico, Gulf of]. Значительная часть территории штата приходится на пойменную, сильно заболоченную низменность в долине р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi River]. Другие крупные реки: Ред-Ривер [ Red River], Атчафалайя [ Atchafalaya River], Уошито [ Washita River]. На севере местность холмистая. Влажный субтропический климат, летом и осенью случаются ураганы. Первые индейские охотничьи поселения возникли на территории нынешней Луизианы около 10 тыс. лет назад. К моменту прихода европейцев здесь жили индейские племена кэддо [ Caddo] и натчез [ Natchez]. В XVI в. в этих местах побывали испанские экспедиции, которые возглавляли Пиньеда [Pineda] (1519), А. Кабеса де Вака [Cabeza de Vaca, Alvaro N.] (1528), Эрнандо де Сото [ De Soto, Hernando] (1541). Через 200 лет после них появились французы: в 1682 Ласалль [ La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de] исследовал район нижнего течения р. Миссисипи и объявил его собственностью Франции, но первое французское постоянное поселение Натчитош [Natchitoches] возникло только в 1714. В 1731 Луизиана официально стала французской колонией. В 1762 после Войны с французами и индейцами [ French and Indian War] она перешла в руки испанцев, которым тем не менее не удалось установить полный контроль над ее франкоязычным населением. В 1800 по Сан-Ильдефонскому договору [ San Ildefonso, Treaty of] они вернули Территорию Луизиана [Louisiana Territory] Франции, а Наполеон продал ее США в 1803 [ Louisiana Purchase]. Нынешняя Луизиана, составлявшая часть этой территории, т.н. Территорию Орлеан [Territory of Orleans], получила статус штата в 1812, в 1819 в состав штата были включены Флоридские приходы [Florida Parishes] и земли западнее р. Ред. С 1812 у Луизианы было 11 конституций, последняя из них принята в 1974. К 1860 население штата превышало 700 тыс. человек, в штате сложилась система плантационного рабства. Экономика штата жестоко пострадала в ходе Гражданской войны [ Civil War] и Реконструкции Юга [ Reconstruction]. В 1928 губернатором штата был избран популист полуфашистского толка Х. Лонг [Long, Jr., Huey Pierce]. Его экономическая программа наложила отпечаток на дальнейшую жизнь штата, сделав его экономику во многом зависимой от нефтяного бизнеса. Основную роль в промышленности играют предприятия нефтяной и химической индустрии, сосредоточенные в крупных городах. Важное место занимает внешняя торговля (экспорт нефтепродуктов, химикатов, сельскохозяйственной продукции). До второй мировой войны Луизиана была в основном сельскохозяйственным штатом. Сельское хозяйство представлено прежде всего крупными фермами (бобы, сахар, сахарный тростник, рис, хлопок, производство перца на о. Эйвери [ Avery Island]), важную роль играют морские промыслы (крабы, креветки и др.). Наиболее крупный центр туризма Новый Орлеан.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Louisiana

  • 17 transport

    ̘. ̈n.ˈtrænspɔ:t
    1. сущ.
    1) перевозка, транспортирование, транспортировка Local production virtually eliminates transport costs. ≈ Местное производство на деле снижает расходы на перевозки. They use tankers to transport the oil to Los Angeles. ≈ Они используют цистерны для перевозки нефти в Лос-Анжелес. Syn: conveyance, carting
    2) транспорт, средства сообщения;
    транспорт(ное судно) ;
    транспортный самолет Have you got your own transport? ≈ У вас есть свой собственный транспорт? The extra money could be spent on improving public transport. ≈ Дополнительные деньги можно было бы использовать на развитие общественного транспорта.
    3) порыв( чувств)
    4) ист. ссыльный;
    каторжник
    5) перенос( тепла и т.д.) ;
    распространение( излучения и т.д.) ;
    нанос( осадочных пород)
    2. гл.
    1) перевозить;
    везти, перемещать, переносить, транспортировать (тж. в переносном значении - о мыслях, чувствах и т.д.) to transport by airplane ≈ перевозить на самолете He was transported to his childhood. ≈ В воспоминаниях он перенесся в свое детство. Syn: move, shift, carry
    2) обыкн. прич. прош. вр. приводить в состояние восторга, ужаса и т. п.
    3) ист. ссылать на каторгу, высылать ∙ transport to транспорт, средства сообщения - public * общественный транспорт - wheeled * колесный транспорт - water * водный транспорт - rail * железнодорожный транспорт - two-wheel * двухколесный транспорт (велосипеды, мотоциклы, мотороллеры и т. п.) - integrated * system единая транспортная система перевозка, транспортировка;
    транспорт - * operations перевозки - * of freight транспортировка грузов - * of goods перевозка товаров - (inland) water * перевозка по внутренним водным путям - overland * сухопутная перевозка - the * of equipment up the frozen river перевозка оборудования по замерзшей реке машина, автомобиль - have you got *? у вас есть машина? - your * is waiting ваша машина подана транспортное судно, транспорт - to serve as a seaman on *s служить моряком на транспортных судах транспортный самолет - supersonic * сверхзвуковой транспортный самолет (космонавтика) транспортный корабль часто pl сильная эмоция;
    порыв (чувства) - a * of joy радость - what a * of enthusiasm! какой взрыв энтузиазма! (редкое) ссыльный, каторжник (специальное) перенос (тепла, массы и т. п.) - * of contaminants перенос радиоактивных загрязняющих веществ (специальное) распространение - thermal radiation * распространение теплового излучения (специальное) нанос;
    отложение - coastal sediment * береговые осадочные породы (компьютерное) протяжка - tape * протяжка ленты, лентопротяжка ( компьютерное) механизм протяжки, лентопротяжный механизм - twin tape * двойной лентопротяжный механизм транспортный - * airplane транспортный самолет - * bomber( военное) транспортно-бомбардировочный самолет - * command транспортная авиация;
    транспортное авиационное командование - * rocket( военное) транспортная ракета;
    грузовая ракета перевозить, транспортировать;
    переносить, перемещать - to * passengers and luggage перевозить пассажиров и грузы - to * mail by airplane перевозить почту самолетом - to * the house to a new site перевезти дом на новое место - to * troops from Great Britain to France перебрасывать войска из Великобритании во Францию - we paid our fare to be *ed across the river мы заплатили за переправу через реку переносить (в мыслях, воображении и т. п.) - and on the instant he was *ed to a far land и в то же мгновение он перенесся в мыслях далеко-далеко обыкн. pass приводить в состояние восторга, ужаса и т. п. - the crowd was *ed by these words эти слова воодушевили толпу обыкн. pass (редкое) ссылать на каторгу, высылать, отправлять в ссылку (компьютерное) протягивать( ленту) (шотландское) переводить( священника на другое место) ;
    переносить (приход) air ~ авиация air ~ воздушное сообщение air ~ воздушные перевозки air ~ воздушный транспорт combined road-rail ~ смешанные автомобильные и железнодорожные перевозки combined ~ смешанные перевозки commercial ~ коммерческие перевозки container ~ контейнерная перевозка container ~ контейнерные перевозки domestic ~ внутренние перевозки domestic ~ перевозки внутри страны enclosed ~ закрытый транспорт freight ~ грузовые перевозки furniture ~ перевозка мебели highway ~ транс. автомобильный транспорт ~ порыв (чувств) ;
    in a transport of rage в порыве гнева inland ~ внутренний транспорт inland ~ перевозки внутри страны land ~ наземный транспорт luggage ~ перевозка багажа magnetic-tape ~ вчт. лентопротяжное устройство marine ~ морской транспорт maritime ~ морские перевозки maritime ~ морской транспорт mass ~ массовый транспорт mass ~ общественный транспорт medical ~ медицинский транспорт motor ~ автомобильный транспорт oil ~ транспортировка нефти overland ~ сухопутный транспорт public ~ муниципальный транспорт public ~ общественный транспорт rail ~ железнодорожная перевозка rail ~ железнодорожный транспорт rail ~ рельсовый транспорт refrigerated ~ холодильный транспорт river ~ речной транспорт road ~ безрельсовый транспорт road ~ дорожный транспорт sea ~ морские перевозки sea ~ морской транспорт surface ~ наземный транспорт tape ~ вчт. лентопротяжное устройство through ~ транзитные перевозки transport (обыкн. p. p.) приводить в состояние (восторга, ужаса и т. п.) ;
    transported with joy не помня себя от радости ~ перевозить;
    переносить, перемещать ~ перевозить ~ перевозка ~ перемещать ~ переносить ~ порыв (чувств) ;
    in a transport of rage в порыве гнева ~ средства сообщения ~ ист. ссылать на каторгу ~ ист. ссыльный;
    каторжник ~ транспорт, средства сообщения;
    транспорт(ное судно) ;
    транспортный самолет ~ транспорт, средства сообщения ~ транспорт, перевозка ~ транспорт ~ транспортировать, перевозить ~ транспортировать ~ транспортное средство ~ attr. транспортный ~ by air воздушный транспорт ~ by air перевозить по воздуху ~ by air перевозка по воздуху ~ by barge перевозить на барже ~ by rail перевозить железнодорожным транспортом ~ by rail перевозить по железной дороге ~ by road перевозить автомобильным транспортом ~ by sea перевозить морским транспортом ~ network data unit вчт. блок данных транспортной сети transport (обыкн. p. p.) приводить в состояние (восторга, ужаса и т. п.) ;
    transported with joy не помня себя от радости water ~ водный транспорт waterborne ~ водный транспорт

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > transport

  • 18 station

    1) станция; пункт
    3) геофиз. пункт наблюдений
    5) устройство; блок
    7) горн. околоствольный двор
    8) ж.-д. станционные сооружения
    9) электростанция, электрическая станция, ЭС
    11) мор. точка пересечения шпангоута с основной линией
    12) устанавливать, ставить
    13) экол. ареал
    •
    -
    aboveground power station
    -
    aboveground station
    -
    accepting station
    -
    accumulator station
    -
    actinometric station
    -
    aerobraked OTV-serviced space station
    -
    aerodynamic broadcast station
    -
    aeronautical meteorological station
    -
    affiliated station
    -
    air monitoring station
    -
    airborne early-warning station
    -
    alighting station
    -
    anchor station
    -
    AOTV-serviced space station
    -
    array station
    -
    arrival station
    -
    assembly station
    -
    assembly work station
    -
    astronaut tended space station
    -
    astronaut-inhabited space station
    -
    atomic power station
    -
    attended station
    -
    automatic unified orbital station
    -
    automatic water-stage recording station
    -
    automatic welding station
    -
    auxiliary power station
    -
    avalanche station
    -
    backhaul station
    -
    back-to-back high-voltage direct-current converter station
    -
    bagging station
    -
    base compressor station
    -
    base pumping station
    -
    base station
    -
    baseline station
    -
    base-load power station
    -
    beacon station
    -
    beet pulp drying station
    -
    beet receiving station
    -
    beet washing station
    -
    benchmark station
    -
    block-signal station
    -
    boarding station
    -
    boiling station
    -
    booster station
    -
    broadcasting station
    -
    broadcast station
    -
    bulk flour station
    -
    buoy-based station
    -
    captain's station
    -
    captain station
    -
    car inspection station
    -
    cathodic protection station
    -
    central electric station
    -
    central heat supply station
    -
    charging station
    -
    check station
    -
    circle station
    -
    circulating pumping station
    -
    civilian-manned space station
    -
    clean work station
    -
    climatological station
    -
    coal-fired power station
    -
    coast station
    -
    coastal direction finding station
    -
    coke-screening station
    -
    communication relay station
    -
    compressor station
    -
    concrete coating station
    -
    connecting station
    -
    conning station
    -
    conservated space station
    -
    control radio station
    -
    control station
    -
    converter station
    -
    co-orbiting space stations
    -
    coordinate inspection station
    -
    cream station
    -
    crusher station
    -
    cube station
    -
    current-meter gaging station
    -
    current-meter station
    -
    customs station
    -
    data return capsule-carried space station
    -
    data station
    -
    dead station
    -
    deburring station
    -
    deconservated space station
    -
    dedicated milling station
    -
    deorbited space station
    -
    design station
    -
    destination station
    -
    diesel power station
    -
    diffusion station
    -
    direction and guidance radar station
    -
    direction-finding station
    -
    discharge station
    -
    dispatch station
    -
    dispatching control station
    -
    display station
    -
    distribution station
    -
    diversion power station
    -
    diversion station
    -
    docking station
    -
    drainage station
    -
    drift station
    -
    drive station
    -
    dry station
    -
    dual-keel space station
    -
    dual-purpose station
    -
    dumping station
    -
    early-warning radar station
    -
    earth station
    -
    earthquake-detection station
    -
    electric power station
    -
    electric station
    -
    electrode building station
    -
    engine changing station
    -
    engineered work station
    -
    engineman's station
    -
    enlarged space station
    -
    entry station
    -
    evaporation station
    -
    exposure station
    -
    extended duration space station
    -
    feed station
    -
    filling station
    -
    film take-up station
    -
    fish rearing station
    -
    fixed ship station
    -
    fixed station
    -
    fixturing station
    -
    flexible machining station
    -
    flexible space station
    -
    flight engineer station
    -
    floating diesel station
    -
    floating power station
    -
    floating station
    -
    floating weather station
    -
    fossil-fueled power station
    -
    free-standing pallet station
    -
    frontier station
    -
    fuel station
    -
    gaging station
    -
    gas engine compressor station
    -
    gas gathering station
    -
    gas station
    -
    gas-compressor station
    -
    gas-distributing station
    -
    gas-lift compressor station
    -
    gas-turbine power station
    -
    generating station
    -
    GEO space station
    -
    geothermal power station
    -
    grain-collecting station
    -
    greasing station
    -
    grid-connected photovoltaic station
    -
    ground station
    -
    group pumping station
    -
    growth station
    -
    guidance station
    -
    half-open-air hydroelectric station
    -
    hammer station
    -
    head-end station
    -
    heat-electric generating station
    -
    high altitude space station
    -
    high-latitude station
    -
    high-level station
    -
    high-lift pump station
    -
    high-power station
    -
    holding station
    -
    home station
    -
    homing station
    -
    horizontal designed space station
    -
    hot-metal station
    -
    hydraulic experimental station
    -
    hydroelectric power station
    -
    hydroelectric pumped storage power station
    -
    hydrological station
    -
    hydrometric station
    -
    ice lookout station
    -
    ice pilot station
    -
    ice-based station
    -
    impact station
    -
    inhabited space station
    -
    inland station
    -
    in-machine station
    -
    inquiry station
    -
    insertion station
    -
    inspection station
    -
    integrated sewing station
    -
    interchange station
    -
    interlocking station
    -
    intermediate station
    -
    international space station
    -
    interplanetary station
    -
    inverter station
    -
    irrigation pumping station
    -
    island station
    -
    issuing station
    -
    junction station
    -
    knitting station
    -
    knocking-out station
    -
    ladle bricking station
    -
    ladle preparation station
    -
    land station
    -
    landing direction-finding station
    -
    large-size power station
    -
    large power station
    -
    LEO space station
    -
    lightning direction-finding station
    -
    lightship station
    -
    line booster pump station
    -
    liquefied natural gas station
    -
    load station
    -
    load/unload station
    -
    loading station
    -
    local station
    -
    localizer station
    -
    logic programming station
    -
    long-functioning space station
    -
    long-term space station
    -
    long-term station
    -
    loop station
    -
    low-altitude space station
    -
    low-latitude station
    -
    low-lift pump station
    -
    lubrication station
    -
    machine tool station
    -
    machining work station
    -
    machining station
    -
    magazine station
    -
    magnetic station
    -
    magnetotelluric station
    -
    main pumping station
    -
    manned station
    -
    manual part control station
    -
    man-visited space station
    -
    master station
    -
    material handling work station
    -
    measuring station
    -
    medium-size power station
    -
    medium power station
    -
    medium-head hydroelectric station
    -
    melt station
    -
    mesonet station
    -
    microwave relay station
    -
    milk collecting station
    -
    mine-mouth power station
    -
    mixed pumped-storage station
    -
    mobile electric power station
    -
    mobile power station
    -
    mobile ship station
    -
    mobile station
    -
    mobile television station
    -
    mold lubricating station
    -
    monitoring station
    -
    moonbounce station
    -
    multiband station
    -
    multimodule space station
    -
    multiparameter station
    -
    multiple docking ports-equipped space station
    -
    multiple modules-docked space station
    -
    multiple pressurized modules space station
    -
    multipurpose space station
    -
    multisolar-panels-consisted station
    -
    NC control station
    -
    newsroom station
    -
    node station
    -
    nuclear heat-only station
    -
    nuclear power station
    -
    nuclear steam station
    -
    observational station
    -
    observation station
    -
    ocean weather station
    -
    off-line station
    -
    oil-burning power station
    -
    oil-fired power station
    -
    oil-gathering station
    -
    oil-marketing station
    -
    OMV-equipped space station
    -
    on-orbit power generation station
    -
    open-air hydroelectric station
    -
    orbital laser power station
    -
    orbital station
    -
    origin station
    -
    oxy-gas cutoff station
    -
    ozonometry station
    -
    package power station
    -
    packing station
    -
    pan station
    -
    partial-record station
    -
    passenger station
    -
    passing station
    -
    passive seismic station
    -
    payoff station
    -
    peak-load power station
    -
    pendent control station
    -
    periodically tended space station
    -
    permanent seismograph station
    -
    permanent space station
    -
    photovoltaic pumping station
    -
    pier-type hydroelectric station
    -
    pilot solar power station
    -
    pipe welding station
    -
    pipeline-up station
    -
    pluviometric station
    -
    pole-mounted station
    -
    postprocess gaging station
    -
    power station
    -
    precipitation station
    -
    primary station
    -
    principal station
    -
    probe station
    -
    public service power station
    -
    public utility power station
    -
    pumped-storage station
    -
    pumping station
    -
    punch station
    -
    purely civilian-manned space station
    -
    push-button pipeline pumping station
    -
    rack-mounted station
    -
    radar station
    -
    radio station
    -
    radio-beacon station
    -
    radio-compass station
    -
    radio-positioning station
    -
    radio-range station
    -
    radio-relay station
    -
    radiosonde station
    -
    rating station
    -
    rawinsonde receiving station
    -
    rawinsonde station
    -
    read station
    -
    receiving station
    -
    reclamation station
    -
    reconservated space station
    -
    recording station
    -
    rectifier station
    -
    reference station
    -
    reforwarding station
    -
    refrigerating station
    -
    refuge station
    -
    relay pump station
    -
    relay station
    -
    relift station
    -
    remote methane measurement station
    -
    remote monitoring station
    -
    remote station
    -
    remote tool transfer station
    -
    repeater station
    -
    representative station
    -
    repressuring station
    -
    rescue station
    -
    reservoired power station
    -
    resupply space station
    -
    river station
    -
    robot station
    -
    robot weather station
    -
    roll-welding station
    -
    run-of-river power station
    -
    run-of-river station
    -
    sample station
    -
    satellite solar power station
    -
    scrubbing station
    -
    secondary station
    -
    seismic station
    -
    seismograph station
    -
    seismological station
    -
    self-service station
    -
    sending station
    -
    sewage pumping station
    -
    shaft station
    -
    ship station
    -
    shipboard power station
    -
    ship-handling station
    -
    shore collection station
    -
    shore station
    -
    short-lived station
    -
    short-term space station
    -
    short-term station
    -
    skimming station
    -
    slave station
    -
    small-size power station
    -
    small power station
    -
    solar power station
    -
    solar radio station
    -
    solar station
    -
    solar-diesel hybrid power station
    -
    solar-powered service station
    -
    solid-fuel power station
    -
    source pump station
    -
    space station
    -
    space tug-equipped orbital station
    -
    space-based laser station
    -
    stage station
    -
    stationary relay station
    -
    steering station
    -
    storage power station
    -
    stream-gaging station
    -
    stuffing station
    -
    stunning station
    -
    subscriber heat supply station
    -
    subscriber station
    -
    suburban station
    -
    surface synoptic station
    -
    surveillance radar station
    -
    switching station
    -
    synoptic station
    -
    tank oil filling station
    -
    tapping station
    -
    telemetering station
    -
    telemetry station
    -
    television transmitting station
    -
    temperature-regulating station
    -
    terminal pump station
    -
    terminal station
    -
    terrestrial station
    -
    test station
    -
    tethered space station
    -
    thermal power station
    -
    thermal station
    -
    tidal power station
    -
    toll station
    -
    tool adjustment station
    -
    tool change station
    -
    tool measuring-and-adjustment station
    -
    tool presetting station
    -
    tool station
    -
    torch-cutting station
    -
    total energy power station
    -
    totally autonomous manned space station
    -
    tracker station
    -
    transfer pumping station
    -
    transfer station
    -
    transforming station
    -
    transit station
    -
    transmitting station
    -
    transport station
    -
    transportable earth station
    -
    transportable station
    -
    trigeneration power station
    -
    trim station
    -
    two docking ports-equipped space station
    -
    underground power station
    -
    underground station
    -
    unload station
    -
    unmanned pumping station
    -
    unmanned station
    -
    upper-air station
    -
    user station
    -
    vacuum-compressor station
    -
    variable-head station
    -
    versatile space station
    -
    visited space station
    -
    wall-mounted station
    -
    washing station
    -
    water injection pumping station
    -
    water monitoring station
    -
    water power station
    -
    water rating station
    -
    water station
    -
    water treatment station
    -
    water-balance station
    -
    water-pumping station
    -
    water-purification floating station
    -
    wayside station
    -
    weather station
    -
    weighing station
    -
    weir station
    -
    well test station
    -
    wind power station
    -
    windup station
    -
    working station
    -
    work station
    -
    workpiece preparatory station

    Англо-русский словарь технических терминов > station

  • 19 Delaware

    I 1.
    1) делавары, (ленни-)ленапы
    Группа индейских племен долины р. Делавэр [ Delaware River] и соседних территорий, в 1600 насчитывала 8-10 тыс. человек. В 1990 в США было 9,3 тыс. человек, из них в Оклахоме - 2,9 тыс. (зарегистрированные делавары [Registered Delaware] - основная часть племени, живущая на северо-востоке штата среди чероки [ Cherokee], переселившаяся сюда в 1867 из Канзаса; делавары западной Оклахомы [Delaware Indian Tribe of Western Oklahoma] - около 0,5 тыс. человек, объединены с племенами кэддо [ Caddo] и вичита [ Wichita], вместе с которыми они поселились на р. Уошито [ Washita River] в 1859 и ныне владеют там 257 кв. км земли; отделившиеся делавары [Absentee Delaware]); в Висконсине [ Munsee], в Нью-Джерси - 1,35 тыс. человек на северо-востоке штата; и около 1 тыс. человек в Канаде
    2.
    Относится к алгонкинской группе [ Algonquian].
    II
    Штат в группе Южно-Атлантических штатов [ South Atlantic States]. Площадь - 5,3 тыс. кв. км. Население - 783,6 тыс. человек (2000). Столица - Довер [ Dover]. Крупнейшие города - Уилмингтон [ Wilmington], Ньюарк [ Newark], Милфорд [Milford]. Расположен на северо-востоке полуострова Делмарва [ Delmarva Peninsula], граничит с Мэрилендом [ Maryland] на юге и западе, с Пенсильванией [ Pennsylvania] на севере. Большая часть штата находится на Приатлантической низменности [Coastal plain]. На северо-западе - холмистая местность Пидмонт [Piedmont]. Главная река - Делавэр [ Delaware River], протекающая вдоль восточной границы штата, в котором имеется множество мелких речушек и озер. Теплый умеренный и влажный климат с мягкой зимой и жарким летом. Делавэр входил в число Тринадцати колоний [ Thirteen Colonies], стал первым штатом, ратифицировавшим Конституцию США [ Constitution, U.S.]. Г. Хадсон [ Hudson, Henry] под голландским флагом открыл эти земли в 1609. Капитан Сэмюэл Арголл [Argoll, Samuel] обследовал р. Делавэр в 1610 и назвал ее в честь барона де Лавэрра [ De La Warr, Thomas West, Baron], бывшего в то время губернатором Вирджинии [Royal Colony of Virginia]. Голландцы основали здесь поселение, пришедшее в упадок к 1631. Шведы основали в 1638 форт Кристина [Fort Christina] на месте современного Уилмингтона, но Новая Швеция [ New Sweden] распалась в 1655 под натиском голландцев во главе с губернатором Новых Нидерландов [ New Netherland] П. Стайвесантом [ Stuyvesant, Peter]. Англичане присвоили эти земли в 1664, и они были включены в состав Пенсильвании в 1682 как три южных округа [Three Counties]. После 1704 Делавэр обладал частичной автономией, и его граждане принимали активное участие в Американской революции [ War of Independence]. Штат процветал в первые годы независимости США. Основной отраслью промышленности была мукомольная. В 1802 Э. И. Дюпон [ Du Pont de Nemours, Eleuthere Irenee] построил у Уилмингтона пороховой завод, заложив тем самым основу будущей химической промышленности. Несмотря на то, что Делавэр в период Гражданской войны [ Civil War] оставался рабовладельческим штатом, он не вышел из Союза [ Union]. Влияние квакеров [ Quakers] способствовало освобождению многих рабов уже к 1860. Начиная с первой мировой войны, в штате шел постоянный процесс урбанизации и индустриализации - огромная роль в этом процессе принадлежала семье Дюпонов. В 70-80-е гг. XX в. начался процесс перемещения населения в пригороды [ suburb]. До 1920 сельское хозяйство доминировало в экономике штата, сегодня играет относительно второстепенную роль (бройлеры, соевые бобы, овощи, молочные продукты). Ведущую роль играет химическая промышленность. Налоги на деятельность корпораций крайне низкие [ Delaware corporation], что способствует привлечению многих фирм, зарегистрированных, но не работающих в штате.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Delaware

  • 20 Mississippi

    Штат на Юге [ South] в группе штатов Юго-Восточного Центра [ East South Central States]. Площадь 123,5 тыс. кв. км. Население 2,8 млн. человек (2000). Столица и крупнейший город штата Джексон [ Jackson]. Другие крупные города: Билокси [ Biloxi], Гринвилл [ Greenville], Хаттисберг [Hattiesburg], Меридиан [Meridian], Галфпорт [ Gulfport]. На северо-западе граничит со штатом Арканзас [ Arkansas], на юго-западе с Луизианой [ Louisiana], на севере с Теннесси [ Tennessee], на востоке с Алабамой [ Alabama]. На юго-востоке имеет выход к Мексиканскому заливу [ Mexico, Gulf of]. В состав штата входит также цепь небольших островов, отделенных от материка проливом Миссисипи-Саунд [Mississippi Sound]. Почти вся его территория лежит в восточной части Примексиканской низменности [Gulf Coastal Plain]. Побережье залива заболочено. Земли изрезаны густой сетью рек, особенно в районе дельты р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi River]. Восточнее дельты холмы Блафф-Хиллс [Bluff Hills], к востоку от них прерии [Jackson Prairie]. На северо-востоке штата холмы долины р. Теннесси [ Tennessee River; Tennessee River Hills]. Леса занимают около 55 процентов территории, несколько сосновых пород имеют промышленное значение. Субтропический, влажный климат, в летне-осенний сезон случаются ураганы. На территории штата жили племена чикасо [ Chickasaw], чокто [ Choctaw], натчез [ Natchez], билокси [ Biloxi], паскагула [ Pascagoula]. Первым европейцем, посетившим регион в 1540, был испанец Э. Де Сото [ De Soto, Hernando]. В 1682 Ласалль [ La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de] объявил долину р. Миссисипи французской территорией и назвал ее Луизианой. В 1699 П. Ибервилль [ Iberville, Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'] построил первое постоянное поселение на берегу залива Билокси. В 1717 финансист Дж. Ло [Law, John] предложил план заселения и коммерческого освоения долины р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi Scheme], который привлек в регион много английских поселенцев. После Войны с французами и индейцами [ French and Indian War] (1754-63) регион перешел в руки англичан и входил в состав колонии Западная Флорида [West Florida] до 1799. В 1781 испанцы захватили земли в районе г. Натчеза на западе региона и удерживали их до 1795, когда они перешли к США. В 1798 была создана Территория Миссисипи [Territory of Mississippi] с центром в г. Натчезе. В 1817 Миссисипи стал 20-м штатом, вошедшим в Союз. К 1832 большая часть индейцев, живших в штате, была перемещена в Индейскую территорию [ Indian Territory]. К началу Гражданской войны [ Civil War] в штате была создана экономика, основанная на плантационном рабстве и монокультуре хлопка. 9 января 1861 штат вышел из Союза и стал вторым по счету штатом, вступившим в Конфедерацию [ Confederate States of America], президентом которой был избран политик из Миссисипи Дж. Дэвис [ Davis, Jefferson]. В войне участвовало около 80 тыс. жителей штата, на его территории произошло несколько крупных сражений, в том числе осада Виксберга [ Vicksburg]. В период Реконструкции [ Reconstruction] Миссисипи управлялся федеральными властями. В 1870 штат вновь вошел в состав США. В 1890 была принята конституция штата [ state constitution], узаконившая расовую сегрегацию. В конце XIX в. экономика штата по-прежнему зависела от монокультуры хлопка, а негры составляли большинство населения. В 1916-20 губернатор Т. Билбо [Bilbo, Theodore] провел значительные реформы. В 1927 огромный ущерб аграрному штату нанесло наводнение; не успев оправиться от него, Миссисипи вступил в эпоху Великой депрессии [ Great Depression]. Власти штата преодолевали депрессию на основе экономической программы "сбалансирования сельского хозяйства и промышленности" [Balancing Agriculture With Industry (BAWI)]. Открытие месторождений нефти (1939-40) положило начало диверсификации экономики. Темпы индустриализации, начавшейся в период второй мировой войны, возросли в 1950-60-е. Современная экономика штата в целом отражает общенациональные тенденции. Так, 2/3 рабочей силы занято в сфере услуг, государственный сектор дает до 15 процентов валового продукта. Крупнейший работодатель - промышленность (текстильная, мебельная и др.). В сельском хозяйстве наблюдается увеличение размеров и уменьшение числа фермерских хозяйств. Важнейшие культуры: хлопчатник, соя, рис; развито мясное животноводство, птицеводство. Существенна доля добычи рыбы и продуктов моря. В 1960-е штат стал крупнейшим центром движения за гражданские права [ civil rights movement]. В 1962 возникли беспорядки, связанные с попыткой Дж. Мередита [ Meredith, James Howard] поступить в Миссисипский университет [ Mississippi, University of]. В 1969 впервые в истории штата на пост мэра был избран негр Ч. Эверс [Evers, Charles], а уже в 1988 на выборных должностях штата находилось больше афро-американцев, чем где бы то ни было в стране. В течение столетия после Реконструкции в штате по традиции были сильны позиции демократов. Ныне значительно усилилось влияние республиканцев; в 1991 избран губернатор-республиканец.

    English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Mississippi

Страницы

См. также в других словарях:

  • Coastal sediment supply — is the transport of sediment to the beach environment by both fluvial and aeolian transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall sedimentary budget for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal regions of Western Australia — …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal and ocean rowing — is a type of rowing performed at sea. Due to the harsher conditions encountered, the boats are wider and more robust than those used on rivers and lakes.International CompetitionThe sport of Coastal and Offshore Rowing is thriving across Europe,… …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal geography — is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. It involves an… …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal flood — Coastal flooding occurs when normally dry, low lying land is flooded by sea water.[1] The extent of coastal flooding is a function of the elevation inland flood waters penetrate which is controlled by the topography of the coastal land exposed to …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal Connecticut — Coastal Connecticut, often colloquially referred to by state residents as the Connecticut Shore or the Connecticut Shoreline, comprises all of Connecticut s southern border along Long Island Sound, from Greenwich in the west to Stonington in the… …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal plain — in Albania A coastal plain is an area of flat, low lying land adjacent to a seacoast and separated from the interior by other features. One of the world s longest coastal plains is located in eastern South America. The southwestern coastal plain… …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal class ferry — Class overview Builders: Flensburger Schiffbau Gesellschaft, Flensburg …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal Migration — is a term sometimes used in modern anthropology and genetics[1][2][3] for the concept that, from a single origin in Africa 100 200 thousand years before present, early human migrations first spread eastwards to areas outside Africa along routes… …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal Hospice & Palliative Care — Coastal Hospice and Palliative Care is a non profit health care organization founded in 1980. It is located in Salisbury, Maryland and serves Dorchester, Wicomico, Somerset and Worcester counties. Its special mission as a hospice is to serve the… …   Wikipedia

  • Coastal India — is a geo cultural region in the Indian Subcontinent that spans entire Coastline of India. Coastal India Contents 1 Region …   Wikipedia

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»