Перевод: с английского на все языки

со всех языков на английский

(become+less+important)

  • 1 decline

    1. verb
    1) (to say `no' to (an invitation etc); to refuse: We declined his offer of a lift.) rehusar, rechazar
    2) (to become less strong or less good etc: His health has declined recently; Our profits have temporarily declined.) disminuir

    2. noun
    (a gradual lessening or worsening (of health, standards, quantity etc): There has been a gradual decline in the birthrate.) decaimiento, deterioro, descenso
    1. disminuir
    2. no aceptar
    I invited him to the party, but he declined le invité a la fiesta, pero no aceptó
    tr[dɪ'klaɪn]
    1 (decrease) disminución nombre femenino, descenso
    2 (deterioration - gen) deterioro, declive nombre masculino, decadencia; (in health) deterioro, empeoramiento
    1 (decrease - gen) disminuir, decrecer; (interest) disminuir, decaer
    2 (deteriorate - gen) deteriorarse; (health) deteriorarse, empeorarse; (standard, quality) decaer, disminuir
    3 (refuse) rehusar una invitación, declinar una invitación
    4 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL declinarse
    1 (refuse) rehusar, declinar
    2 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL declinar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be in decline estar en declive, estar en decadencia
    to be on the decline (fall, decrease) ir disminuyendo, estar descendiendo 2 (become less important) ir a menos 3 (worsen) empezar a empeorar
    to fall into decline entrar en decadencia
    decline [di'klaɪn] v, - clined ; - clining vi
    1) descend: descender
    2) deteriorate: deteriorarse, decaer
    her health is declining: su salud se está deteriorando
    3) decrease: disminuir, decrecer, decaer
    4) refuse: rehusar
    1) inflect: declinar
    2) refuse, turn down: declinar, rehusar
    1) deterioration: decadencia f, deterioro m
    2) decrease: disminución f, descenso m
    3) slope: declive m, pendiente f
    n.
    • baja s.f.
    • bajada s.f.
    • bajón s.m.
    • caimiento s.m.
    • decadencia s.f.
    • declinación s.f.
    • depresión s.f.
    • descenso s.m.
    • ocaso s.m.
    v.
    • aniquilarse v.
    • decaer v.
    (§pres: decaigo, decaes...)
    • declinar v.
    • descaecer v.
    • desgastar v.
    • desmedrar v.
    • desmejorar v.
    • desmoronar v.
    • menguar v.
    • rechazar v.
    • rehuir v.
    • rehusar v.
    dɪ'klaɪn
    I
    noun (no pl)
    a) ( decrease) descenso m, disminución f
    b) ( downward trend) declive m, decadencia f, deterioro m

    to be in decline — estar* en declive or en decadencia

    to go into a decline — entrar en decadencia; ( Med) empezar* a empeorar


    II
    1.
    1)
    a) ( decrease) \<\<production/strength\>\> disminuir*, decrecer*; \<\<interest\>\> disminuir*, decaer*

    to decline in importance — perder* importancia

    b) ( deteriorate) \<\<health\>\> deteriorarse; \<\<industry/region/standards\>\> decaer*
    c) declining pres p <industry/region/standards> en declive, en decadencia
    2) ( refuse)

    I invited him, but he declined — lo invité, pero rehusó or declinó mi invitación


    2.
    1) ( refuse) \<\<offer/invitation\>\> rehusar, declinar
    2) ( Ling) declinar
    [dɪ'klaɪn]
    1. N
    1) (=decrease) (in numbers, sales) descenso m, disminución f (in de); (in support, interest) disminución f
    2) (=deterioration) decadencia f, declive m, deterioro m ; (in standards) descenso m, declive m ; (Med) debilitamiento m

    to fall into decline — [industry, town] entrar en decadencia, entrar en declive

    to go into a decline — (Med) ir debilitándose

    2. VT
    1) (=refuse) rehusar, rechazar, declinar frm

    to decline to do sth — rehusar hacer algo, declinar hacer algo frm

    2) (Ling) declinar
    3. VI
    1) (=decrease) [power, influence] disminuir; (=deteriorate) decaer; (in health) debilitarse, decaer
    2) (=refuse) negarse, rehusar
    3) (Ling) declinarse
    * * *
    [dɪ'klaɪn]
    I
    noun (no pl)
    a) ( decrease) descenso m, disminución f
    b) ( downward trend) declive m, decadencia f, deterioro m

    to be in decline — estar* en declive or en decadencia

    to go into a decline — entrar en decadencia; ( Med) empezar* a empeorar


    II
    1.
    1)
    a) ( decrease) \<\<production/strength\>\> disminuir*, decrecer*; \<\<interest\>\> disminuir*, decaer*

    to decline in importance — perder* importancia

    b) ( deteriorate) \<\<health\>\> deteriorarse; \<\<industry/region/standards\>\> decaer*
    c) declining pres p <industry/region/standards> en declive, en decadencia
    2) ( refuse)

    I invited him, but he declined — lo invité, pero rehusó or declinó mi invitación


    2.
    1) ( refuse) \<\<offer/invitation\>\> rehusar, declinar
    2) ( Ling) declinar

    English-spanish dictionary > decline

  • 2 to be on the decline

    (fall, decrease) ir disminuyendo, estar descendiendo 2 (become less important) ir a menos 3 (worsen) empezar a empeorar

    English-spanish dictionary > to be on the decline

  • 3 lessen

    1. transitive verb
    (reduce) verringern; lindern [Schmerz]
    2. intransitive verb
    (become less) sich verringern; [Fieber:] sinken, fallen; [Schmerz:] nachlassen
    * * *
    verb (to make or become less: The fan lessened the heat a little; When the children left, the noise lessened considerably.) (sich) vermindern
    * * *
    less·en
    [ˈlesən]
    I. vi schwächer [o geringer] werden, abschwächen; fever zurückgehen, sinken; pain nachlassen
    the rain eventually \lessened to a soft mist der Regen ging schließlich in ein leichtes Nieseln über
    II. vt
    ▪ to \lessen sth etw verringern
    eating properly can \lessen the risk of heart disease mit einer vernünftigen Ernährung kann das Risiko einer Herzerkrankung gesenkt werden
    a massage can \lessen tension in the back eine Massage hilft, Rückenverspannungen zu lösen
    to \lessen sb's achievements jds Leistungen herabsetzen
    * * *
    ['lesn]
    1. vt
    1) (= make less) verringern; cost senken, vermindern; effect, impact vermindern, abschwächen; pain lindern
    2) (= make seem less important etc) herabsetzen, herabwürdigen
    2. vi
    nachlassen; (danger, wind, enthusiasm, difficulty also) abnehmen; (value of money) sich verringern, abnehmen
    * * *
    lessen [ˈlesn]
    A v/i sich vermindern oder verringern, abnehmen, geringer oder kleiner werden
    B v/t
    1. vermindern, -ringern, herabsetzen, verkleinern
    2. fig
    a) herabsetzen, schmälern
    b) bagatellisieren
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    (reduce) verringern; lindern [Schmerz]
    2. intransitive verb
    (become less) sich verringern; [Fieber:] sinken, fallen; [Schmerz:] nachlassen
    * * *
    v.
    verkleinern v.
    vermindern v.

    English-german dictionary > lessen

  • 4 lower

    1) (to make or become less high: She lowered her voice.) bajar
    2) (to let down: He lowered the blinds.) bajar
    lower vb bajar
    tr['ləʊəSMALLr/SMALL]
    1 inferior
    1 (in general) bajar; (price) rebajar
    2 (flag) arriar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to lower oneself rebajarse
    lower case caja baja, minúscula
    Lower House Cámara Baja
    lower ['lo:ər] vt
    1) drop: bajar
    to lower one's voice: bajar la voz
    2) : arriar, bajar
    to lower the flag: arriar la bandera
    3) reduce: reducir, bajar
    4)
    to lower oneself : rebajarse
    lower ['lo:ər] adj
    : inferior, más bajo, de abajo
    adj.
    • bajero, -a adj.
    • inferior adj.
    • más bajo adj.
    adv.
    • menos adv.
    n.
    • ceño s.m.
    • inferior s.m.
    v.
    • abaratar v.
    • abatir v.
    • agachar v.
    • amainar v.
    • arriar v.
    • bajar v.
    • rebajar v.

    I 'ləʊər, 'ləʊə(r)
    1) comp of low I,II
    2) (before n)
    a) (spatially, numerically) <jaw/lip> inferior

    lower age limit — edad f mínima

    b) (in rank, importance) <rank/echelons> inferior, más bajo

    the lower chamber/Lower House — la cámara baja

    c) <mammals/apes/life-forms> inferior
    3) ( Geog) bajo

    II
    1. 'ləʊər, 'ləʊə(r)
    1) ( let down) \<\<blind/ceiling\>\> bajar; \<\<flag/sail\>\> bajar, arriar*
    2) (reduce, diminish) \<\<temperature/volume/price\>\> bajar

    to lower somebody's morale — bajarle la moral a alguien, desmoralizar* a alguien

    it lowered his resistance to disease — le minó or le disminuyó las defensas


    2.
    v refl

    3.
    vi \<\<prices/standards/temperature\>\> bajar

    III 'laʊr, 'laʊə(r)
    a) ( darken) \<\<sky\>\> encapotarse
    b) ( frown) fruncir* el ceño
    c) lowering pres p < sky> encapotado; <expression/look> ceñudo

    I ['lǝʊǝ(r)]
    1. ADJ
    low
    1) (=bottom) [part, section, floors, windows] de abajo, inferior; [slopes] inferior, bajo

    • the lower bunk — la litera de abajo

    • the lower left corner — la esquina inferior izquierda

    • the lower half/ part of — la mitad/parte inferior de, la mitad/parte de abajo de

    2) (=less important) [level, rank, caste] inferior

    • the lower chamber — (Parl) la cámara baja

    • the lower court — (Jur) los tribunales inferiores

    • soldiers in the lower ranks — soldados mpl de menor rango or de rango inferior

    • the lower school — el segundo ciclo

    3) (Anat) inferior

    • the lower abdomen/ back — la parte inferior del abdomen/de la espalda

    • she suffered severe cuts on her lower leg — sufrió cortes de gravedad en la parte inferior de la pierna

    • the lower limbs — los miembros inferiores

    4) (Zool) inferior
    5) (Geog) (in names)
    reach 3., 2)
    2.
    VT (gen) bajar; [+ boat] echar al agua; [+ flag, sail] arriar; (=reduce) [+ price] bajar, rebajar

    to lower o.s. — (fig) rebajarse

    • to lower one's guard — bajar la guardia

    • to lower one's headlights — (US) poner las luces de cruce

    • to lower one's voice — bajar la voz

    3.
    4.
    CPD

    lower case N — (Typ) minúsculas fpl

    lower-case

    the lower class or classes — la clase baja

    lower-class

    lower deck N — [of bus] piso m de abajo; (Naut) (=part of ship) cubierta f inferior

    the lower deck * — (=personnel) los marineros

    the Lower House N — (Parl) la Cámara Baja

    lower jaw N — mandíbula f inferior

    lower lip N — labio m inferior

    lower sixth N — (Brit) ≈ 1º de Bachillerato f

    lower vertebrates NPL — vertebrados mpl inferiores


    II
    ['laʊǝ(r)]
    VI [person] fruncir el entrecejo, fruncir el ceño; [sky] encapotarse
    * * *

    I ['ləʊər, 'ləʊə(r)]
    1) comp of low I,II
    2) (before n)
    a) (spatially, numerically) <jaw/lip> inferior

    lower age limit — edad f mínima

    b) (in rank, importance) <rank/echelons> inferior, más bajo

    the lower chamber/Lower House — la cámara baja

    c) <mammals/apes/life-forms> inferior
    3) ( Geog) bajo

    II
    1. ['ləʊər, 'ləʊə(r)]
    1) ( let down) \<\<blind/ceiling\>\> bajar; \<\<flag/sail\>\> bajar, arriar*
    2) (reduce, diminish) \<\<temperature/volume/price\>\> bajar

    to lower somebody's morale — bajarle la moral a alguien, desmoralizar* a alguien

    it lowered his resistance to disease — le minó or le disminuyó las defensas


    2.
    v refl

    3.
    vi \<\<prices/standards/temperature\>\> bajar

    III ['laʊr, 'laʊə(r)]
    a) ( darken) \<\<sky\>\> encapotarse
    b) ( frown) fruncir* el ceño
    c) lowering pres p < sky> encapotado; <expression/look> ceñudo

    English-spanish dictionary > lower

  • 5 lower

    ['ləuə(r)] 1. adj
    ( bottom) dolny; ( less important) niższy
    2. vt
    object opuszczać (opuścić perf); prices, level obniżać (obniżyć perf); voice zniżać (zniżyć perf); eyes spuszczać (spuścić perf)
    * * *
    1) (to make or become less high: She lowered her voice.) zniżyć
    2) (to let down: He lowered the blinds.) spuścić

    English-Polish dictionary > lower

  • 6 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 7 agile manufacturing

    Ops
    a manufacturing philosophy that focuses on meeting the demands of customers by adopting flexible manufacturing practices. Agile manufacturing emerged as a reaction to lean production. It differs by focusing on meeting the demands of customers without sacrificing quality or incurring added costs. Based on the idea of the virtual organization, agile manufacturing aims to develop flexible, often short-term, relationships with suppliers, as market opportunities arise. Stock control is considered less important than satisfying the customer, and so customer satisfaction measures become more important than output measures. Agile manufacturing requires an adaptable, innovative, and empowered work force.

    The ultimate business dictionary > agile manufacturing

  • 8 more

    1. adjective
    1) (additional) mehr

    would you like any or some/a few more? — (apples, books, etc.) möchten Sie noch welche/ein paar?

    would you like any or some more apples? — möchten Sie noch Äpfel?

    would you like any or some/a little more? — (tea, paper, etc.) möchten Sie noch etwas/ein wenig?

    would you like any or some more tea/paper? — möchten Sie noch Tee/Papier?

    I haven't any more [apples/tea] — ich habe keine [Äpfel]/keinen [Tee] mehr

    many more things — noch viel mehr [Dinge]

    2) (greater in degree) größer

    more's the pity — (coll.) leider!

    the more fool you — du bist vielleicht ein Dummkopf

    2. noun, no pl., no indef. art.
    1) (greater amount or number or thing) mehr

    more and more — mehr und mehr; immer mehr

    the more the merrier — see academic.ru/46306/merry">merry 1)

    what is more... — außerdem...

    and more — mindestens vorangestellt; oder mehr

    there's no need to do/say [any] more — da braucht nichts weiter getan/gesagt zu werden

    3)

    more than — (coll.): (exceedingly) über[satt, -glücklich, -froh]; hoch[erfreut, -willkommen]

    3. adverb
    1) mehr [mögen, interessieren, gefallen, sich wünschen]; forming compar.

    this book is more interesting — dieses Buch ist interessanter

    more than anything [else] — vor allem

    2) (nearer, rather) eher

    more... than... — eher... als...

    more dead than alive — mehr tot als lebendig

    3) (again) wieder

    never more — nie wieder od. mehr

    4)

    more and more... — mehr und mehr od. immer mehr...; with adj. or adv. immer... (+ Komp.)

    5)

    more or less — (fairly) mehr oder weniger; (approximately) annähernd

    6)

    the more so because... — um so mehr, als od. weil...

    * * *
    [mo:]
    comparative; = much
    * * *
    [mɔ:ʳ, AM mɔ:r]
    I. adj comp of many, much noch mehr
    do you want \more food? willst du noch etwas zu essen haben?
    I helped myself to \more tea ich schenkte mir Tee nach
    we drank \more wine wir tranken noch mehr Wein
    two \more days until Christmas noch zwei Tage bis Weihnachten
    we can't take on any \more patients wir können keine weiteren Patienten mehr aufnehmen
    some \more coffee? noch etwas Kaffee?
    is there any \more coffee? ist noch [etwas] Kaffee da?
    why are there no \more seats left? warum sind keine Plätze mehr frei?
    no \more wine for you! du kriegst keinen Wein mehr!
    no \more swotting ( fam) Schluss mit der Büffelei! fam
    a few \more weeks and then it's Easter ein paar Wochen noch und dann ist Ostern
    can you give me a few \more days to think it over? gibst du mir noch ein paar Tage Zeit zum Nachdenken?
    you need a lot \more money than that du brauchst viel mehr Geld als das
    just a little \more attention nur etwas mehr Aufmerksamkeit
    \more and \more people buy things on the internet immer mehr Leute kaufen Sachen im Internet
    just one \more thing before I go nur noch eins, bevor ich gehe
    \more people live here than in the all of the rest of the country hier leben mehr Menschen als im ganzen Rest des Landes
    I'd be \more than happy to oblige es wäre mir ein Vergnügen
    \more and \more snow immer mehr Schnee
    ▶ [the] \more fool you BRIT ( pej fam) du bist ja blöd fam
    II. pron
    tell me \more erzähl' mir mehr
    there's \more to it da steckt mehr dahinter
    \more and \more came es kamen immer mehr
    we see \more of him these days wir sehen ihn zurzeit öfter
    she's \more of a poet than a musician sie ist eher Dichterin als Musikerin
    the noise was \more than I could bear ich konnte den Lärm nicht ertragen
    any \more? noch etwas?; (countable) noch mehr [o welche]?
    is there any \more? ist noch etwas da?
    some \more noch etwas; (countable) noch einige
    no \more nichts weiter; (countable) keine mehr
    there was no \more to be said about it dazu gab es nichts mehr zu sagen
    2.
    all the \more... umso mehr...
    that's all the \more reason not to give in das ist umso mehr Grund, nicht nachzugeben
    the \more the better je mehr desto besser
    do come to the picnic — the \more the merrier komm doch zum Picknick — je mehr wir sind, desto lustiger wird es
    the \more he insisted he was innocent, the less they seemed to believe him je mehr er darauf beharrte, unschuldig zu sein, desto weniger schienen sie ihm zu glauben
    the \more he drank, the \more violent he became je mehr er trank, desto gewalttätiger wurde er
    III. adv inv
    1. (forming comparatives)
    let's find a \more sensible way of doing it wir sollten eine vernünftigere Lösung finden
    you couldn't be \more wrong du könntest nicht mehr danebenliegen! fam
    this task is far [or much] \more difficult than the last one diese Aufgabe ist viel schwerer als die letzte
    play that last section \more passionately spiele den letzten Teil leidenschaftlicher
    \more importantly wichtiger noch
    he finished the job and, \more importantly, he finished it on time er wurde mit der Arbeit fertig, wichtiger noch, er wurde rechtzeitig fertig
    \more and \more...:
    it's becoming \more and \more likely that she'll resign es wird immer wahrscheinlicher, dass sie zurücktritt
    vacancies were becoming \more and \more rare es gab immer weniger freie Stellen
    2. (to a greater extent) mehr
    she asked if she could see him \more sie fragte, ob sie ihn öfter sehen könne
    you should listen \more and talk less du solltest besser zuhören und weniger sprechen
    they like classical music \more than pop sie mögen klassische Musik lieber als Pop
    sb couldn't agree/disagree with sb \more ( form) jd ist ganz/überhaupt nicht jds Meinung
    I couldn't agree with you \more, Professor ganz meine Meinung, Herr Professor
    to think \more of sb eine höhere Meinung von jdm haben
    ... or \more mindestens...
    each diamond was worth £10,000 or \more jeder Diamant war mindestens 10.000 Pfund wert
    \more than... (greater number) über..., mehr als...; (very) äußerst..., mehr als...
    \more than 20,000 demonstrators crowded into the square über 20.000 Demonstranten füllten den Platz
    we'll be \more than happy to help wir helfen sehr gerne
    \more than a little... ( form) ausgesprochen...
    I was \more than a little surprised to see her ich war nicht wenig überrascht, sie zu sehen
    no \more than... höchstens...
    it's no \more than an inch long es ist höchstens ein Zoll lang
    ▪ the \more umso mehr
    she's now all the \more determined to succeed sie ist jetzt umso entschlossener, erfolgreich zu sein
    the \more so because umso mehr, als
    3. (in addition) noch, außerdem
    I just need one or two things \more before I can start cooking ich brauche nur noch ein paar Dinge, bevor ich zu kochen anfangen kann
    once/twice/three times \more noch einmal/zweimal/dreimal
    can you play the song through twice \more, please? kannst du das Lied bitte noch zweimal durchspielen?
    no \more nie wieder
    mention his name no \more to me erwähne seinen Namen mir gegenüber nie wieder
    and [what's] \more überdies
    he was rich, and \more, he was handsome er war reich und sah zudem gut aus
    4. with verb inversion (neither) auch nicht
    I had no complaints and no \more did Tom ich hatte keine Beschwerden und Tom auch nicht
    to be no \more times vorüber sein
    the good old days are no \more die guten alten Zeiten sind vorbei; person gestorben sein
    we're mourning poor Thomas, for he is no \more wir trauern um Thomas, der nicht mehr unter uns weilt
    to not do sth any \more etw nicht mehr tun
    I don't do yoga any \more ich habe mit Yoga aufgehört
    6. (rather) eher
    it's not so much a philosophy, \more a way of life es ist nicht so sehr eine Philosophie, als eine Lebensart
    it was \more a snack than a meal es war eher ein Snack als eine Mahlzeit
    \more dead than alive mehr tot als lebendig
    7.
    ▶ \more or less (all in all) mehr oder weniger; (approximately) ungefähr
    the project was \more or less a success das Projekt war mehr oder weniger erfolgreich
    it's 500 kilos, \more or less das sind ungefähr 500 Kilo
    it's \more or less symmetrical es ist in etwa symmetrisch
    ▶ that's \more like it ( fam) schon besser
    ▶ \more often than not meistens
    * * *
    [mɔː(r)]
    1. n, pron
    1) (= greater amount) mehr; (= a further or additional amount) noch mehr; (of countable things) noch mehr or welche

    I want a lot more — ich will viel mehr; (in addition) ich will noch viel mehr

    three more —

    a little more — etwas mehr; (in addition) noch etwas mehr

    many/much more — viel mehr

    not many/much more — nicht mehr viele/viel

    no more — nichts mehr; (countable) keine mehr

    some more — noch etwas; (countable) noch welche

    any more? — noch mehr or etwas?; (countable) noch mehr or welche?

    there isn't/aren't any more — mehr gibt es nicht; (here, at the moment, left over) es ist nichts/es sind keine mehr da

    is/are there any more? — gibt es noch mehr?; (left over) ist noch etwas/sind noch welche da?

    let's say no more about it —

    we shall hear/see more of you — wir werden öfter von dir hören/dich öfter sehen

    there's more to come — da kommt noch etwas, das ist noch nicht alles

    what more could one want? — mehr kann man sich doch nicht wünschen

    there's more to bringing up children than just... — zum Kindererziehen gehört mehr als nur...

    and what's more, he... — und außerdem or obendrein hat er... (noch)...

    2)

    the more you give him, the more he wants — je mehr du ihm gibst, desto mehr verlangt er

    the more the merrier — je mehr, desto besser or umso besser

    2. adj
    mehr; (in addition) noch mehr

    two/five more bottles —

    one more day, one day more more and more money/friends — noch ein Tag immer mehr Geld/Freunde

    a lot/a little more money — viel/etwas mehr Geld; (in addition) noch viel/noch etwas mehr Geld

    a few more friends/weeks — noch ein paar Freunde/Wochen

    you won't have many more friends/much more money left — du hast nicht mehr viele Freunde/nicht mehr viel Geld übrig

    no more money/friends — kein Geld/keine Freunde mehr

    no more singing/squabbling! — Schluss mit der Singerei/mit dem Zanken!

    do you want some more tea/books? —

    there aren't any more books — mehr Bücher gibt es nicht; (here, at the moment) es sind keine Bücher mehr da

    (the) more fool you for giving him the money — dass du auch so dumm bist und ihm das Geld gibst

    3. adv
    1) mehr

    it will weigh/grow a bit more — es wird etwas mehr wiegen/noch etwas wachsen

    will it weigh/grow any more? — wird es mehr wiegen/noch wachsen?

    it'll grow more if you... — es wächst besser, wenn du...

    to like/want sth more — etw lieber mögen/wollen

    £5/2 hours more than I thought — £ 5 mehr/2 Stunden länger, als ich dachte

    no more than, not more than — nicht mehr als

    he has resigned – that's no more than I expected — er hat gekündigt – das habe ich ja erwartet

    2)

    (= again) once more — noch einmal, noch mal (inf)

    3) (= longer) mehr

    no more, not any more — nicht mehr

    to be no more (person) — nicht mehr sein or leben; (thing) nicht mehr existieren

    if he comes here any more... — wenn er noch weiter or länger hierher kommt...

    4) (to form comp of adj, adv) -er (than als)
    5)

    neither more nor less, no more, no less — nicht mehr und nicht weniger

    * * *
    more [mɔː(r); US auch ˈməʊər]
    A adj
    1. mehr:
    more money ( people, etc);
    (no) more than (nicht) mehr als;
    they are more than we are sie sind zahlreicher als wir
    2. mehr, noch (mehr), weiter:
    some more tea noch etwas Tee;
    one more day noch ein(en) Tag;
    two more miles noch zwei Meilen, zwei weitere Meilen;
    some more children noch einige Kinder;
    so much the more courage umso mehr Mut;
    he is no more er ist nicht mehr (ist tot)
    3. größer (obs außer in):
    (the) more fool you! du bist vielleicht ein Dummkopf!;
    the more part der größere Teil
    B adv
    1. mehr, in höherem Maße:
    they work more sie arbeiten mehr;
    more in theory than in practice mehr in der Theorie als in der Praxis;
    more dead than alive mehr oder eher tot als lebendig;
    more and more immer mehr;
    more and more difficult immer schwieriger;
    a) mehr oder weniger,
    b) ungefähr;
    the more umso mehr;
    the more so because … umso mehr, da …;
    all the more so nur umso mehr;
    so much the more as … umso mehr als …;
    the more you have, the more you want (Sprichwort) je mehr man hat, desto mehr will man;
    no ( oder not any) more than … ebenso wenig wie …;
    neither ( oder no) more nor less than stupid nicht mehr und nicht weniger als dumm, einfach dumm;
    more than happy überglücklich
    2. (zur Bildung des komp):
    more conscientiously gewissenhafter;
    more important wichtiger;
    more often öfter; → able 1
    3. noch:
    never more niemals wieder;
    once more noch einmal;
    twice more noch zweimal;
    two hours (miles) more noch zwei Stunden (Meilen)
    4. darüber hinaus, überdies:
    it is wrong and, more, it is foolish
    C s
    1. Mehr n (of an dat)
    2. mehr:
    more than one person has seen it mehr als einer hat es gesehen;
    we shall see more of you wir werden dich noch öfter sehen;
    and what is more und was noch wichtiger oder schwerwiegender ist;
    some more, a little more noch etwas (mehr);
    no more nichts mehr;
    what more do you want? was willst du denn noch?
    * * *
    1. adjective
    1) (additional) mehr

    would you like any or some/a few more? — (apples, books, etc.) möchten Sie noch welche/ein paar?

    would you like any or some more apples? — möchten Sie noch Äpfel?

    would you like any or some/a little more? — (tea, paper, etc.) möchten Sie noch etwas/ein wenig?

    would you like any or some more tea/paper? — möchten Sie noch Tee/Papier?

    I haven't any more [apples/tea] — ich habe keine [Äpfel]/keinen [Tee] mehr

    many more things — noch viel mehr [Dinge]

    more's the pity — (coll.) leider!

    2. noun, no pl., no indef. art.

    more and more — mehr und mehr; immer mehr

    what is more... — außerdem...

    and more — mindestens vorangestellt; oder mehr

    there's no need to do/say [any] more — da braucht nichts weiter getan/gesagt zu werden

    3)

    more than — (coll.): (exceedingly) über[satt, -glücklich, -froh]; hoch[erfreut, -willkommen]

    3. adverb
    1) mehr [mögen, interessieren, gefallen, sich wünschen]; forming compar.

    more than anything [else] — vor allem

    2) (nearer, rather) eher

    more... than... — eher... als...

    3) (again) wieder

    never more — nie wieder od. mehr

    4)

    more and more... — mehr und mehr od. immer mehr...; with adj. or adv. immer... (+ Komp.)

    5)

    more or less — (fairly) mehr oder weniger; (approximately) annähernd

    6)

    the more so because... — um so mehr, als od. weil...

    * * *
    adj.
    mehr adj.
    weiter adj.

    English-german dictionary > more

  • 9 get

    [get] 1.
    verbo transitivo ( forma in -ing - tt-; pass. got; p.pass. got, gotten AE)
    1) (receive) ricevere [letter, grant]; ricevere, percepire [salary, pension]; telev. rad. ricevere, prendere [ channel]

    to get help with — farsi aiutare in, per

    to get sth. from sb. — ereditare qcs. da qcn. [article, money]; fig. prendere qcs. da qcn. [trait, feature]

    3) (obtain) (by applying) ottenere [permission, divorce, licence]; trovare, ottenere [ job]; (by contacting) trovare [ plumber]; chiamare [ taxi]; (by buying) comprare, acquistare [ item]

    to get something for nothing, at a discount — avere qcs. per niente, con uno sconto

    to get sb. sth. to get sth. for sb. (by buying) prendere o comprare qcs. a, per qcn.; I'll get sth. to eat at the airport — prenderò qcs. da mangiare all'aeroporto

    4) (subscribe to) essere abbonato a [ newspaper]
    5) (acquire) farsi [ reputation]
    6) (achieve) ottenere [grade, mark, answer]

    he got it right — (of calculation) l'ha fatto giusto; (of answer) ha risposto bene

    7) (fetch) prendere [object, person]; cercare [ help]

    go and get a chair — prenda o vada a prendere una sedia

    to get sb. sth. o to get sth. for sb. prendere qcs. a o per qcn.; can I get you your coat? — posso portarti il cappotto?

    can you get between the truck and the wall? — riesci a passare o infilarti tra il camion ed il muro?

    where will that get you? — dove, a che cosa ti porterà?

    I'll get it — (of phone) rispondo io; (of doorbell) vado io

    12) (prepare) preparare [ meal]
    13) (take hold of) prendere [ person] (by per)

    I've got you, don't worry — ti tengo, non ti preoccupare

    to get sth. from o off prendere qcs. da [shelf, table]; to get sth. from o out of — prendere qcs. da [drawer, cupboard]

    14) colloq. (oblige to give)

    to get sth. from o out of sb. — ottenere da qcn. [ money]; fig. strappare a qcn. [ truth]

    15) colloq. (catch) prendere [ escapee]

    got you! — ti ho preso! (caught in act) (ti ho) beccato! ti ho visto!

    16) med. prendere, contrarre [ disease]
    17) (use as transport) prendere [bus, train]
    18) (have)

    to have got — avere [object, money, friend etc.]

    to get (hold of) the idea o impression that — farsi l'idea, avere l'impressione che

    to get a surprise, shock — avere una sorpresa, uno choc

    22) (hit)

    to get sb., sth. with — prendere o colpire qcn., qcs. con [stone, arrow]

    got it! — (of target) preso!

    23) (understand, hear) capire
    24) colloq. (annoy, affect)

    what gets me is... — quello che mi dà fastidio è che

    25) (learn, learn of)

    to get to do — colloq. finire per fare

    how did you get to know o hear of our organization? come siete venuti a conoscenza o da chi avete sentito parlare della nostra organizzazione? we got to know them last year — abbiamo fatto la loro conoscenza l'anno scorso

    to get to doing — colloq. cominciare a fare

    28) (must)

    to have got to do — dover fare [homework, chore]

    to get sb. to do sth. — far fare qcs. a qcn.

    to get sth. done — far(si) fare qcs.

    I got my finger trapped in the drawer — mi sono preso o pizzicato il dito nel cassetto

    2.
    verbo intransitivo ( forma in -ing - tt-; pass. got; p.pass. got, gotten AE)
    1) (become) diventare [suspicious, old]

    how lucky, stupid can you get! — quanto si può essere fortunati, stupidi! com'è fortunata, stupida certa gente!

    to get into — (as hobby) colloq. darsi a [astrology etc.]; (as job) dedicarsi a [teaching, publishing]

    to get into a fight — fig. buttarsi nella mischia

    how did you get here? — (by what miracle) come hai fatto ad arrivare fin qua? (by what means) come sei arrivato qua?

    6) colloq. (put on)

    to get into — mettere o mettersi [pyjamas, overalls]

    •
    ••

    get away with you! — colloq. ma non dire sciocchezze!

    get him in that hat! — colloq. ma guardalo (un po') con quel cappello!

    I'll get you for that — colloq. te la farò pagare (per questo)

    he's got it bad — colloq. ha preso una bella cotta

    to get it together — colloq. darsi una regolata

    to tell sb. where to get off — mandare qcn. a quel paese

    to get with it — colloq. muoversi, darsi una mossa

    ••
    Note:
    This much-used verb has no multipurpose equivalent in Italian and therefore it is very often translated by choosing a synonym: to get lunch = to prepare lunch = preparare il pranzo. - Get is used in many different contexts and has many different meanings, the most important of which are the following: obtain or receive ( I got it free = l'ho avuto gratis), move or travel ( I got there in time = ci sono arrivato in tempo), have or own ( she has got black hair and green eyes = ha i capelli neri e gli occhi verdi), become ( I'm getting old = sto invecchiando), and understand (got the meaning? = capito?). - Get is also used in many idiomatic expressions ( to get something off one's chest etc), whose translations will be found in the appropriate entry ( chest etc). - When get + object + infinitive is used in English to mean to persuade somebody to do something, fare is used in Italian followed by an infinitive: she got me to clear the table = mi ha fatto sparecchiare la tavola. When get + object + past participle is used to express the idea that a job is done not by you but by somebody else, fare followed by an infinitive is also used in Italian: to get a room painted = fare verniciare una stanza. - When get has the meaning of become and is followed by an adjective (to get rich / drunk etc), diventare is sometimes useful but check the appropriate entry ( rich, drunk etc) as a single verb often suffices ( arricchirsi, ubriacarsi etc). - For examples and further uses of get see the entry below
    * * *
    [ɡet]
    past tense - got; verb
    1) (to receive or obtain: I got a letter this morning.) ricevere
    2) (to bring or buy: Please get me some food.) prendere, comprare
    3) (to (manage to) move, go, take, put etc: He couldn't get across the river; I got the book down from the shelf.) attraversare; prendere
    4) (to cause to be in a certain condition etc: You'll get me into trouble.) mettere; procurare
    5) (to become: You're getting old.) diventare
    6) (to persuade: I'll try to get him to go.) convincere
    7) (to arrive: When did they get home?) arrivare
    8) (to succeed (in doing) or to happen (to do) something: I'll soon get to know the neighbours; I got the book read last night.) riuscire a
    9) (to catch (a disease etc): She got measles last week.) prendersi
    10) (to catch (someone): The police will soon get the thief.) acciuffare
    11) (to understand: I didn't get the point of his story.) capire
    •
    - get-together
    - get-up
    - be getting on for
    - get about
    - get across
    - get after
    - get ahead
    - get along
    - get around
    - get around to
    - get at
    - get away
    - get away with
    - get back
    - get by
    - get down
    - get down to
    - get in
    - get into
    - get nowhere
    - get off
    - get on
    - get on at
    - get out
    - get out of
    - get over
    - get round
    - get around to
    - get round to
    - get there
    - get through
    - get together
    - get up
    - get up to
    * * *
    get /gɛt/
    n.
    1 ( di animali) piccolo; cucciolo
    3 ( sport) presa ( della palla); palla presa.
    ♦ (to) get /gɛt/
    (pass. e p. p. got; p. p. arc. o USA gotten)
    A v. t.
    1 ottenere; procurarsi; prendere; andare a prendere; acquistare; comprare: to get a good job, ottenere un buon impiego; Where did you get the money?, dove ti sei procurato il denaro?; I got seven out of ten in the test, ho preso sette su dieci nel compito in classe; I'll get my suitcase, vado a prendere la valigia; The children got the measles, i bambini hanno preso il morbillo; Where do I get a bus to the station?, dove si prende l'autobus per la stazione?; DIALOGO → - Ordering drinks- What can I get you, gentlemen?, cosa vi porto, signori? NOTA D'USO: - to take o to get?-
    2 prendere; guadagnare; ricavare: He gets a good pension, prende una buona pensione; How much do you get a week?, quanto prendi alla settimana?
    3 ricevere: He got a computer for his birthday, per il suo compleanno ha ricevuto (in dono) un computer; Did you get my letter?, hai ricevuto la mia lettera? NOTA D'USO: - to receive o to get?-
    4 afferrare (fig.); capire; comprendere; cogliere (fig.): I don't get your meaning, non afferro il significato delle tue parole; Don't get me wrong!, non capirmi male!; non fraintendermi!; He didn't get the joke, non ha colto la battuta; (fig.) to get the message, capire la situazione (o l'allusione, ecc.); I don't get it: why did you do it?, non lo capisco: perché l'hai fatto?; DIALOGO → - Explaining how to do something- Have you got that?, hai capito?; (fam.) Get it?, hai capito?; ci sei?
    5 udire; sentire: I didn't quite get what you said, non ho sentito bene quello che hai detto
    6 portare; condurre; far arrivare; far pervenire; accompagnare; far approdare (fig.): The taxi got me to the airport in time, il taxi mi fece arrivare in tempo all'aeroporto; We must get her home, dobbiamo portarla (o accompagnarla) a casa
    7 preparare ( un pasto): I'll get the children their supper tonight, questa sera preparo io la cena ai bambini
    8 mettersi in contatto con (q.); trovare (q.) ( anche al telefono); prendere ( una telefonata): «The phone is ringing» «I'll get it», «Suona il telefono» «Prendo io!»; I wanted to speak to him, but I got his answerphone, volevo parlare con lui, ma ho trovato (o mi ha risposto) la segreteria
    9 (fam.) trovare; avere; esserci: I never get a chance [get time] to go out with my friends, non ho mai l'occasione [il tempo] di uscire con gli amici; In summer we get plenty of sunshine here, d'estate abbiamo molto sole qui
    10 (causativo: seguito da compl. ogg. più verbo all'inf.) convincere; indurre; persuadere; fare: I got him to leave, lo convinsi ad andarsene; I'll get my father to do it, lo farò fare a mio padre
    11 (causativo: seguito da un p. p.) fare: I must get my watch repaired, devo fare riparare l'orologio; to get one's hair cut, farsi tagliare i capelli; to get sb. drunk, fare ubriacare q.
    12 (causativo: seguito da un part. pres. o un agg.) fare: The door was jammed but I got it open, la porta s'era incastrata ma io la feci aprire
    13 (causativo: seguito da una prep. di luogo) fare (più inf. di verbo di moto): Get that dog out of my room!, fai uscire quel cane dalla mia stanza!; We cannot get the table into the house, non riusciamo a fare entrare la tavola in casa
    14 (fam.) colpire (fig.); commuovere; eccitare; emozionare: That music really gets (to) me, quella musica mi commuove proprio
    15 (fam.) infastidire; seccare; urtare (fig.); dare ai nervi a (q.); fare rabbia a (q.): It really gets (to) me when she starts complaining, quando comincia a lagnarsi, mi dà proprio ai nervi
    16 (fam.) cogliere in fallo; beccare, prendere in castagna (fam.): I don't know: you've got me there!, non so rispondere: mi hai preso in castagna!
    17 (fam.) recepire; notare; osservare: Did you get the look on his face?, hai notato che faccia aveva (o che faccia ha fatto)?
    18 (fam.) beccare, pescare (fam.); acchiappare: They escaped from the island prison, but the coastguard got them, sono fuggiti dal carcere dell'isola, ma li ha beccati la guardia costiera
    19 beccare (fam.); colpire; prendere; ferire; ammazzare; The bullet got me on the left leg, la pallottola mi colpì (o mi prese) alla gamba sinistra
    20 (idiom., in numerose espressioni indicanti spostamento, cambiamento, ecc.; per es.:) to get the children ready for school, preparare i bambini per la (o per mandarli a) scuola; to get one's hands dirty, sporcarsi le mani
    21 ( slang; soltanto all'imper.) accidenti a; ma guarda (un po')!; maledizione!: Get you! Who do you think you are?, accidenti a te (o, fam., ti prenda un colpo)! Chi credi d'essere?
    B v. i.
    1 andare; arrivare; giungere; pervenire: We got to London at 8.30 a.m., siamo arrivati a Londra alle 8 e 30; to get home late, arrivare tardi a casa; We got to the station on time, siamo arrivati alla stazione in orario
    2 diventare; divenire; farsi: I'm getting old, sto diventando vecchio; It's getting late, si fa tardi
    3 riuscire a; fare in modo di; farcela a (fam.): I'll tell him, if I get to see him, se riesco a vederlo, glielo dico; She never gets to drive the new car, non ce la fa mai a prendere (o a usare) la macchina nuova
    4 (nella voce passiva) essere; venire; rimanere: The hare got caught in the net, la lepre rimase impigliata nella rete
    5 (fam.) mettersi a; cominciare: Whenever we meet, he gets talking about our school days, tutte le volte che c'incontriamo, si mette a parlare di quando andavamo a scuola
    6 (idiom., in numerose espressioni indicanti cambiamento o trasformazione; per es.:) to get angry, arrabbiarsi; to be getting cold, raffreddarsi; to get drunk, ubriacarsi; to get ill, ammalarsi; to get married, sposarsi; to get old, invecchiare; to get ready, prepararsi; to get rich, arricchirsi; to get tired, stancarsi; to get wet, bagnarsi; prendere la pioggia
    C nelle loc.:
    1 – to have got (con got pleonastico) avere; possedere: He's got a lot of money, ha un mucchio di soldi; possiede un bel po' di denaro; Mary has got red hair, Mary ha i capelli rossi; What have you got in your hand?, che cosa hai (o tieni) in mano?
    2 – (fam.) to have got it, avere fascino, avere un certo non so che
    3 (seguito da un inf.) – to have got to, avere da; dovere; essere tenuto a; bisognare, occorrere (impers.): I've got to see my solicitor, devo andare dall'avvocato; The doctor says I've got to eat less, il medico dice che devo mangiare di meno; You haven't got to do it, non devi (mica) farlo ( se non vuoi); non sei tenuto a farlo; non occorre tu lo faccia (cfr. You mustn't do it, non devi farlo; non voglio, o non sta bene, ecc., che tu lo faccia)
    ● to get above oneself, montarsi la testa; inorgoglirsi □ to get accustomed to ► accustomed □ to get the axe ► axe □ to get one's chance, riuscire ad avere un'occasione □ to get going, muoversi; andarsene □ to get st. in one's head, mettersi in testa qc. □ to get it, capire, afferrare; (fam.) essere rimproverato (o punito); buscarle, prenderle □ to get to know sb., fare la conoscenza di q.; conoscere (meglio) q. □ ( slang) Get a life!, impara a vivere!; impara a stare al mondo! □ to get to like sb., prendere q. in simpatia □ to get to like st., prendere gusto a qc. □ ( slang, USA) to get with the program, mettersi al passo (con qc.) NOTA D'USO: - to give o to get?-.
    * * *
    [get] 1.
    verbo transitivo ( forma in -ing - tt-; pass. got; p.pass. got, gotten AE)
    1) (receive) ricevere [letter, grant]; ricevere, percepire [salary, pension]; telev. rad. ricevere, prendere [ channel]

    to get help with — farsi aiutare in, per

    to get sth. from sb. — ereditare qcs. da qcn. [article, money]; fig. prendere qcs. da qcn. [trait, feature]

    3) (obtain) (by applying) ottenere [permission, divorce, licence]; trovare, ottenere [ job]; (by contacting) trovare [ plumber]; chiamare [ taxi]; (by buying) comprare, acquistare [ item]

    to get something for nothing, at a discount — avere qcs. per niente, con uno sconto

    to get sb. sth. to get sth. for sb. (by buying) prendere o comprare qcs. a, per qcn.; I'll get sth. to eat at the airport — prenderò qcs. da mangiare all'aeroporto

    4) (subscribe to) essere abbonato a [ newspaper]
    5) (acquire) farsi [ reputation]
    6) (achieve) ottenere [grade, mark, answer]

    he got it right — (of calculation) l'ha fatto giusto; (of answer) ha risposto bene

    7) (fetch) prendere [object, person]; cercare [ help]

    go and get a chair — prenda o vada a prendere una sedia

    to get sb. sth. o to get sth. for sb. prendere qcs. a o per qcn.; can I get you your coat? — posso portarti il cappotto?

    can you get between the truck and the wall? — riesci a passare o infilarti tra il camion ed il muro?

    where will that get you? — dove, a che cosa ti porterà?

    I'll get it — (of phone) rispondo io; (of doorbell) vado io

    12) (prepare) preparare [ meal]
    13) (take hold of) prendere [ person] (by per)

    I've got you, don't worry — ti tengo, non ti preoccupare

    to get sth. from o off prendere qcs. da [shelf, table]; to get sth. from o out of — prendere qcs. da [drawer, cupboard]

    14) colloq. (oblige to give)

    to get sth. from o out of sb. — ottenere da qcn. [ money]; fig. strappare a qcn. [ truth]

    15) colloq. (catch) prendere [ escapee]

    got you! — ti ho preso! (caught in act) (ti ho) beccato! ti ho visto!

    16) med. prendere, contrarre [ disease]
    17) (use as transport) prendere [bus, train]
    18) (have)

    to have got — avere [object, money, friend etc.]

    to get (hold of) the idea o impression that — farsi l'idea, avere l'impressione che

    to get a surprise, shock — avere una sorpresa, uno choc

    22) (hit)

    to get sb., sth. with — prendere o colpire qcn., qcs. con [stone, arrow]

    got it! — (of target) preso!

    23) (understand, hear) capire
    24) colloq. (annoy, affect)

    what gets me is... — quello che mi dà fastidio è che

    25) (learn, learn of)

    to get to do — colloq. finire per fare

    how did you get to know o hear of our organization? come siete venuti a conoscenza o da chi avete sentito parlare della nostra organizzazione? we got to know them last year — abbiamo fatto la loro conoscenza l'anno scorso

    to get to doing — colloq. cominciare a fare

    28) (must)

    to have got to do — dover fare [homework, chore]

    to get sb. to do sth. — far fare qcs. a qcn.

    to get sth. done — far(si) fare qcs.

    I got my finger trapped in the drawer — mi sono preso o pizzicato il dito nel cassetto

    2.
    verbo intransitivo ( forma in -ing - tt-; pass. got; p.pass. got, gotten AE)
    1) (become) diventare [suspicious, old]

    how lucky, stupid can you get! — quanto si può essere fortunati, stupidi! com'è fortunata, stupida certa gente!

    to get into — (as hobby) colloq. darsi a [astrology etc.]; (as job) dedicarsi a [teaching, publishing]

    to get into a fight — fig. buttarsi nella mischia

    how did you get here? — (by what miracle) come hai fatto ad arrivare fin qua? (by what means) come sei arrivato qua?

    6) colloq. (put on)

    to get into — mettere o mettersi [pyjamas, overalls]

    •
    ••

    get away with you! — colloq. ma non dire sciocchezze!

    get him in that hat! — colloq. ma guardalo (un po') con quel cappello!

    I'll get you for that — colloq. te la farò pagare (per questo)

    he's got it bad — colloq. ha preso una bella cotta

    to get it together — colloq. darsi una regolata

    to tell sb. where to get off — mandare qcn. a quel paese

    to get with it — colloq. muoversi, darsi una mossa

    ••
    Note:
    This much-used verb has no multipurpose equivalent in Italian and therefore it is very often translated by choosing a synonym: to get lunch = to prepare lunch = preparare il pranzo. - Get is used in many different contexts and has many different meanings, the most important of which are the following: obtain or receive ( I got it free = l'ho avuto gratis), move or travel ( I got there in time = ci sono arrivato in tempo), have or own ( she has got black hair and green eyes = ha i capelli neri e gli occhi verdi), become ( I'm getting old = sto invecchiando), and understand (got the meaning? = capito?). - Get is also used in many idiomatic expressions ( to get something off one's chest etc), whose translations will be found in the appropriate entry ( chest etc). - When get + object + infinitive is used in English to mean to persuade somebody to do something, fare is used in Italian followed by an infinitive: she got me to clear the table = mi ha fatto sparecchiare la tavola. When get + object + past participle is used to express the idea that a job is done not by you but by somebody else, fare followed by an infinitive is also used in Italian: to get a room painted = fare verniciare una stanza. - When get has the meaning of become and is followed by an adjective (to get rich / drunk etc), diventare is sometimes useful but check the appropriate entry ( rich, drunk etc) as a single verb often suffices ( arricchirsi, ubriacarsi etc). - For examples and further uses of get see the entry below

    English-Italian dictionary > get

  • 10 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 11 way

    way [weɪ]
    chemin ⇒ 1A (a)-(c) voie ⇒ 1A (a) route ⇒ 1A (a), 1A (c) direction ⇒ 1A (d) sens ⇒ 1A (d), 1A (e) parages ⇒ 1A (f) moyen ⇒ 1B (a) méthode ⇒ 1B (a) façon ⇒ 1B (b) manière ⇒ 1B (b), 1B (c) coutume ⇒ 1B (c) habitude ⇒ 1B (c) égard ⇒ 1B (f) rapport ⇒ 1B (f)
    1 noun
    A.
    (a) (thoroughfare, path) chemin m, voie f; (for cars) rue f, route f;
    ∎ we took the way through the woods nous avons pris le chemin qui traverse le bois;
    ∎ they're building a way across the desert ils ouvrent une route à travers le désert;
    ∎ they live across or over the way from the school ils habitent en face de l'école;
    ∎ the house/the people over or across the way la maison/les gens d'en face;
    ∎ pedestrian way voie f ou rue f piétonne;
    ∎ private/public way voie f privée/publique;
    ∎ Religion the Way of the Cross le chemin de Croix
    ∎ this is the way to the library la bibliothèque est par là;
    ∎ could you tell me the way to the library? pouvez-vous me dire comment aller à la bibliothèque?;
    ∎ what's the shortest or quickest way to town? quel est le chemin le plus court pour aller en ville?;
    ∎ that's the way to ruin c'est le chemin de la ruine;
    ∎ we took the long way (round) nous avons pris le chemin le plus long;
    ∎ which way does this bus go? par où passe ce bus?;
    ∎ I had to ask the or my way il a fallu que je demande mon chemin;
    ∎ she knows the way to school elle connaît le chemin de l'école;
    ∎ to know one's way about a place connaître un endroit;
    ∎ you'll soon find your way about tu trouveras bientôt ton chemin tout seul;
    ∎ they went the wrong way ils se sont trompés de chemin, ils ont pris le mauvais chemin;
    ∎ to lose one's way s'égarer, perdre son chemin; figurative s'égarer, se fourvoyer;
    ∎ to know one's way around savoir s'orienter; figurative savoir se débrouiller;
    ∎ the way to a man's heart is through his stomach = pour conquérir le cœur d'un homme, il faut lui faire de bons petits plats
    ∎ the way back le chemin ou la route du retour;
    ∎ I got lost on the way back home je me suis perdu sur le chemin du retour;
    ∎ he couldn't find the way back home il n'a pas trouvé le chemin pour rentrer (à la maison);
    ∎ on our way back we stopped for dinner au retour ou sur le chemin du retour, nous nous sommes arrêtés pour dîner;
    ∎ she showed us the easiest way down/up elle nous a montré le chemin le plus facile pour descendre/monter;
    ∎ the way up is difficult but the way down will be easier la montée est difficile mais la descente sera plus facile;
    ∎ do you know the way down/up? savez-vous par où on descend/on monte?;
    ∎ the way in l'entrée f;
    ∎ the way out la sortie;
    ∎ we looked for a way in/out nous cherchions un moyen d'entrer/de sortir;
    ∎ I took the back way out je suis sorti par derrière;
    ∎ can you find your way out? vous connaissez le chemin pour sortir?;
    ∎ I can find my own way out je trouverai mon chemin;
    ∎ way in (sign) entrée;
    ∎ way out (sign) sortie;
    ∎ figurative miniskirts are on the way back in la minijupe est de retour;
    ∎ miniskirts are on the way out la minijupe n'est plus tellement à la mode;
    ∎ the director is on the way out le directeur ne sera plus là très longtemps;
    ∎ they found a way out of the deadlock ils ont trouvé une solution pour sortir de l'impasse;
    ∎ is there no way out of this nightmare? n'y a-t-il pas moyen de mettre fin à ce cauchemar?;
    ∎ their decision left her no way out leur décision l'a mise dans une impasse;
    ∎ he left himself a way out il s'est ménagé une porte de sortie
    (d) (direction) direction f, sens m;
    ∎ come this way venez par ici;
    ∎ he went that way il est allé par là;
    ∎ is this the way? c'est par ici?;
    ∎ this way to the chapel (sign) vers la chapelle;
    ∎ this way and that de-ci de-là, par-ci par-là;
    ∎ look this way regarde par ici;
    ∎ I never looked their way je n'ai jamais regardé dans leur direction;
    ∎ to look the other way détourner les yeux; figurative fermer les yeux;
    ∎ he didn't know which way to look (embarrassed) il ne savait plus où se mettre;
    ∎ which way is the library from here? par où faut-il passer pour aller à la bibliothèque?;
    ∎ which way did you come? par où êtes-vous venu?;
    ∎ which way did she go? par où est-elle passée?;
    ∎ which way is the wind blowing? d'où vient le vent?;
    ∎ figurative I could tell which way the wind was blowing je voyais très bien ce qui allait se passer;
    ∎ which way does the tap turn? dans quel sens faut-il tourner le robinet?;
    ∎ which way do I go from here? où est-ce que je vais maintenant?; figurative qu'est-ce que je fais maintenant?;
    ∎ get in, I'm going your way montez, je vais dans la même direction que vous;
    ∎ they set off, each going his own way ils sont partis chacun de leur côté;
    ∎ to go one's own way (follow own wishes) faire à sa guise; (differ from others) faire bande à part, suivre son chemin;
    ∎ we each went our separate ways (on road) nous sommes partis chacun de notre côté; (in life) chacun de nous a suivi son propre chemin;
    ∎ he went the wrong way il a pris la mauvaise direction; (down one-way street) il a pris la rue en sens interdit;
    ∎ to come one's way se présenter;
    ∎ any job that comes my way n'importe quel travail qui se présente;
    ∎ if ever the opportunity comes your way si jamais l'occasion se présente;
    ∎ familiar everything's going my way tout marche comme je veux en ce moment;
    ∎ the vote went our way le vote nous a été favorable;
    ∎ the vote couldn't have gone any other way les résultats du vote étaient donnés d'avance;
    ∎ to go one's own way n'en faire qu'à sa tête, vivre à sa guise;
    ∎ to go the way of all flesh or of all things mourir
    (e) (side) sens m;
    ∎ stand the box the other way up posez le carton dans l'autre sens;
    ∎ hold the picture the right way up tenez le tableau dans le bon sens;
    ∎ is it the right way round? est-ce qu'il est à l'endroit?;
    ∎ it's the wrong way up c'est dans le mauvais sens;
    ∎ it's the wrong way round c'est dans le mauvais sens;
    ∎ the curtains are the wrong way round les rideaux sont à l'envers ou dans le mauvais sens;
    ∎ your sweater is the right/wrong way out votre pull est à l'endroit/à l'envers;
    ∎ try it the other way round essayez dans l'autre sens;
    ∎ cats hate having their fur brushed the wrong way les chats détestent qu'on les caresse à rebrousse-poil;
    ∎ SHE insulted him? you've got it the wrong way round elle, elle l'a insulté? mais c'est le contraire;
    ∎ he invited her tonight, last time it was the other way round ce soir c'est lui qui l'a invitée, la dernière fois c'était l'inverse
    (f) (area, vicinity) parages mpl;
    ∎ call in when you're up our way passez nous voir quand vous êtes dans le coin ou dans les parages;
    ∎ I was out or over your way yesterday j'étais près de ou du côté de chez vous hier;
    ∎ the next time you're that way la prochaine fois que vous passerez par là;
    ∎ the blast came from Chicago way l'explosion venait du côté de Chicago;
    ∎ the village is rather out of the way le village est un peu isolé
    ∎ we came part of the way by foot nous avons fait une partie de la route à pied;
    ∎ to go part of the way with sb faire un bout de chemin avec qn;
    ∎ they were one-third of the way through their trip ils avaient fait un tiers de leur voyage;
    ∎ we've come most of the way nous avons fait la plus grande partie du chemin;
    ∎ he talked the entire or whole way il a parlé pendant tout le trajet;
    ∎ he can swim quite a way il peut nager assez longtemps;
    ∎ a long way off or away loin;
    ∎ a little or short way off pas très loin, à courte distance;
    ∎ Susan sat a little way off Susan était assise un peu plus loin;
    ∎ I saw him from a long way off je l'ai aperçu de loin;
    ∎ it's a long way to Berlin Berlin est loin;
    ∎ it's a long way from Paris to Berlin la route est longue de Paris à Berlin;
    ∎ we're a long way from home nous sommes loin de chez nous;
    ∎ we've come a long way (from far away) nous venons de loin; (made progress) nous avons fait du chemin;
    ∎ we've a long way to go (far to travel) il nous reste beaucoup de route à faire; (a lot to do) nous avons encore beaucoup à faire; (a lot to collect, pay) nous sommes encore loin du compte;
    ∎ he has a long way to go to be ready for the exam il est loin d'être prêt pour l'examen
    ∎ it's a long way to Christmas Noël est encore loin;
    ∎ you have to go back a long way il faut remonter loin;
    ∎ figurative I'm a long way from trusting him je suis loin de lui faire confiance;
    ∎ you're a long way off or out (in guessing) vous n'y êtes pas du tout;
    ∎ that's a long way from what we thought ce n'est pas du tout ce qu'on croyait;
    ∎ she'll go a long way elle ira loin;
    ∎ the scholarship will go a long way towards helping with expenses la bourse va beaucoup aider à faire face aux dépenses;
    ∎ a little goodwill goes a long way un peu de bonne volonté facilite bien les choses;
    ∎ you can make a little meat go a long way by doing this utilisez au mieux un petit morceau de viande en faisant ceci;
    ∎ she makes her money go a long way elle sait ménager son argent;
    ∎ a little bit goes a long way il en faut très peu;
    ∎ humorous a little of him goes a long way il est sympa, mais à petites doses
    (i) (space in front of person, object)
    ∎ you're in the way tu gênes le passage; figurative tu gênes, tu me/nous/ etc déranges;
    ∎ a tree was in the way un arbre bloquait ou barrait le passage;
    ∎ a car was in his way une voiture lui barrait le passage ou l'empêchait de passer;
    ∎ I can't see, the cat is in the way je ne vois pas, le chat me gêne;
    ∎ is the lamp in your way? la lampe vous gêne-t-elle?;
    ∎ put the suitcases under the bed out of the way rangez les valises sous le lit pour qu'elles ne gênent pas;
    ∎ to get out of the way s'écarter (du chemin);
    ∎ we got out of his way nous l'avons laissé passer;
    ∎ out of my way! pousse-toi!, laisse-moi passer!;
    ∎ the cars got out of the ambulance's way les voitures ont laissé passer l'ambulance;
    ∎ to get sb out of the way se débarrasser de qn, écarter ou éloigner qn;
    ∎ to get sth out of the way enlever ou pousser qch;
    ∎ figurative let's get the subject of holidays out of the way first réglons d'abord la question des vacances;
    ∎ keep out of the way! ne reste pas là!;
    ∎ make way! écartez-vous!;
    ∎ make way for the parade! laissez passer le défilé!;
    ∎ make way for the President! faites place au Président!;
    ∎ to get in one another's way se gêner (les uns les autres);
    ∎ figurative her social life got in the way of her studies ses sorties l'empêchaient d'étudier;
    ∎ I don't want to get in the way of your happiness je ne veux pas entraver votre bonheur;
    ∎ I kept out of the boss's way j'ai évité le patron;
    ∎ familiar he wants his boss out of the way il veut se débarrasser de son patron□ ;
    ∎ familiar once the meeting is out of the way dès que nous serons débarrassés de la réunion;
    ∎ he is retiring to make way for a younger man il prend sa retraite pour céder la place à un plus jeune;
    ∎ they tore down the slums to make way for blocks of flats ils ont démoli les taudis pour pouvoir construire des immeubles;
    ∎ to clear or prepare the way for sth préparer la voie à qch;
    ∎ to put difficulties in sb's way créer des difficultés à qn;
    ∎ couldn't you see your way (clear) to doing it? ne trouveriez-vous pas moyen de le faire?
    ∎ the acid ate its way through the metal l'acide est passé à travers le métal;
    ∎ I fought or pushed my way through the crowd je me suis frayé un chemin à travers la foule;
    ∎ we made our way towards the train nous nous sommes dirigés vers le train;
    ∎ I made my way back to my seat je suis retourné à ma place;
    ∎ they made their way across the desert ils ont traversé le désert;
    ∎ they made their way down/up the hill ils ont descendu/monté la colline;
    ∎ she made her way up through the hierarchy elle a gravi les échelons de la hiérarchie un par un;
    ∎ she had to make her own way in the world elle a dû faire son chemin toute seule;
    ∎ she talked her way out of it elle s'en est sortie avec de belles paroles;
    ∎ he worked or made his way through the pile of newspapers il a lu les journaux un par un;
    ∎ I worked my way through college j'ai travaillé pour payer mes études;
    ∎ however did it find its way into print? comment en est-on venu à l'imprimer?
    B.
    (a) (means, method) moyen m, méthode f;
    ∎ in what way can I help you? comment ou en quoi puis-je vous être utile?;
    ∎ there are several ways to go or of going about it il y a plusieurs façons ou plusieurs moyens de s'y prendre;
    ∎ I do it this way voilà comment je fais;
    ∎ in one way or another d'une façon ou d'une autre;
    ∎ they thought they would win that way ils pensaient pouvoir gagner comme ça;
    ∎ he's going to handle it his way il va faire ça à sa façon;
    ∎ she has her own way of cooking fish elle a sa façon à elle de cuisiner le poisson;
    ∎ the right/wrong way to do it la bonne/mauvaise façon de le faire;
    ∎ you're doing it the right/wrong way c'est comme ça/ce n'est pas comme ça qu'il faut (le) faire;
    ∎ do it the usual way faites comme d'habitude;
    ∎ there's no way or I can't see any way we'll finish on time nous ne finirons jamais ou nous n'avons aucune chance de finir à temps;
    ∎ Politics ways and means financement m;
    ∎ there are ways and means il y a des moyens;
    ∎ to find a way of doing sth trouver (le) moyen de faire qch;
    ∎ humorous love will find a way l'amour finit toujours par triompher;
    ∎ that's the way to do it! c'est comme ça qu'il faut faire!, voilà comment il faut faire!;
    ∎ American familiar well done! that's the way (to go)! bravo! c'est bien!□ ;
    ∎ what a way to go! (manner of dying) quelle belle mort!; (congratulations) bravo!
    (b) (particular manner, fashion) façon f, manière f;
    ∎ in this way de cette façon;
    ∎ in a friendly way gentiment;
    ∎ he spoke in a general way about the economy il a parlé de l'économie d'une façon générale;
    ∎ she doesn't like the way he is dressed elle n'aime pas la façon dont il est habillé;
    ∎ he doesn't speak the way his family does il ne parle pas comme sa famille;
    ∎ they see things in the same way ils voient les choses de la même façon;
    ∎ in their own (small) way they fight racism à leur façon ou dans la limite de leurs moyens, ils luttent contre le racisme;
    ∎ in the same way, we note that… de même, on notera que…;
    ∎ that's one way to look at it or of looking at it c'est une façon ou manière de voir les choses;
    ∎ my way of looking at it mon point de vue sur la question;
    ∎ that's not my way (of doing things) ce n'est pas mon genre, ce n'est pas ma façon de faire;
    ∎ try to see it my way mettez-vous à ma place;
    ∎ way of speaking/writing façon de parler/d'écrire;
    ∎ to her way of thinking à son avis;
    ∎ the way she feels about him les sentiments qu'elle éprouve à son égard;
    ∎ I didn't think you would take it this way je ne pensais pas que vous le prendriez comme ça;
    ∎ if that's the way you feel about it! si c'est comme ça que vous le prenez!;
    ∎ the American way of life la manière de vivre des Américains, le mode de vie américain;
    ∎ being on the move is a way of life for the gypsy le voyage est un mode de vie pour les gitans;
    ∎ dieting has become a way of life with some people certaines personnes passent leur vie à faire des régimes;
    ∎ yearly strikes have become a way of life les grèves annuelles sont devenues une habitude
    (c) (custom) coutume f, usage m; (habitual manner of acting) manière f, habitude f;
    ∎ we soon got used to her ways nous nous sommes vite habitués à ses manières;
    ∎ I know his little ways je connais ses petites manies;
    ∎ the ways of God and men les voies de Dieu et de l'homme;
    ∎ he knows nothing of their ways il les connaît très mal, il ne les comprend pas du tout;
    ∎ she has a way of tossing her head when she laughs elle a une façon ou manière de rejeter la tête en arrière quand elle rit;
    ∎ they're happy in their own way ils sont heureux à leur manière;
    ∎ he's a genius in his way c'est un génie dans son genre;
    ∎ it's not my way to criticize ce n'est pas mon genre ou ce n'est pas dans mes habitudes de critiquer;
    ∎ he's not in a bad mood, it's just his way il n'est pas de mauvaise humeur, c'est sa façon d'être habituelle;
    ∎ she got into/out of the way of rising early elle a pris/perdu l'habitude de se lever tôt;
    ∎ you'll get into the way of it vous vous y ferez
    (d) (facility, knack)
    ∎ he has a way with children il sait (comment) s'y prendre ou il a le chic avec les enfants;
    ∎ she has a way with words elle a le chic pour s'exprimer;
    ∎ trouble has a way of showing up when least expected les ennuis ont le chic pour se manifester quand on ne s'y attend pas
    (e) (indicating a condition, state of affairs)
    ∎ let me tell you the way it was laisse-moi te raconter comment ça s'est passé;
    ∎ we can't invite him given the way things are on ne peut pas l'inviter étant donné la situation;
    ∎ we left the flat the way it was nous avons laissé l'appartement tel qu'il était ou comme il était;
    ∎ is he going to be staying here? - it looks that way est-ce qu'il va loger ici? - on dirait (bien);
    ∎ it's not the way it looks! ce n'est pas ce que vous pensez!;
    ∎ it's not the way it used to be ce n'est pas comme avant;
    ∎ that's the way things are c'est comme ça;
    ∎ that's the way of the world ainsi va le monde;
    ∎ business is good and we're trying to keep it that way les affaires vont bien et nous faisons en sorte que ça dure;
    ∎ the train is late - that's always the way le train est en retard - c'est toujours comme ça ou pareil;
    ∎ that's always the way with him il est toujours comme ça, c'est toujours comme ça avec lui;
    ∎ life goes on (in) the same old way la vie va son train ou suit son cours;
    ∎ I don't like the way things are going je n'aime pas la tournure que prennent les choses;
    ∎ we'll never finish the way things are going au train où vont les choses, on n'aura jamais fini;
    ∎ to be in a bad way être en mauvais état;
    ∎ he's in a bad way il est dans un triste état;
    ∎ their business is in a bad/good way leurs affaires marchent mal/bien;
    ∎ she's in a fair way to succeed/to becoming president elle est bien partie pour réussir/pour devenir président
    (f) (respect, detail) égard m, rapport m;
    ∎ in what way? à quel égard?, sous quel rapport?;
    ∎ in this way à cet égard, sous ce rapport;
    ∎ it's important in many ways c'est important à bien des égards;
    ∎ in some ways à certains égards, par certains côtés;
    ∎ the job suits her in every way le poste lui convient à tous égards ou à tous points de vue;
    ∎ I'll help you in every possible way je ferai tout ce que je peux pour vous aider;
    ∎ she studied the problem in every way possible elle a examiné le problème sous tous les angles possibles;
    ∎ useful in more ways than one utile à plus d'un égard;
    ∎ these two books, each interesting in its (own) way ces deux livres, qui sont intéressants chacun dans son genre;
    ∎ he's clever that way sur ce plan-là, il est malin;
    ∎ in one way d'un certain point de vue;
    ∎ in a way you're right en un sens vous avez raison;
    ∎ I see what you mean in a way d'un certain point de vue ou d'une certaine manière, je vois ce que tu veux dire;
    ∎ I am in no way responsible je ne suis absolument pas ou aucunement responsable;
    ∎ this in no way changes your situation ceci ne change en rien votre situation;
    ∎ without wanting in any way to criticize sans vouloir le moins du monde critiquer
    ∎ to do things in a big way faire les choses en grand;
    ∎ she went into politics in a big way elle s'est lancée à fond dans la politique;
    ∎ they're in the arms business in a big way ils font de grosses affaires dans l'armement;
    ∎ they helped out in a big way ils ont beaucoup aidé;
    ∎ a grocer in a big/small way un gros/petit épicier;
    ∎ we live in a small way nous vivons modestement;
    ∎ the restaurant is doing quite well in a small way le restaurant marche bien à son échelle;
    ∎ it does change the situation in a small way ça change quand même un peu la situation
    (h) (usu pl) (part, share) we divided the money four ways nous avons partagé l'argent en quatre;
    ∎ the committee was split three ways le comité était divisé en trois groupes
    ∎ we're gathering/losing way nous prenons/perdons de la vitesse;
    ∎ the ship has way on le navire a de l'erre
    ∎ she always gets or has her (own) way elle arrive toujours à ses fins;
    ∎ he only wants it his way il n'en fait qu'à sa tête;
    ∎ I'm not going to let you have it all your (own) way je refuse de te céder en tout;
    ∎ if I had my way, he'd be in prison si cela ne tenait qu'à moi, il serait en prison;
    ∎ I refuse to go - have it your (own) way je refuse d'y aller - fais ce que ou comme tu veux;
    ∎ no, it was 1789 - have it your (own) way non, c'était en 1789 - soit;
    ∎ you can't have it both ways il faut choisir;
    ∎ I can stop too, it works both ways je peux m'arrêter aussi, ça marche dans les deux sens;
    ∎ there are no two ways about it il n'y a pas le choix;
    ∎ no two ways about it, he was rude il n'y a pas à dire, il a été grossier;
    ∎ humorous to have one's (wicked) way with sb coucher avec qn
    (a) (far → in space, time) très loin□ ;
    ∎ they live way over yonder ils habitent très loin par là-bas;
    ∎ way up the mountain très haut dans la montagne□ ;
    ∎ way down south là-bas dans le sud□ ;
    ∎ way back in the distance au loin derrière□ ;
    ∎ way back in the 1930s déjà dans les années 30□
    ∎ we know each other from way back, we go way back nous sommes amis depuis très longtemps□ ;
    ∎ you're way below the standard tu es bien en-dessous du niveau voulu□ ;
    ∎ he's way over forty il a largement dépassé la quarantaine□ ;
    ∎ she's way ahead of her class elle est très en avance sur sa classe□ ;
    ∎ he's way off or out in his guess il est loin d'avoir deviné□
    (c) (very) vachement;
    ∎ he is way crazy il est vachement atteint
    ∎ the baby cried all the way le bébé a pleuré tout le long du chemin;
    ∎ don't close the curtains all the way ne fermez pas complètement les rideaux;
    ∎ prices go all the way from 200 to 1,000 dollars les prix vont de 200 à 1000 dollars;
    ∎ figurative I'm with you all the way je vous suis ou je vous soutiens jusqu'au bout;
    ∎ familiar to go all the way (with sb) aller jusqu'au bout (avec qn)
    en route;
    ∎ I stopped several times along the way je me suis arrêté plusieurs fois en (cours de) route;
    ∎ figurative their project had some problems along the way leur projet a connu quelques problèmes en cours de route
    ∎ I prefer chess by a long way je préfère de loin ou de beaucoup les échecs;
    ∎ this is bigger by a long way c'est nettement ou beaucoup plus grand;
    ∎ he's not as capable as you are by a long way il est loin d'être aussi compétent que toi;
    ∎ is your project ready? - not by a long way! ton projet est-il prêt? - loin de là!
    (incidentally) à propos;
    ∎ by the way, where did he go? à propos, où est-il allé?;
    ∎ by the way, her brother sings much better soit dit en passant, son frère chante beaucoup mieux;
    ∎ I bring up this point by the way je signale ce point au passage ou en passant
    (incidental) secondaire;
    ∎ that point is quite by the way ce détail est tout à fait secondaire
    (a) (via) par, via;
    ∎ to go by way of Brussels passer par Bruxelles
    ∎ by way of illustration à titre d'exemple;
    ∎ she outlined the situation by way of introduction elle a présenté un aperçu de la situation en guise d'introduction;
    ∎ by way of introducing himself, he gave us his card en guise de présentation, il nous a donné sa carte;
    ∎ they receive money by way of grants ils reçoivent de l'argent sous forme de bourses
    (a) (in either case) dans les deux cas;
    ∎ either way I lose dans les deux cas, je suis perdant;
    ∎ shall we take the car or the bus? - it's fine by me or I don't mind either way tu préfères prendre la voiture ou le bus? - n'importe, ça m'est égal
    (b) (more or less) en plus ou en moins;
    ∎ a few days either way could make all the difference quelques jours en plus ou en moins pourraient tout changer
    ∎ the match could have gone either way le match était ouvert;
    de façon à ce que;
    ∎ she answered in such a way as to make me understand elle a répondu de façon à ce que je comprenne
    de telle façon ou manière que
    ∎ she receives little in the way of salary son salaire n'est pas bien gros;
    ∎ what is there in the way of food? qu'est-ce qu'il y a à manger?;
    ∎ do you need anything in the way of paper? avez-vous besoin de papier?;
    ∎ he doesn't have much in the way of brains il n'a rien dans la tête
    ∎ we met in the way of business nous nous sommes rencontrés dans le cadre du travail;
    ∎ they put me in the way of making some money ils m'ont indiqué un moyen de gagner de l'argent
    familiar pas question;
    ∎ will you do it for me? - no way! tu feras ça pour moi? - pas question!;
    ∎ no way am I going to tell him! (il n'est) pas question que je le lui dise!;
    ∎ there's no way that's Jeanne Moreau! tu rigoles?, ce n'est pas Jeanne Moreau!
    ∎ it's on my way c'est sur mon chemin;
    ∎ you pass it on your way to the office vous passez devant en allant au bureau;
    ∎ I'll catch up with you on the way je te rattraperai en chemin ou en route;
    ∎ to stop on the way s'arrêter en chemin;
    ∎ on the way to work en allant au bureau;
    ∎ I'm on my way! j'y vais!;
    ∎ she's on her way home elle rentre chez elle;
    ∎ he's on his way to Paris il est en route pour Paris;
    ∎ on his way to town he met his father en allant en ville, il a rencontré son père;
    ∎ we must be on our way il faut que nous y allions;
    ∎ to go one's way repartir, reprendre son chemin
    ∎ she has a baby on the way elle attend un bébé;
    ∎ her second book is on the way (being written) elle a presque fini d'écrire son deuxième livre; (being published) son deuxième livre est sur le point de paraître;
    ∎ she's on the way to success elle est sur le chemin de la réussite;
    ∎ the patient is on the way to recovery le malade est en voie de guérison;
    ∎ she's (well) on the way to becoming president elle est en bonne voie de devenir président;
    ∎ the new school is well on the way to being finished la nouvelle école est presque terminée
    en fin de compte;
    ∎ I've done quite well for myself one way and another je me suis plutôt bien débrouillé en fin de compte
    (a) (by whatever means) d'une façon ou d'une autre;
    ∎ one way or the other I'm going to get that job! d'une façon ou d'une autre, j'aurai ce boulot!
    ∎ I've nothing to say one way or the other je n'ai rien à dire, ni pour ni contre;
    ∎ a month one way or the other un mois de plus ou de moins
    ∎ to go out of one's way s'écarter de son chemin, dévier de sa route, faire un détour;
    ∎ I don't want to take you out of your way je ne veux pas vous faire faire un détour;
    ∎ figurative don't go out of your way for me! ne vous dérangez pas pour moi!;
    ∎ figurative she went out of her way to find me a job elle s'est donné du mal pour me trouver du travail
    ∎ to be under way (person, vehicle) être en route; figurative (meeting, talks) être en cours; (plans, project) être en train;
    ∎ the meeting was already under way la réunion avait déjà commencé;
    ∎ the project is well under way le projet est en bonne voie de réalisation;
    ∎ Nautical the ship is under way le navire est en route
    ∎ to get under way (person, train) se mettre en route, partir; (car) se mettre en route, démarrer; figurative (meeting, plans, talks) démarrer;
    ∎ they got the plans under way ils ont mis le projet en route;
    ∎ the captain got (the ship) under way le capitaine a appareillé;
    ∎ the ship got under way le navire a appareillé ou a levé l'ancre
    ►► American way station Railways petite gare f; figurative étape f;
    ∎ a way station on the road to success une étape sur la route du succès
    ✾ Play 'The Way of the World' Congreve 'Ainsi va le monde'
    ⓘ We have ways of making you talk Il s'agit de la formule prononcée par les membres de la Gestapo dans les films de guerre anglais des années 50 et 60 lorsqu'ils interrogent des prisonniers de guerre britanniques. Aujourd'hui, on emploie cette expression ("nous avons les moyens de vous faire parler") pour plaisanter en prenant l'accent allemand lorsqu'on veut obtenir une information de quelqu'un.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > way

  • 12 Psychology

       We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)
       The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)
       Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)
       It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)
       "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,
       The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)
       The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)
       According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)
       At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.
       In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.
       The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.
       Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)
       As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)
       The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology

  • 13 light

    I 1. noun
    1) Licht, das

    in a good light — bei gutem Licht

    while the light lasts — solange es [noch] hell ist

    light of day — (lit. or fig.) Tageslicht, das

    2) (electric lamp) Licht, das; (fitting) Lampe, die

    go out like a light — (fig.) sofort weg sein (ugs.)

    3) (signal to ships) Leuchtfeuer, das
    4) in sing. or pl. (signal to traffic) Ampel, die

    at the third set of lights — an der dritten Ampel

    5) (to ignite) Feuer, das

    put a/set light to something — etwas anzünden

    6)

    throw or shed light [up]on something — Licht in etwas (Akk.) bringen

    bring something to light — etwas ans [Tages]licht bringen; see also academic.ru/65424/see">see 1. 1)

    7) in pl. (beliefs, abilities)

    according to one's lights — nach bestem Wissen [und Gewissen]

    8) (aspect)

    in that light — aus dieser Sicht

    seen in this light — so gesehen

    in the light of — (taking into consideration) angesichts (+ Gen.)

    put somebody in a good/bad light — jemanden in einem guten/schlechten Licht erscheinen lassen

    2. adjective

    light-blue/-brown — etc. hellblau/-braun usw

    3. transitive verb,
    1) (ignite) anzünden
    2) (illuminate) erhellen

    light somebody's/one's way — jemandem/sich leuchten

    4. intransitive verb,
    lit or lighted [Feuer, Zigarette:] brennen, sich anzünden lassen
    Phrasal Verbs:
    II 1. adjective

    [for] light relief — [als] kleine Abwechslung

    2) (small in amount) gering
    3) (not important) leicht
    4) (nimble) leicht [Schritt, Bewegungen]

    have light fingers — (steal) gern lange Finger machen (ugs.)

    5) (easily borne) leicht [Krankheit, Strafe]; gering [Steuern]; mild [Strafe]
    6)

    with a light heart — (carefree) leichten od. frohen Herzens

    7)

    feel light in the head — (giddy) leicht benommen sein

    2. adverb

    travel light — mit wenig od. leichtem Gepäck reisen

    III intransitive verb,
    lit or lighted (come by chance)

    light [up]on something — auf etwas (Akk.) kommen od. stoßen

    * * *
    I 1. noun
    1) (the brightness given by the sun, a flame, lamps etc that makes things able to be seen: It was nearly dawn and the light was getting stronger; Sunlight streamed into the room.) das Licht
    2) (something which gives light (eg a lamp): Suddenly all the lights went out.) das Licht
    3) (something which can be used to set fire to something else; a flame: Have you got a light for my cigarette?) das Feuer
    4) (a way of viewing or regarding: He regarded her action in a favourable light.) das Licht
    2. adjective
    1) (having light; not dark: The studio was a large, light room.) licht, hell
    2) ((of a colour) pale; closer to white than black: light green.) hell
    3. [lit] verb
    1) (to give light to: The room was lit only by candles.) erleuchten
    2) (to (make something) catch fire: She lit the gas; I think this match is damp, because it won't light.) anzünden
    •
    - lighter
    - lighting
    - lighthouse
    - light-year
    - bring to light
    - come to light
    - in the light of
    - light up
    - see the light
    - set light to     II
    1) (easy to lift or carry; of little weight: I bought a light suitcase for plane journeys.) leicht
    2) (easy to bear, suffer or do: Next time the punishment will not be so light.) leicht
    3) ((of food) easy to digest: a light meal.) leicht
    4) (of less weight than it should be: The load of grain was several kilos light.) zu leicht
    5) (of little weight: Aluminium is a light metal.) leicht
    6) (lively or agile: She was very light on her feet.) leicht
    7) (cheerful; not serious: light music.) heiter
    8) (little in quantity; not intense, heavy, strong etc: light rain.) leicht
    9) ((of soil) containing a lot of sand.) locker
    •
    - light-fingered
    - light-headed
    - light-hearted
    - lightweight
    - get off lightly
    - make light of
    - travel light     III = light on - past tense, past participle lit [lit] - verb
    (to find by chance: While wandering round the town, we lit on a very cheap restaurant.)
    * * *
    light1
    [laɪt]
    I. n
    1. no pl (brightness) Licht nt
    is there enough \light? ist es hell genug?
    artificial/natural \light künstliches/natürliches Licht
    the \light of the sun das Sonnenlicht
    by the \light of the moon bei Mondschein
    by the \light of the candle im Schein der Kerze
    2. (light-giving thing) Licht nt, Lichtquelle f; (lamp) Lampe f
    as the \lights went... als die Lichter ausgingen,...
    to put [or switch] [or turn] the \light on/off das Licht einschalten/ausschalten [o fam anmachen/ausmachen
    3. no pl (fire) Feuer nt; (flame) [Kerzen]flamme f
    have you got a \light, please? Entschuldigung, haben Sie [vielleicht] Feuer?
    to catch \light Feuer fangen
    to set \light to sth BRIT etw anzünden
    to strike a \light ein Streichholz [o SCHWEIZ a. Zündholz] anzünden
    4. no pl (daylight) [Tages]licht nt
    at [the] first \light bei Tagesanbruch
    5. (for decoration)
    ▪ \lights pl:
    Christmas \lights Weihnachtsbeleuchtung f
    6. usu pl (traffic light) Ampel f
    7. (sparkle) Strahlen nt kein pl, Leuchten nt kein pl
    the light in his eyes das Strahlen in seinen Augen
    8. ( fig: perspective) Aspekt m, Perspektive f
    try to look at it in a new \light versuch' es doch mal aus einer anderen Perspektive zu sehen
    she started to see him in a new \light sie sah ihn plötzlich in einem ganz neuen Licht
    to show sth in a bad/good \light etw in einem schlechten/guten Licht erscheinen lassen
    to put sth in a favourable \light etw in ein günstiges Licht rücken
    9. no pl (enlightenment) Erleuchtung f
    I saw the \light! mir ging ein Licht auf! fam
    10. (spiritual illumination) Erleuchtung f
    ▪ \lights pl [geistige] Fähigkeiten
    to do sth according to one's \lights etw so gut machen, wie man es eben kann
    12. (bright part in picture/on object) Licht nt
    \light and shadow Licht und Schatten
    13. (window) Fenster nt; (window division) Oberlicht nt; (pane of glass) Fensterscheibe f
    14. ( fig: person) Leuchte f fam
    leading \light (best at something) großes Licht, Leuchte f fam; (leader) Nummer eins f fam
    a shining \light eine große Leuchte fam, ein großes Licht fam
    15. (beacon) Leuchtfeuer nt; (lighthouse) Leuchtturm m
    16.
    ▶ to bring sth to \light etw ans Licht bringen
    ▶ to cast [or shed] [or throw] \light on sth etw beleuchten fig, Licht in etw akk bringen
    ▶ to come to \light ans Licht kommen
    ▶ the \light at the end of the tunnel das Licht am Ende des Tunnels fig
    ▶ to hide one's \light under a bushel sein Licht unter den Scheffel stellen
    ▶ in the \light of sth [or AM usu in \light of sth] angesichts einer S. gen, im Lichte einer S. gen liter
    ▶ to be the \light of sb's life ( hum) die Sonne im Leben einer Person gen sein
    ▶ to be [or go] out like a \light ( fam: fall asleep) sofort weg sein fam; (faint) umkippen fam
    ▶ to see the \light of day (come into being) das Licht der Welt erblicken; (become known) ans Licht kommen
    II. adj
    1. (bright) hell
    it's slowly getting \light es wird allmählich hell
    summer is coming and the evenings are getting \lighter der Sommer kommt und es bleibt abends länger hell
    2. (pale) hell-; (stronger) blass-
    III. vt
    <lit or lighted, lit or lighted>
    ▪ to \light sth etw erhellen; stage, room etw beleuchten; ( fig)
    his investigations lit the way for many other scientists seine Forschungen waren wegweisend für viele andere Wissenschaftler
    2. (turn on)
    to \light an electric light das Licht einschalten [o fam anknipsen
    3. (guide with light)
    ▪ to \light sb jdm leuchten
    to \light a candle/match eine Kerze/ein Streichholz anzünden
    to \light a fire ein Feuer anzünden [o fam anmachen] [o SCHWEIZ a. anfeuern], Feuer machen
    to \light a cigarette/pipe sich dat eine Zigarette/Pfeife anzünden [o fam anstecken
    IV. vi
    <lit or lighted, lit or lighted>
    1. (burn) brennen
    2. ( fig: become animated) eyes, etc aufleuchten fig
    her face lit with pleasure sie strahlte vor Freude über das ganze Gesicht
    light2
    [laɪt]
    I. adj
    1. (not heavy) leicht
    to be as \light as a feather federleicht [o leicht wie eine Feder] sein
    2. (deficient in weight) zu leicht
    this sack of rice seems about 2 kilos \light ich habe den Eindruck, dieser Sack Reis wiegt 2 Kilo zu wenig
    to give sb \light weight jdm zu wenig abwiegen
    3. (not sturdily built) leicht
    \light clothes leichte Kleidung
    4. (for small loads) Klein-
    \light aircraft/lorry Kleinflugzeug nt/-lastwagen m
    \light railway Kleinbahn f
    5. MIL
    \light infantry leichte Infanterie
    6. (not fully loaded) aircraft/ship/vehicle nicht voll beladen
    7. (of food and drink) leicht; (low in fat) fettarm
    a \light diet eine fettarme Diät
    \light food leichtes Essen
    a \light meal eine leichte Mahlzeit
    \light pastry lockerer Teig
    \light wine leichter Wein
    8. (porous)
    \light soil lockeres Erdreich
    9. CHEM leicht
    \light isotope leichtes Isotop
    10. (low in intensity)
    the traffic was quite \light es war kaum Verkehr
    it's only \light rain es nieselt nur
    \light breeze leichte Brise
    11. (easily disturbed)
    \light sleep leichter Schlaf
    to be a \light sleeper einen leichten Schlaf haben
    12. (easily done) nachsichtig, mild
    \light sentence mildes Urteil
    \light housework leichte Hausarbeit
    13. (gentle) leicht; kiss zart; (soft) touch sanft
    to have a \light touch MUS einen weichen Anschlag haben
    14. (graceful)
    \light building elegantes Gebäude
    \light figure anmutige Gestalt
    15. (not bold)
    \light type eine schlanke Schrifttype
    16. (not serious) leicht attr
    \light entertainment leichte Unterhaltung
    \light opera Operette f
    \light reading Unterhaltungslektüre f
    \light tone Plauderton m
    17. (cheerful) frohgemut poet
    with a \light heart leichten Herzens
    18. ( old: unchaste) leicht
    a \light girl ein leichtes Mädchen veraltend
    19.
    ▶ to be a bit \light in one's loafers AM (pej!) etwas weibische Züge haben pej
    ▶ to be \light on one's feet leichtfüßig sein
    ▶ to make \light of sth etw bagatellisieren [o fam herunterspielen]
    ▶ to make \light work of sth mit etw dat spielend fertigwerden
    ▶ to be \light on sth es an etw dat fehlen lassen
    II. adv
    1. (with little luggage)
    to travel \light mit leichtem Gepäck reisen
    2. (with no severe consequences)
    to get off \light glimpflich [o fam mit einem blauen Auge] davonkommen
    * * *
    I [laɪt] vb: pret, ptp lit or lighted
    1. n
    1) (in general) Licht nt

    by the light of a candle/the fire — im Schein einer Kerze/des Feuers

    at first light —

    to cast or throw or shed light on sth (lit) — etw beleuchten; (fig also) Licht in etw (acc) bringen

    the moon cast its silvery light on... — der Mond beleuchtete... silbern or warf sein silbernes Licht auf (+acc)...

    to see sb/sth in a different light — jdn/etw in einem anderen Licht sehen

    it showed him in a different light —

    the theory, seen in the light of recent discoveries — die Theorie im Licht(e) der neuesten Entdeckungen betrachtet

    in the light of what you say — in Anbetracht dessen, was Sie sagen

    to come to light —

    to see the light (liter) (= be born) (= be made public) — das Licht der Welt erblicken (liter) veröffentlicht werden

    finally I saw the light (inf) — endlich ging mir ein Licht auf (inf); (morally) endlich wurden mir die Augen geöffnet

    to see the light of day (report) — veröffentlicht werden; (project) verwirklicht werden

    2) Licht nt; (= lamp) Lampe f; (= fluorescent light) Neonröhre f

    put out the lights before you go to bed — mach das Licht aus, bevor du ins Bett gehst

    the lights (of a car) —

    lights out for the boys was at 8 pm — um 20 Uhr mussten die Jungen das Licht ausmachen

    the lights are on but nobody's (at) home (fig inf) — er/sie ist geistig weggetreten (inf)

    3)

    (= flame) have you (got) a light? — haben Sie Feuer?

    to put a light to sth, to set light to sth — etw anzünden

    4) (ARCHIT) (Dach)fenster nt; (= skylight) Oberlicht nt
    5) (in eyes) Leuchten nt
    6)

    (= standards) according to his lights — nach bestem Wissen und Gewissen

    2. adj (+er)
    hell

    it's getting or growing light —

    3. vt
    1) (= illuminate) beleuchten; lamp, light anmachen

    to light the way for sb — jdm leuchten; (fig)

    2) (= ignite) anzünden; cigarette anstecken, anzünden; fire, candle anzünden, anmachen

    to light a fire under sb ( esp US fig ) — jdm Feuer unter dem Hintern machen (inf)

    4. vi
    (= begin to burn) brennen II
    1. adj (+er)
    leicht; taxes niedrig; punishment milde

    she has a very light touch on the piano — sie hat einen sehr weichen Anschlag

    to be a light eater — wenig essen, kein großer Esser sein

    light comedy — Lustspiel nt, Schwank m

    a light and cheerful approach to life — eine unbeschwerte, fröhliche Einstellung zum Leben

    you shouldn't make light of her problems — du solltest dich über ihre Probleme nicht lustig machen

    2. adv
    III sich niederlassen
    * * *
    light1 [laıt]
    A s
    1. Licht n, Helligkeit f:
    let there be light! BIBEL es werde Licht!;
    stand ( oder be) in sb’s light
    a) jemandem im Licht stehen,
    b) fig jemandem im Weg stehen;
    stand in one’s own light
    a) sich im Licht stehen,
    b) fig sich selbst im Weg stehen;
    get out of the light geh aus dem Licht!;
    he can see the light at the end of the tunnel fig er sieht Licht am Ende des Tunnels
    2. Licht n ( auch PHYS), Beleuchtung f:
    in subdued light bei gedämpftem Licht
    3. Licht n, Schein m:
    by the light of a candle beim Licht oder Schein einer Kerze, bei Kerzenschein
    4. a) Licht(quelle) n(f) (Sonne, Lampe, Kerze etc):
    hide one’s light under a bushel sein Licht unter den Scheffel stellen
    b) AUTO Scheinwerfer m: → flash B 1
    5. Br meist pl (Verkehrs) Ampel f:
    jump ( oder shoot) the lights bei Rot über die Kreuzung fahren, ein Rotlicht überfahren;
    6. SCHIFF
    a) Leuchtfeuer n
    b) Leuchtturm m
    7. (Sonnen-, Tages)Licht n: I must finish my work while the light lasts solang(e) es noch hell ist;
    a) das Licht der Welt erblicken, geboren werden,
    b) fig herauskommen, auf den Markt kommen ( → A 9, A 11);
    at first light bei Tagesanbruch;
    in the cold light of day ( oder dawn) fig bei Licht besehen oder betrachtet
    8. Tagesanbruch m:
    at light bei Tagesanbruch
    9. fig (Tages) Licht n:
    bring (come) to light ans Licht bringen (kommen);
    see the light (of day) bekannt oder veröffentlicht werden ( → A 7, A 11)
    10. fig Licht n, Aspekt m:
    in the light of Br, in light of US unter dem Aspekt (gen), in Anbetracht (gen), angesichts (gen);
    I have never looked on the matter in that light von dieser Seite habe ich die Angelegenheit noch nie gesehen;
    put sth in its true light etwas ins rechte Licht rücken;
    reveal sth in a different light etwas in einem anderen Licht erscheinen lassen;
    see sth in a different light etwas mit anderen Augen sehen;
    show sth in a bad light ein schlechtes Licht auf eine Sache werfen
    11. fig Licht n, Erleuchtung f ( auch REL):
    cast ( oder shed, throw) light on sth
    a) Licht auf eine Sache werfen,
    b) zur Lösung oder Aufklärung einer Sache beitragen;
    a) zur Einsicht kommen,
    b) REL erleuchtet werden ( → A 7, A 9);
    I saw the light mir ging ein Licht auf, mir gingen die Augen auf;
    by the light of nature mit den natürlichen Verstandeskräften
    12. pl Erkenntnisse pl, Informationen pl
    13. pl Wissen n, Verstand m, geistige Fähigkeiten pl:
    a) so gut er es eben versteht,
    b) nach seinen Grundsätzen oder Vorstellungen oder Maßstäben,
    c) für seine Verhältnisse
    14. MAL
    a) Licht n:
    b) Aufhellung f
    15. Glanz m, Leuchten n (der Augen):
    the light went out of her eyes der Glanz ihrer Augen erlosch
    16. Feuer n (zum Anzünden):
    have you got a light? haben Sie Feuer?;
    put a ( oder set) light to sth etwas anzünden oder in Brand stecken;
    strike a light ein Streichholz anzünden
    17. a) Fenster(scheibe) n(f)
    b) Dachfenster n
    18. fig Leuchte f, großes Licht (Person): → leading light 2
    19. auch light of one’s eyes poet Augenlicht n
    20. pl sl Gucker pl (Augen)
    B adj hell, licht (Farbe, Raum etc):
    light hair helles Haar;
    a) Hellrot n,
    b) hellrot
    C v/t prät und pperf lighted, lit [lıt]
    1. auch light up ein Feuer, eine Lampe anzünden:
    he lit a cigarette er zündete sich eine Zigarette an
    2. be-, erleuchten, erhellen:
    light up hell beleuchten
    3. meist light up jemandes Augen etc aufleuchten lassen
    4. jemandem leuchten
    5. be lit up umg angeheitert sein:
    D v/i
    1. auch light up sich entzünden
    a) sich erhellen, hell werden,
    b) fig aufleuchten (Augen etc)
    a) Licht machen,
    b) die Straßenbeleuchtung einschalten,
    c) AUTO die Scheinwerfer einschalten
    4. light up umg sich eine (Zigarette etc) anzünden
    light2 [laıt]
    A adj (adv → lightly)
    b) fig sorgenfrei; → purse A 1
    2. (spezifisch) leicht:
    light metal Leichtmetall n
    3. light coin US Münze f mit zu geringem Edelmetallgehalt
    5. leicht (nicht tief):
    6. leicht, Unterhaltungs…:
    light literature Unterhaltungsliteratur f;
    light music leichte Musik, Unterhaltungsmusik f;
    light opera komische Oper, Spieloper f;
    light reading Unterhaltungslektüre f, leichte Lektüre
    7. leicht (geringfügig):
    a light eater ein schwacher Esser;
    a light error ein kleiner Irrtum;
    light traffic geringer Verkehr;
    no light matter keine Kleinigkeit;
    a) etwas auf die leichte Schulter nehmen,
    b) etwas verharmlosen oder bagatellisieren
    8. leicht:
    a) leicht verdaulich:
    a light meal eine leichte Mahlzeit
    b) mit geringem Alkohol- oder Nikotingehalt (Wein, Zigaretten etc)
    9. locker (Erde, Schnee etc):
    light bread leichtes oder locker gebackenes Brot
    10. leicht, sanft (Berührung etc)
    11. flink:
    be light on one’s feet flink auf den Beinen sein
    12. graziös, anmutig:
    13. a) unbeschwert, sorglos, heiter, fröhlich:
    with a light heart leichten Herzens
    b) leichtfertig, -sinnig
    c) unbeständig, flatterhaft
    d) unmoralisch:
    a light girl ein leichtes Mädchen
    14. be light in the head (leicht) benommen sein
    15. SCHIFF, MIL leicht (Artillerie, Kreuzer etc):
    in light marching order mit leichtem Marschgepäck
    16. a) leicht beladen
    b) unbeladen, leer, ohne Ladung:
    a light engine eine allein fahrende Lokomotive
    17. TECH leicht (gebaut), für leichte Beanspruchung, Leicht…:
    light plane Leichtflugzeug n;
    light current ELEK Schwachstrom m
    18. PHON
    a) unbetont, schwach betont (Silbe, Vokal)
    b) schwach (Betonung)
    c) hell, vorn im Mund artikuliert (Laut)
    B adv travel light mit leichtem Gepäck reisen
    light3 [laıt] prät und pperf lighted, lit [lıt] v/i
    1. obs oder poet (ab)steigen (from, off von)
    2. obs oder poet fallen (on auf akk):
    3. obs oder poet sich niederlassen (on auf dat):
    4. fig obs oder poet (zufällig) stoßen (on auf akk)
    5. fig obs oder poet fallen (on auf akk):
    6. light into sb umg über jemanden herfallen (auch mit Worten)
    7. light out umg verduften umg, verschwinden
    * * *
    I 1. noun
    1) Licht, das

    while the light lasts — solange es [noch] hell ist

    light of day — (lit. or fig.) Tageslicht, das

    2) (electric lamp) Licht, das; (fitting) Lampe, die

    go out like a light — (fig.) sofort weg sein (ugs.)

    3) (signal to ships) Leuchtfeuer, das
    4) in sing. or pl. (signal to traffic) Ampel, die
    5) (to ignite) Feuer, das

    put a/set light to something — etwas anzünden

    6)

    throw or shed light [up]on something — Licht in etwas (Akk.) bringen

    bring something to light — etwas ans [Tages]licht bringen; see also see 1. 1)

    7) in pl. (beliefs, abilities)

    according to one's lights — nach bestem Wissen [und Gewissen]

    put somebody in a good/bad light — jemanden in einem guten/schlechten Licht erscheinen lassen

    2. adjective

    light-blue/-brown — etc. hellblau/-braun usw

    3. transitive verb,
    1) (ignite) anzünden
    2) (illuminate) erhellen

    light somebody's/one's way — jemandem/sich leuchten

    4. intransitive verb,
    lit or lighted [Feuer, Zigarette:] brennen, sich anzünden lassen
    Phrasal Verbs:
    II 1. adjective

    [for] light relief — [als] kleine Abwechslung

    3) (not important) leicht
    4) (nimble) leicht [Schritt, Bewegungen]

    have light fingers — (steal) gern lange Finger machen (ugs.)

    5) (easily borne) leicht [Krankheit, Strafe]; gering [Steuern]; mild [Strafe]
    6)

    with a light heart — (carefree) leichten od. frohen Herzens

    7)

    feel light in the head — (giddy) leicht benommen sein

    2. adverb

    travel light — mit wenig od. leichtem Gepäck reisen

    III intransitive verb,
    lit or lighted (come by chance)

    light [up]on something — auf etwas (Akk.) kommen od. stoßen

    * * *
    adj.
    blond adj.
    erhellen adj.
    hell adj.
    leicht adj. n.
    Licht -er n.
    Lichtschein m.
    Schein -e m. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: lit)
    = anzünden v.
    beleuchten v.
    erleuchten v.

    English-german dictionary > light

  • 14 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 15 Knowledge

       It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)
       It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.
       But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)
       Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).
       Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])
       Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....
       This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)
       Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)
       Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)
       "Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.
       Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge

  • 16 little

    'litl 1. adjective
    1) (small in size: He is only a little boy; when she was little (= a child).) liten
    2) (small in amount; not much: He has little knowledge of the difficulties involved.) lite, litt
    3) (not important: I did not expect her to make a fuss about such a little thing.) lite(n)
    2. pronoun
    ((only) a small amount: He knows little of the real world.) lite, litt
    3. adverb
    1) (not much: I go out little nowadays.) bare litt, ikke mye
    2) (only to a small degree: a little-known fact.) lite-
    3) (not at all: He little knows how ill he is.) ikke i det hele tatt
    •
    - little by little
    - make little of
    kort
    --------
    lite
    --------
    liten
    --------
    litt
    I
    adj. ( less eller lesser - least) \/ˈlɪtl\/
    1) liten, små (flertall)
    2) lille-, små- (flertall)
    3) liten, ung
    4) småskåren, smålig, lumpen
    5) kort stund, kort varighet
    the little black dress (hverdagslig, om anvendelig svart kjole) den lille sorte
    little farmer småbruker
    Little Italy det italienske kvarteret (i storby)
    the little man vanlige mennesker, den lille mann
    little people (alver, nisser e.l.) småfolk ( folk i dårlige kår) småfolk, fattigfolk, småkarer småbarn, småunger
    dverger, små mennesker
    a little thing en liten sak, en småting
    en liten pjokk, en liten unge
    little things please little minds ( ordspråk) små barn, små gleder
    II
    adv. ( less - least) \/ˈlɪtl\/
    1) lite, ikke mye, ikke stort, knapt, i liten grad
    2) sjelden, ikke ofte
    III
    determ. ( less eller lesser - least) \/ˈlɪtl\/
    lite, ikke mye, knapt
    every little helps\/counts hvert minste bidrag mottas med takk, alle monner drar, mange bekker små gjør en stor å
    in little ( gammeldags) i liten skala, i miniatyr
    a little lite, en smule, en tanke, lite grann
    litt av hvert \/ alt mulig
    ( om tid) litt, et øyeblikk, en liten stund
    • wait a little!
    ( om strekning) en liten bit, en tur
    the little det lille, det ubetydelige
    little better ikke stort bedre
    little by little litt etter litt, gradvis, etter hvert
    little or nothing lite eller ingenting, så godt som ingenting
    little short of nesten (det samme som)
    a little too much ( vanligvis om alkohol) litt for mye, nok til å bli full\/miste kontrollen
    make little of bagatellisere, ikke gjøre stort vesen ut av, ikke bry seg stort om, slå bort forstå lite av
    no little ikke så lite, temmelig mye
    not a little ikke så lite, ganske mye, ganske, temmelig
    only a little litt, knapt, minimalt

    English-Norwegian dictionary > little

  • 17 take

    take [teɪk]
    prendre ⇒ 1A (a), 1A (b), 1B (a), 1B (c)-(e), 1C (b), 1D (a), 1D (b), 1E (a), 1F (a), 1G (a), 1G (b), 1G (d), 1H (a), 1H (b), 1I (a), 1I (c), 1I (d), 1I (f), 1I (g), 2 (a)-(c) porter ⇒ 1B (a) mener ⇒ 1B (b) conduire ⇒ 1C (a) recevoir ⇒ 1D (c) croire ⇒ 1F (b) supporter ⇒ 1F (d) supposer ⇒ 1G (c) contenir ⇒ 1I (e) passer ⇒ 1I (i)
    (pt took [tʊk], pp taken ['teɪkən])
    A.
    (a) (get hold of) prendre; (seize) prendre, saisir;
    ∎ let me take your coat donnez-moi votre manteau;
    ∎ she took the book from him elle lui a pris le livre;
    ∎ to take sb's hand prendre qn par la main;
    ∎ she took his arm elle lui a pris le bras;
    ∎ Peter took her in his arms Peter l'a prise dans ses bras;
    ∎ the wolf took its prey by the throat le loup a saisi sa proie à la gorge
    (b) (get control of, capture → person) prendre, capturer; (→ fish, game) prendre, attraper; Military prendre, s'emparer de;
    ∎ they took the town that night ils prirent ou s'emparèrent de la ville cette nuit-là;
    ∎ to take sb prisoner faire qn prisonnier;
    ∎ to take sb alive prendre ou capturer qn vivant;
    ∎ I took his queen with my rook j'ai pris sa reine avec ma tour;
    ∎ to take control of a situation prendre une situation en main;
    ∎ we took our courage in both hands nous avons pris notre courage à deux mains;
    ∎ you're taking your life in your hands doing that c'est ta vie que tu risques en faisant cela;
    ∎ to take the lead in sth (in competition) prendre la tête de qch; (set example) être le premier à faire qch
    B.
    (a) (carry from one place to another) porter, apporter; (carry along, have in one's possession) prendre, emporter;
    ∎ she took her mother a cup of tea elle a apporté une tasse de thé à sa mère;
    ∎ he took the map with him il a emporté la carte;
    ∎ she took some towels up(stairs)/down(stairs) elle a monté/descendu des serviettes;
    ∎ don't forget to take your camera n'oubliez pas (de prendre) votre appareil photo;
    ∎ figurative the committee wanted to take the matter further le comité voulait mener l'affaire plus loin;
    ∎ the devil take it! que le diable l'emporte!;
    ∎ you can't take it with you (money when you die) tu ne l'emporteras pas avec toi dans la tombe
    (b) (person → lead) mener, emmener; (→ accompany) accompagner;
    ∎ her father takes her to school son père l'emmène à l'école;
    ∎ could you take me home? pourriez-vous me ramener ou me raccompagner?;
    ∎ to take sb across the road faire traverser la rue à qn;
    ∎ may I take you to dinner? puis-je vous inviter à dîner ou vous emmener dîner?;
    ∎ he offered to take them to work in the car il leur a proposé de les emmener au bureau en voiture ou de les conduire au bureau;
    ∎ to take oneself to bed aller se coucher;
    ∎ please take me with you emmène-moi, s'il te plaît;
    ∎ humorous I can't take you anywhere tu n'es pas sortable;
    ∎ the estate agent took them over the house l'agent immobilier leur a fait visiter la maison;
    ∎ he took her round the museum il lui a fait visiter le musée;
    ∎ she used to take me along to meetings (avant,) elle m'emmenait aux réunions;
    ∎ this road will take you to the station cette route vous mènera ou vous conduira à la gare;
    ∎ I don't want to take you out of your way je ne veux pas vous faire faire un détour;
    ∎ her job took her all over Africa son travail l'a fait voyager dans toute l'Afrique;
    ∎ that's what first took me to Portugal c'est ce qui m'a amené au Portugal;
    ∎ whatever took him there? qu'allait-il faire là-bas?;
    ∎ the record took her to number one in the charts le disque lui a permis d'être première au hit-parade
    ∎ she took a handkerchief from her pocket elle a sorti un mouchoir de sa poche;
    ∎ I took a chocolate from the box j'ai pris un chocolat dans la boîte;
    ∎ take a book from the shelf prenez un livre sur l'étagère;
    ∎ take your feet off the table enlève tes pieds de la table;
    ∎ he took the saucepan off the heat il a ôté ou retiré la casserole du feu
    (d) (appropriate, steal) prendre, voler;
    ∎ to take sth from sb prendre qch à qn;
    ∎ someone's taken my wallet on a pris mon portefeuille;
    ∎ his article is taken directly from my book le texte de son article est tiré directement de mon livre
    (e) (draw, derive) prendre, tirer;
    ∎ a passage taken from a book un passage extrait d'un livre;
    ∎ a phrase taken from Latin une expression empruntée au latin;
    ∎ the title is taken from the Bible le titre vient de la Bible;
    ∎ to take a print from a negative tirer une épreuve d'un négatif
    C.
    (a) (of bus, car, train etc) conduire, transporter;
    ∎ the ambulance took him to hospital l'ambulance l'a transporté à l'hôpital;
    ∎ this bus will take you to the theatre ce bus vous conduira au théâtre;
    ∎ will this train take me to Cambridge? est-ce que ce train va à ou passe par Cambridge?
    (b) (bus, car, plane, train) prendre; (road) prendre, suivre;
    ∎ American take a right prenez à droite
    D.
    (a) (have → attitude, bath, holiday) prendre; (make → nap, trip, walk) faire; (→ decision) prendre;
    ∎ she took a quick look at him elle a jeté un rapide coup d'œil sur lui;
    ∎ American familiar let's take five soufflons cinq minutes□ ;
    ∎ he took a flying leap il a bondi;
    ∎ American vulgar to take a shit or a dump chier;
    ∎ archaic or literary to take a wife prendre femme
    ∎ to take a photo or a picture prendre une photo;
    ∎ she took his picture or a picture of him elle l'a pris en photo;
    ∎ we had our picture taken nous nous sommes fait photographier ou prendre en photo;
    ∎ familiar he takes a good photo (is photogenic) il est photogénique□
    (c) (receive, get) recevoir; (earn, win → prize) remporter, obtenir; (→ degree, diploma) obtenir, avoir;
    ∎ he took the blow on his arm il a pris le coup sur le bras;
    ∎ you can take the call in my office vous pouvez prendre l'appel dans mon bureau;
    ∎ the bookstore takes about $3,000 a day la librairie fait à peu près 3000 dollars (de recette) par jour;
    ∎ how much does he take home a month? quel est son salaire mensuel net?;
    ∎ Cards we took all the tricks nous avons fait toutes les levées;
    ∎ their team took the match leur équipe a gagné ou remporté le match
    E.
    (a) (assume, undertake) prendre;
    ∎ to take the blame for sth prendre la responsabilité de qch;
    ∎ you'll have to take the consequences c'est vous qui en subirez les conséquences;
    ∎ she takes all the credit for our success elle s'attribue tout le mérite de notre réussite;
    ∎ I take responsibility for their safety je me charge de leur sécurité;
    ∎ to take the part of Hamlet jouer (le rôle d')Hamlet
    ∎ he took my side in the argument il a pris parti pour moi dans la dispute;
    ∎ the boy took an oath or a vow to avenge his family le garçon a fait serment ou a juré de venger sa famille;
    ∎ American to take the Fifth (Amendment) invoquer le Cinquième Amendement (pour refuser de répondre)
    ∎ may I take the liberty of inviting you to dinner? puis-je me permettre de vous inviter à dîner?;
    ∎ he took the opportunity to thank them or of thanking them il a profité de l'occasion pour les remercier
    F.
    (a) (accept → job, gift, payment) prendre, accepter; (→ cheque, bet) accepter;
    ∎ the doctor only takes private patients le docteur ne prend pas les patients du service public;
    ∎ the owner won't take less than $100 for it le propriétaire en veut au moins 100 dollars;
    ∎ does this machine take pound coins? cette machine accepte-t-elle les pièces d'une livre?;
    ∎ to take a bribe se laisser acheter ou corrompre;
    ∎ you'll have to take me as I am il faut me prendre comme je suis;
    ∎ take things as they come prenez les choses comme elles viennent;
    ∎ I won't take "no" for an answer pas question de refuser;
    ∎ it's my last offer, (you can) take it or leave it c'est ma dernière offre, c'est à prendre ou à laisser;
    ∎ I'll take it from here je prends la suite;
    ∎ I'll take it from there je verrai à ce moment-là
    ∎ to take sb's advice suivre les conseils de qn;
    ∎ take it from me, he's a crook croyez-moi, c'est un escroc
    ∎ let's take things one at a time prenons les choses une par une;
    ∎ the mayor took their questions calmly le maire a entendu leurs questions avec calme;
    ∎ how did she take the questioning? comment a-t-elle réagi à ou pris l'interrogatoire?;
    ∎ they took the news well or in their stride ils ont plutôt bien pris la nouvelle;
    ∎ to take sth badly prendre mal qch;
    ∎ familiar to take things easy or it easy se la couler douce;
    ∎ familiar take it easy! (don't get angry) du calme!□
    (d) (bear, endure → pain, heat, pressure, criticism) supporter; (→ damage, loss) subir;
    ∎ don't take any nonsense! ne te laisse pas faire!;
    ∎ your father won't take any nonsense ton père ne plaisante pas avec ce genre de choses;
    ∎ she can take it elle tiendra le coup;
    ∎ esp American I'm not taking any! je ne marche pas!;
    ∎ we couldn't take any more on n'en pouvait plus;
    ∎ I can't take much more of this je commence à en avoir assez, je ne vais pas supporter cela bien longtemps;
    ∎ I find his constant sarcasm rather hard to take je trouve ses sarcasmes perpétuels difficiles à supporter;
    ∎ don't expect me to take this lying down ne comptez pas sur moi pour accepter ça sans rien dire;
    ∎ those shoes have taken a lot of punishment ces chaussures en ont vu de toutes les couleurs;
    ∎ to take heavy loads (crane, engine etc) supporter de lourdes charges;
    ∎ it won't take your weight ça ne supportera pas ton poids
    (e) (experience, feel)
    ∎ to take fright prendre peur;
    ∎ to take an interest in sb/sth s'intéresser à qn/qch;
    ∎ don't take offence ne vous vexez pas, ne vous offensez pas;
    ∎ no offence taken il n'y a pas de mal;
    ∎ we take pleasure in travelling nous prenons plaisir à voyager;
    ∎ she takes pride in her work elle est fière de ce qu'elle fait;
    ∎ to take pride in one's appearance prendre soin de sa personne
    G.
    (a) (consider, look at) prendre, considérer;
    ∎ take Einstein (for example) prenons (l'exemple d')Einstein;
    ∎ take the case of Colombia prenons le cas de la Colombie;
    ∎ taking everything into consideration tout bien considéré;
    ∎ to take sb/sth seriously prendre qn/qch au sérieux
    ∎ do you take me for an idiot? vous me prenez pour un idiot?;
    ∎ what do you take me for? pour qui me prenez-vous?;
    ∎ I took you for an Englishman je vous croyais anglais;
    ∎ he took me for somebody else il m'a pris pour quelqu'un d'autre;
    ∎ to take the news as or to be true tenir la nouvelle pour vraie;
    ∎ how old do you take her to be? quel âge est-ce que tu lui donnes?
    (c) (suppose, presume) supposer, présumer;
    ∎ he's never been to Madrid, I take it si je comprends bien, il n'a jamais été à Madrid;
    ∎ I take it you're his mother je suppose que vous êtes sa mère
    (d) (interpret, understand) prendre, comprendre;
    ∎ we never know how to take his jokes on ne sait jamais comment prendre ses plaisanteries;
    ∎ don't take that literally ne le prenez pas au pied de la lettre;
    ∎ he was slow to take my meaning il lui a fallu un moment avant de comprendre ce que je voulais dire
    H.
    (a) (require) prendre, demander;
    ∎ how long will it take to get there? combien de temps faudra-t-il pour y aller?;
    ∎ the flight takes three hours le vol dure trois heures;
    ∎ it will take you ten minutes vous en avez pour dix minutes;
    ∎ it took him a minute to understand il a mis une minute avant de comprendre;
    ∎ it took us longer than I expected cela nous a pris plus de temps que je ne pensais;
    ∎ it takes time to learn a language il faut du temps pour apprendre une langue;
    ∎ what kind of batteries does it take? quelle sorte de piles faut-il?;
    ∎ my car takes unleaded ma voiture roule au sans-plomb;
    ∎ he took a bit of coaxing before he accepted il a fallu le pousser un peu pour qu'il accepte;
    ∎ it took four people to stop the brawl ils ont dû se mettre à quatre pour arrêter la bagarre;
    ∎ it takes a clever man to do that bien malin ou habile qui peut le faire;
    ∎ it takes courage to admit one's mistakes il faut du courage pour admettre ses erreurs;
    ∎ it takes patience to work with children il faut de la patience ou il faut être patient pour travailler avec les enfants;
    ∎ one glance was all it took un regard a suffi;
    ∎ the job took some doing la tâche n'a pas été facile;
    ∎ that will take some explaining voilà qui va demander des explications;
    ∎ her story takes some believing son histoire n'est pas facile à croire;
    ∎ to have what it takes to do/to be sth avoir les qualités nécessaires pour faire/être qch;
    ∎ we need someone with leadership qualities - she has what it takes il nous faut quelqu'un qui ait des qualités de dirigeant - ce n'est pas ce qui lui manque;
    ∎ familiar he's so lazy - it takes one to know one! il est vraiment paresseux - tu peux parler!
    ∎ "falloir" takes the subjunctive "falloir" est suivi du subjonctif;
    ∎ noun that takes an "s" in the plural nom qui prend un "s" au pluriel
    I.
    (a) (food, drink etc) prendre;
    ∎ do you take milk in your coffee? prenez-vous du lait dans votre café?;
    ∎ how do you take your coffee? qu'est-ce que tu prends dans ton café?;
    ∎ I invited him to take tea je l'ai invité à prendre le thé;
    ∎ she refused to take any food elle a refusé de manger (quoi que ce soit);
    ∎ to take drugs se droguer;
    ∎ how many pills has he taken? combien de comprimés a-t-il pris ou absorbé?;
    ∎ to be taken twice a day (on packaging) à prendre deux fois par jour;
    ∎ to take the air prendre l'air
    (b) (wear) faire, porter;
    ∎ she takes a size 10 elle prend du 38;
    ∎ what size shoe do you take? quelle est votre pointure?
    (c) (pick out, choose) prendre, choisir; (buy) prendre, acheter; (rent) prendre, louer;
    ∎ I'll take it je le prends;
    ∎ what newspaper do you take? quel journal prenez-vous?;
    ∎ take your partners (at dance) invitez vos partenaires
    (d) (occupy → chair, seat) prendre, s'asseoir sur;
    ∎ take a seat asseyez-vous;
    ∎ take your seats! prenez vos places!;
    ∎ is this seat taken? cette place est-elle occupée ou prise?
    (e) (hold → of container, building etc) contenir, avoir une capacité de;
    ∎ this bus takes fifty passengers c'est un car de cinquante places
    (f) (ascertain, find out) prendre;
    ∎ to take sb's pulse/temperature prendre le pouls/la température de qn;
    ∎ to take a reading from a meter lire ou relever un compteur
    (g) (write down → notes, letter) prendre;
    ∎ he took a note of her address il a noté son adresse
    (h) (subtract) soustraire, déduire;
    ∎ they took 10 percent off the price ils ont baissé le prix de 10 pour cent;
    ∎ take 4 from 9 and you have 5 ôtez 4 de 9, il reste 5
    (i) School & University (exam) passer, se présenter à; (course) prendre, suivre;
    ∎ I took Latin and Greek at A level ≃ j'ai pris latin et grec au bac;
    ∎ she took her degree last year elle a obtenu son diplôme l'an dernier;
    ∎ she takes us for maths on l'a en maths
    ∎ to take a service célébrer un office;
    ∎ the assistant director took the rehearsals l'assistant réalisateur s'est occupé des répétitions
    (k) (contract, develop)
    ∎ to take a chill, to take cold prendre froid;
    ∎ to take sick, to be taken ill tomber malade;
    ∎ I was taken with a fit of the giggles j'ai été pris d'un fou rire;
    ∎ she took an instant dislike to him elle l'a tout de suite pris en aversion
    (l) (direct, aim)
    ∎ she took a swipe at him elle a voulu le gifler;
    ∎ Football to take a penalty tirer un penalty
    ∎ she takes all her problems to her sister elle raconte tous ses problèmes à sa sœur;
    ∎ he took the matter to his boss il a soumis la question à son patron;
    ∎ Law they intend to take the case to the High Court ils ont l'intention d'en appeler à la Cour suprême
    ∎ he took an axe to the door il a donné des coups de hache dans la porte;
    ∎ take the scissors to it vas-y avec les ciseaux;
    ∎ his father took a stick to him son père lui a donné des coups de bâton;
    ∎ Law they took legal proceedings against him ils lui ont intenté un procès
    (o) (catch unawares) prendre, surprendre;
    ∎ to take sb by surprise or off guard surprendre qn, prendre qn au dépourvu;
    ∎ his death took us by surprise sa mort nous a surpris
    (p) (negotiate → obstacle) franchir, sauter; (→ bend in road) prendre, négocier
    (q) familiar (deceive, cheat) avoir, rouler;
    ∎ they took him for every penny (he was worth) ils lui ont pris jusqu'à son dernier sou
    (a) (work, have desired effect) prendre;
    ∎ did the dye take? est-ce que la teinture a pris?;
    ∎ it was too cold for the seeds to take il faisait trop froid pour que les graines germent
    (b) (become popular) prendre, avoir du succès
    (c) (fish) prendre, mordre
    3 noun
    (a) (capture) prise f
    (b) Cinema, Photography & Television prise f de vue; Radio enregistrement m, prise f de son; (of record etc) enregistrement m
    (c) American (interpretation) interprétation f;
    ∎ what's your take on her attitude? comment est-ce que tu interprètes son attitude?
    (d) American familiar (takings) recette□ f; (share) part□ f;
    ∎ to be on the take toucher des pots-de-vin□, palper
    (astonish) étonner, ébahir; (disconcert) déconcerter;
    ∎ her question took him aback sa question l'a déconcerté;
    ∎ I was taken aback by the news la nouvelle m'a beaucoup surpris
    ressembler à, tenir de;
    ∎ she takes after her mother in looks physiquement, elle tient de sa mère
    (a) (dismantle) démonter;
    ∎ figurative they took the room apart looking for evidence ils ont mis la pièce sens dessus dessous pour trouver des preuves
    (b) (criticize) critiquer
    prendre à part, emmener à l'écart;
    ∎ the boss took her aside for a chat le patron l'a prise à part pour discuter
    (a) (remove) enlever, retirer;
    ∎ take that knife away from him enlevez-lui ce couteau;
    ∎ they took away his pension ils lui ont retiré sa pension;
    ∎ they took their daughter away from the club ils ont retiré leur fille du club;
    ∎ his work took him away from his family for long periods son travail le tenait éloigné de sa famille pendant de longues périodes;
    ∎ euphemism the police took his father away son père a été arrêté par la police;
    ∎ it takes away the fun ça gâche tout
    (b) (carry away → object) emporter; (→ person) emmener;
    ∎ British sandwiches to take away (sign) sandwiches à emporter;
    ∎ not to be taken away (in library) à consulter sur place
    (c) Mathematics soustraire, retrancher;
    ∎ nine take away six is three neuf moins six font trois
    ∎ that doesn't take away from his achievements as an athlete ça n'enlève rien à ses exploits d'athlète;
    ∎ to take away from the pleasure/value of sth diminuer le plaisir/la valeur de qch
    (a) (after absence, departure) reprendre;
    ∎ she took her husband back elle a accepté que son mari revienne vivre avec elle;
    ∎ the factory took back the workers l'usine a repris les ouvriers
    (b) (gift, unsold goods, sale item etc) reprendre
    (c) (return) rapporter; (accompany) raccompagner;
    ∎ take it back to the shop rapporte-le au magasin;
    ∎ he took her back home il l'a raccompagnée ou ramenée chez elle
    (d) (retract, withdraw) retirer, reprendre;
    ∎ I take back everything I said je retire tout ce que j'ai dit;
    ∎ all right, I take it back! d'accord, je n'ai rien dit!
    ∎ that takes me back to my childhood ça me rappelle mon enfance;
    ∎ that song takes me back forty years cette chanson me ramène quarante ans en arrière;
    ∎ it takes you back a bit, doesn't it? ça ne nous rajeunit pas tout ça, hein?
    (f) Typography transférer à la ligne précédente
    (a) (carry, lead downstairs → object) descendre; (→ person) faire descendre;
    ∎ the lift took us down to the 4th floor l'ascenseur nous a amenés au 4ème étage
    (b) (lower) descendre;
    ∎ she took the book down from the shelf elle a pris le livre sur l'étagère;
    ∎ can you help me take the curtains down? peux-tu m'aider à décrocher les rideaux?;
    ∎ she took his picture down from the wall elle a enlevé sa photo du mur;
    ∎ he took his trousers down il a baissé son pantalon
    (c) (note) prendre, noter;
    ∎ he took down the registration number il a relevé le numéro d'immatriculation;
    ∎ to take down a letter in shorthand prendre une lettre en sténo
    (d) (dismantle → scaffolding, circus tent) démonter
    se démonter
    (a) (lead → person) faire entrer; (carry → washing, harvest etc) rentrer
    (b) (bring into one's home → person) héberger; (→ boarder) prendre; (→ orphan, stray animal) recueillir;
    ∎ she takes in ironing elle fait du repassage à domicile
    ∎ the police took him in la police l'a mis ou placé en garde à vue
    (d) (air, water, food etc)
    ∎ she can only take in food intravenously on ne peut la nourrir que par intraveineuse;
    ∎ whales take in air through their blowhole les baleines respirent par l'évent
    (e) (understand, perceive) saisir, comprendre;
    ∎ he was sitting taking it all in il était là, assis, écoutant tout ce qui se disait;
    ∎ he didn't take in the real implications of her announcement il n'a pas saisi les véritables implications de sa déclaration;
    ∎ I can't take in the fact that I've won je n'arrive pas à croire que j'ai gagné;
    ∎ she took in the situation at a glance elle a compris la situation en un clin d'œil
    (f) (make smaller → garment) reprendre; (→ in knitting) diminuer;
    ∎ you'd better take in the slack on the rope tu ferais bien de tendre ou retendre la corde;
    ∎ Nautical to take in a sail carguer ou serrer une voile
    (g) (cover → several countries etc) comprendre, englober; (→ questions, possibilities) embrasser;
    ∎ the tour takes in all the important towns l'excursion passe par toutes les villes importantes
    (h) (attend, go to) aller à;
    ∎ to take in a show aller au théâtre;
    ∎ she took in the castle while in Blois elle a visité le château pendant qu'elle était à Blois;
    ∎ they took in the sights in Rome ils ont fait le tour des sites touristiques à Rome
    (i) familiar (cheat, deceive) tromper□, rouler;
    ∎ don't be taken in by him ne vous laissez pas rouler par lui;
    ∎ I'm not going to be taken in by your lies je ne suis pas dupe de tes mensonges□ ;
    ∎ he was completely taken in il marchait complètement
    (a) (remove → clothing, lid, make-up, tag) enlever;
    ∎ the boy took his clothes off le garçon a enlevé ses vêtements ou s'est déshabillé;
    ∎ she took her glasses off elle a enlevé ses lunettes;
    ∎ he often takes the phone off the hook il laisse souvent le téléphone décroché;
    ∎ to take sb off a list rayer qn d'une liste;
    ∎ the surgeon had to take her leg off le chirurgien a dû l'amputer de la jambe;
    ∎ Cars to take off the brake desserrer le frein (à main);
    ∎ figurative he didn't take his eyes off her all night il ne l'a pas quittée des yeux de la soirée;
    ∎ I tried to take her mind off her troubles j'ai essayé de lui changer les idées ou de la distraire de ses ennuis;
    ∎ familiar his retirement has taken ten years off him sa retraite l'a rajeuni de dix ans□ ;
    ∎ to take sth off sb's hands débarrasser qn de qch;
    ∎ I'll take the baby off your hands for a few hours je vais garder le bébé pendant quelques heures, ça te libérera
    (b) (deduct) déduire, rabattre;
    ∎ the teacher took one point off her grade le professeur lui a retiré un point;
    ∎ the manager took 10 percent off the price le directeur a baissé le prix de 10 pour cent
    (c) (lead away) emmener;
    ∎ she was taken off to hospital on l'a transportée à l'hôpital;
    ∎ the murderer was taken off to jail on a emmené l'assassin en prison;
    ∎ her friend took her off to dinner son ami l'a emmenée dîner;
    ∎ she took herself off to Italy elle est partie en Italie;
    ∎ to take the passengers off (by boat from a ship) débarquer les passagers;
    ∎ the injured man was taken off the ship by helicopter le blessé a été évacué du bateau par hélicoptère
    ∎ to take some time off prendre un congé;
    ∎ take a few days off prenez quelques jours de vacances ou de congé;
    ∎ she takes Thursdays off elle ne travaille pas le jeudi
    (e) familiar (copy) imiter□ ; (mimic) imiter□, singer
    (f) (discontinue → train, bus etc) supprimer; (→ show, programme) annuler
    (a) (aeroplane) décoller;
    ∎ they took off for or to Heathrow ils se sont envolés pour Heathrow
    (b) familiar (person → depart) partir□ ; (hurriedly) se barrer, se tirer;
    ∎ he took off without telling us il est parti sans nous avertir
    ➲ take on
    (a) (accept, undertake) prendre, accepter;
    ∎ don't take on more than you can handle ne vous surchargez pas;
    ∎ she took it on herself to tell him elle a pris sur elle de le lui dire;
    ∎ he took the job on (position) il a accepté le poste; (task) il s'est mis au travail;
    ∎ to take on a bet accepter un pari
    (b) (contend with, fight against) lutter ou se battre contre; (compete against) jouer contre;
    ∎ the unions took on the government les syndicats se sont attaqués ou s'en sont pris au gouvernement;
    ∎ I shouldn't like to take him on je n'aimerais pas avoir affaire à lui;
    ∎ he took us on at poker il nous a défiés au poker
    (c) (acquire, assume) prendre, revêtir;
    ∎ her face took on a worried look elle a pris un air inquiet;
    ∎ the word takes on another meaning le mot prend une autre signification
    (d) (load) prendre, embarquer
    (e) (hire) embaucher, engager
    familiar (fret, carry on) s'en faire;
    ∎ don't take on so! ne t'en fais pas!
    (a) (remove → object) prendre, sortir; (→ stain) ôter, enlever; (extract → tooth) arracher;
    ∎ take the cheese out of the refrigerator sors le fromage du réfrigérateur;
    ∎ he took the knife out of his pocket il a sorti le couteau de sa poche;
    ∎ take your hands out of your pockets enlève les mains de tes poches;
    ∎ they took their children out of school ils ont retiré leurs enfants de l'école;
    ∎ Medicine to take out sb's appendix/tonsils enlever l'appendice/les amygdales à qn;
    ∎ figurative to take the food out of sb's mouth retirer le pain de la bouche de qn
    (b) (carry, lead outside → object) sortir; (→ person) faire sortir; (escort) emmener;
    ∎ to take sb out to dinner/to the movies emmener qn dîner/au cinéma;
    ∎ I took her out for a bike ride je l'ai emmenée faire un tour à vélo;
    ∎ would you take the dog out? tu veux bien sortir le chien ou aller promener le chien?
    (c) (food) emporter;
    ∎ American sandwiches to take out (sign) sandwiches à emporter
    (d) (obtain → subscription) prendre; (→ insurance policy) souscrire à, prendre; (→ licence) se procurer; (→ patent) prendre;
    ∎ to take out a mortgage faire un emprunt immobilier
    (e) familiar (destroy → factory, town) détruire□ ;
    ∎ to take sb out (kill) buter qn, zigouiller qn, refroidir qn;
    ∎ the planes took the factory out by bombing les avions ont détruit l'usine (en la bombardant)
    ∎ to take out one's partner changer la couleur annoncée par son partenaire
    ∎ to take sb out of himself/herself changer les idées à qn;
    ∎ familiar working as an interpreter takes a lot out of you le travail d'interprète est épuisant□ ;
    ∎ familiar the operation really took it out of him l'opération l'a mis à plat;
    ∎ familiar it takes the fun out of it ça gâche tout□ ;
    ∎ familiar to take it out on sb s'en prendre à qn□ ;
    ∎ familiar he took his anger out on his wife il a passé sa colère sur sa femme□ ;
    ∎ familiar don't take it out on me! ne t'en prends pas à moi!□
    ∎ he wants his daughter to take over the business il veut que sa fille reprenne l'affaire;
    ∎ she took over my classes elle a pris la suite de mes cours;
    ∎ will you be taking over his job? est-ce que vous allez le remplacer (dans ses fonctions)?
    (b) (gain control of, invade) s'emparer de;
    ∎ the military took over the country l'armée a pris le pouvoir;
    ∎ she takes the place over (by being bossy etc) elle joue les despotes;
    ∎ fast-food restaurants have taken over Paris les fast-foods ou French Canadian restaurants-minute ont envahi Paris
    (c) Finance (buy out) absorber, racheter;
    ∎ they were taken over by a Japanese firm ils ont été rachetés par une entreprise japonaise
    (d) (carry across) apporter; (escort across) emmener;
    ∎ I'll take you over by car je vais vous y conduire en voiture;
    ∎ the boat took us over to Seattle le bateau nous a emmenés jusqu'à Seattle
    (e) Typography transférer à la ligne suivante
    ∎ who will take over now that the mayor has stepped down? qui va prendre la relève maintenant que le maire a donné sa démission?;
    ∎ I'll take over when he leaves je le remplacerai quand il partira;
    ∎ will he allow her to take over? va-t-il lui céder la place?;
    ∎ compact discs have taken over from records le (disque) compact a remplacé le (disque) vinyle
    (b) (army, dictator) prendre le pouvoir
    (a) (have a liking for → person) se prendre d'amitié ou de sympathie pour, prendre en amitié; (→ activity, game) prendre goût à;
    ∎ I think he took to you je crois que vous lui avez plu;
    ∎ we took to one another at once nous avons tout de suite sympathisé;
    ∎ she didn't take to him il ne lui a pas plu;
    ∎ we've really taken to golf nous avons vraiment pris goût au golf
    (b) (acquire as a habit) se mettre à;
    ∎ to take to drink or to the bottle se mettre à boire;
    ∎ to take to doing sth se mettre à faire qch;
    ∎ she took to wearing black elle s'est mise à s'habiller en noir
    (c) (make for, head for)
    ∎ he's taken to his bed with the flu il est alité avec la grippe;
    ∎ the rebels took to the hills les insurgés se sont réfugiés dans les collines;
    ∎ they took to the woods ils se sont enfuis dans les bois;
    ∎ to take to the road prendre la route;
    ∎ to take to the boats monter dans les canots de sauvetage
    ➲ take up
    (a) (carry, lead upstairs → object) monter; (→ person) faire monter;
    ∎ the lift took us up to the 25th floor l'ascenseur nous a amenés au 25ème étage
    (b) (pick up → object) ramasser, prendre; (→ passenger) prendre; (→ paving stones, railway tracks) enlever;
    ∎ she took up the notes from the table elle a ramassé ou pris les notes sur la table;
    ∎ they're taking up the street la rue est en travaux;
    ∎ we finally took up the carpet nous avons enfin enlevé la moquette
    (c) (absorb) absorber
    (d) (shorten) raccourcir;
    ∎ you'd better take up the slack in that rope tu ferais mieux de retendre ou tendre cette corde
    (e) (fill, occupy → space) prendre, tenir; (→ time) prendre, demander;
    ∎ this table takes up too much room cette table prend trop de place ou est trop encombrante;
    ∎ moving house took up the whole day le déménagement a pris toute la journée;
    ∎ her work takes up all her attention son travail l'absorbe complètement
    (f) (begin, become interested in → activity, hobby) se mettre à; (→ job) prendre; (→ career) commencer, embrasser;
    ∎ when did you take up Greek? quand est-ce que tu t'es mis au grec?;
    ∎ I've taken up gardening je me suis mis au jardinage
    (g) (continue, resume) reprendre, continuer;
    ∎ I took up the tale where Susan had left off j'ai repris l'histoire là où Susan l'avait laissée;
    ∎ she took up her knitting again elle a repris son tricot
    (h) (adopt → attitude) prendre, adopter; (→ method) adopter; (→ place, position) prendre; (→ idea) adopter;
    ∎ they took up residence in town ils se sont installés en ville;
    ∎ to take up one's duties entrer en fonctions
    (i) (accept → offer) accepter; (→ advice, suggestion) suivre; (→ challenge) relever
    (j) (discuss) discuter, parler de; (bring up) aborder;
    ∎ take it up with the boss parlez-en au patron
    (k) (shares, stock) souscrire à
    (l) Finance (option) lever, consolider; (bill) honorer, retirer
    reprendre, continuer
    ∎ he took it upon himself to organize the meeting il s'est chargé d'organiser la réunion
    (a) (accept offer, advice of)
    ∎ his daughter took him up on his advice sa fille a suivi ses conseils;
    ∎ he might take you up on that someday! il risque de vous prendre au mot un jour!;
    ∎ she took him up on his promise elle a mis sa parole à l'épreuve
    ∎ I'd like to take you up on that point j'aimerais revenir sur ce point avec vous
    ∎ to take up with sb se lier d'amitié avec qn, prendre qn en amitié;
    ∎ she took up with a bad crowd elle s'est mise à fréquenter des vauriens
    ∎ to be taken up with doing sth être occupé à faire qch;
    ∎ she's very taken up with him elle ne pense qu'à lui;
    ∎ she's taken up with her business elle est très prise par ses affaires;
    ∎ meetings were taken up with talk about the economy on passait les réunions à parler de l'économie
    ✾ Film 'Take the Money and Run' Allen 'Prends l'oseille et tire-toi'
    ✾ Film 'You Can't Take It With You' Capra 'Vous ne l'emporterez pas avec vous'
    ⓘ Take me to your leader Il s'agit de la formule prononcée par les extra-terrestres fraîchement débarqués sur terre dans les vieux films de science-fiction et adressée au premier terrien rencontré. On emploie cette phrase ("menez-moi jusqu'à votre chef") de façon humoristique lorsque, dans une situation donnée, on désire parler au responsable.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > take

  • 18 sink

    [siŋk] 1. past tense - sank; verb
    1) (to (cause to) go down below the surface of water etc: The torpedo sank the battleship immediately; The ship sank in deep water.) potopiti (se)
    2) (to go down or become lower (slowly): The sun sank slowly behind the hills; Her voice sank to a whisper.) spustiti se
    3) (to (cause to) go deeply (into something): The ink sank into the paper; He sank his teeth into an apple.) potopiti, zasaditi
    4) ((of one's spirits etc) to become depressed or less hopeful: My heart sinks when I think of the difficulties ahead.) izgubiti pogum
    5) (to invest (money): He sank all his savings in the business.) vložiti
    2. noun
    (a kind of basin with a drain and a water supply connected to it: He washed the dishes in the sink.) pomivalno korito
    - be sunk
    - sink in
    * * *
    I [siŋk]
    noun
    (kuhinjski) izlivek, luknja za umazano vodo; odtok, odtočna cev, odtočni kanal; kloaka, greznica; geology kotlina; (zlasti) figuratively mlak(už)a, močvirje
    II [siŋk]
    1.
    intransitive verb
    (po)toniti, potopiti se, utoniti; upasti (o reki), znižati se, zmanjšati se; padati (cene); pasti (ugled); zaiti (sonce); spustiti se na zemljo (mrak); usesti se; ponehati (vihar); vpiti se (barva); pogrezniti se, udirati se, sesesti se; pasti ( into v); slabeti, giniti, onemoči, bližati se koncu; podirati se, rušiti se; podleči, kloniti; veniti, hirati, propadati;
    2.
    transitive verb
    potopiti (ladjo), pogrezniti, uničiti, pokvariti, povesiti (glavo); znižati, spustiti dol (cene); vrtati, dolbsti (vodnjak, luknjo); vrezati (žig itd.); pustiti ob strani, ne posvečati pozornosti (čemu); pozabiti (prepir); neugodno naložiti (kapital), izgubiti (denar); skrivati, prikriti, zamolčati
    sink or swim! — ali plavaš (se rešiš, prideš na zeleno vejo), ali pa utoneš!
    here goes, sink or swim — zdaj gre za biti ali ne biti
    to sink beneath the burden — kloniti, zrušiti se pod bremenom
    to sink all considerations — na nič se ne ozirati, iti prek vsega
    to sink an important fact — zamolčati (izpustiti, ne omeniti) važno dejstvo
    to sink into the grave — zgruditi se v grob, umreti
    to sink one's own interests — pozabiti na (žrtvovati) svoje lastne interese, biti nesebičen
    the old man is sinking rapidly — starček rapidno slabi, hira
    to sink money — vložiti svoj denar v nekaj, iz česar ga ni lahko dobiti; izgubiti svoj denar pri takem poslu
    to sink the shop — ne govoriti o strokovnih stvareh; tajiti, skrivati svoj poklic
    to sink one's title — prikriti, zamolčati svoj naslov (naziv)

    English-Slovenian dictionary > sink

  • 19 Elder, John

    [br]
    b. 9 March 1824 Glasgow, Scotland
    d. 17 September 1869 London, England
    [br]
    Scottish engineer who introduced the compound steam engine to ships and established an important shipbuilding company in Glasgow.
    [br]
    John was the third son of David Elder. The father came from a family of millwrights and moved to Glasgow where he worked for the well-known shipbuilding firm of Napier's and was involved with improving marine engines. John was educated at Glasgow High School and then for a while at the Department of Civil Engineering at Glasgow University, where he showed great aptitude for mathematics and drawing. He spent five years as an apprentice under Robert Napier followed by two short periods of activity as a pattern-maker first and then a draughtsman in England. He returned to Scotland in 1849 to become Chief Draughtsman to Napier, but in 1852 he left to become a partner with the Glasgow general engineering company of Randolph Elliott \& Co. Shortly after his induction (at the age of 28), the engineering firm was renamed Randolph Elder \& Co.; in 1868, when the partnership expired, it became known as John Elder \& Co. From the outset Elder, with his partner, Charles Randolph, approached mechanical (especially heat) engineering in a rigorous manner. Their knowledge and understanding of entropy ensured that engine design was not a hit-and-miss affair, but one governed by recognition of the importance of the new kinetic theory of heat and with it a proper understanding of thermodynamic principles, and by systematic development. In this Elder was joined by W.J.M. Rankine, Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow University, who helped him develop the compound marine engine. Elder and Randolph built up a series of patents, which guaranteed their company's commercial success and enabled them for a while to be the sole suppliers of compound steam reciprocating machinery. Their first such engine at sea was fitted in 1854 on the SS Brandon for the Limerick Steamship Company; the ship showed an improved performance by using a third less coal, which he was able to reduce still further on later designs.
    Elder developed steam jacketing and recognized that, with higher pressures, triple-expansion types would be even more economical. In 1862 he patented a design of quadruple-expansion engine with reheat between cylinders and advocated the importance of balancing reciprocating parts. The effect of his improvements was to greatly reduce fuel consumption so that long sea voyages became an economic reality.
    His yard soon reached dimensions then unequalled on the Clyde where he employed over 4,000 workers; Elder also was always interested in the social welfare of his labour force. In 1860 the engine shops were moved to the Govan Old Shipyard, and again in 1864 to the Fairfield Shipyard, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west on the south bank of the Clyde. At Fairfield, shipbuilding was commenced, and with the patents for compounding secure, much business was placed for many years by shipowners serving long-distance trades such as South America; the Pacific Steam Navigation Company took up his ideas for their ships. In later years the yard became known as the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company Ltd, but it remains today as one of Britain's most efficient shipyards and is known now as Kvaerner Govan Ltd.
    In 1869, at the age of only 45, John Elder was unanimously elected President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland; however, before taking office and giving his eagerly awaited presidential address, he died in London from liver disease. A large multitude attended his funeral and all the engineering shops were silent as his body, which had been brought back from London to Glasgow, was carried to its resting place. In 1857 Elder had married Isabella Ure, and on his death he left her a considerable fortune, which she used generously for Govan, for Glasgow and especially the University. In 1883 she endowed the world's first Chair of Naval Architecture at the University of Glasgow, an act which was reciprocated in 1901 when the University awarded her an LLD on the occasion of its 450th anniversary.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland 1869.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1869, Engineer 28.
    1889, The Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith Elder \& Co. W.J.Macquorn Rankine, 1871, "Sketch of the life of John Elder" Transactions of the
    Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.
    Maclehose, 1886, Memoirs and Portraits of a Hundred Glasgow Men.
    The Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Works, 1909, London: Offices of Engineering.
    P.M.Walker, 1984, Song of the Clyde, A History of Clyde Shipbuilding, Cambridge: PSL.
    R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (covers Elder's contribution to the development of steam engines).
    RLH / FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Elder, John

  • 20 matter

    'mætə 1. noun
    1) (solids, liquids and/or gases in any form, from which everything physical is made: The entire universe is made up of different kinds of matter.) stoff, materie, substans
    2) (a subject or topic (of discussion etc): a private matter; money matters.) sak, emne
    3) (pus: The wound was infected and full of matter.) puss, materie
    2. verb
    (to be important: That car matters a great deal to him; It doesn't matter.) bety (mye), spille en stor rolle
    - be the matter
    - a matter of course
    - a matter of opinion
    - no matter
    - no matter who
    - what
    - where
    affære
    --------
    forretning
    --------
    materie
    --------
    sak
    --------
    sats
    --------
    stoff
    --------
    ting
    I
    subst. \/ˈmætə\/
    1) materie, materiale
    2) stoff, substans
    lesestoff\/lektyre
    3) ( også subject matter) emne, innhold, stoff
    ha et bra innhold\/være innholdsrik
    4) anliggende, sak, spørsmål, ting
    5) betydning, vekt
    6) årsak, anledning, formål
    • that was a matter of\/for interest
    7) feil, mangel
    • what is the matter with him?
    8) ( typografi) sats
    9) ( typografi) manuskript (til setting)
    10) ( typografi) tekst (i motsetning til titler eller annonser)
    11) ( medisin) materie, puss, (sår)væske
    a matter of course en selvfølge, noe som sier seg selv
    a matter of life and death et spørsmål om liv eller død, livsviktig
    a matter of\/for regret beklagelig
    as a matter of fact faktisk, i virkeligheten, egentlig
    for that matter eller for the matter of that for den sak(en)s skyld
    • she didn't like the film, nor did I, for that matter
    hun likte ikke filmen, det gjorde ikke jeg heller, for den saks skyld
    an incidental matter en bisak
    infectious matter smittestoff
    in the matter of angående, hva angår, med hensyn til
    it is no matter of mine det angår ikke meg, det er ikke min sak
    make matters worse gjøre vondt verre
    manner\/form and matter form og innhold
    matter in dispute stridsspørsmål
    the matter in hand den foreliggende sak
    a matter of ( foran tallord) noe sånt som, omtrent, noe omkring
    • it's a matter of £50
    a matter of fact et faktum, en kjensgjerning
    en treningssak, et spørsmål om øvelse
    det er bare et tidsspørsmål\/det er bare et spørsmål om tid
    matters ( også) forholdene, situasjonen, tingene
    matters have succeeded this far hittil har det gått bra
    matter with feil med, feil på, galt med
    • what's the matter with margarine?
    • what's the matter with £10?
    mind and matter ånd og materie
    money matters pengesaker
    no laughing matter ingenting å le av
    no matter det gjør ikke noe, det spiller ingen rolle
    no matter how one tries uansett hvor mye man forsøker
    no matter when det spiller ingen rolle når, uansett når
    no matter where it is hvor det enn måtte være, uansett hvor det måtte være
    push the matter to extremes sette saken på spissen
    settle matters bringe orden i sakene, ordne opp i saker og ting
    a small matter en fillesak, en bagatell
    take matters easy ta det rolig ta lett på saker og ting
    think the matter over fundere på\/over saken, tenke på\/over saken
    II
    verb \/ˈmætə\/
    1) bety noe, gjøre noe, være av betydning, ha noe for seg
    det spiller nesten ingen rolle \/ det gjør ikke så mye
    • what does it matter?
    hva gjør vel det? \/ hvilken rolle spiller det?
    det er ikke så farlig \/ det gjør ikke så mye
    ikke at det gjør noe \/ ikke at det spiller noen rolle
    2) ( medisin) avsondre materie, væske

    English-Norwegian dictionary > matter

Страницы
  • 1
  • 2

См. также в других словарях:

  • Less Than Zero (film) — Infobox Film name = Less Than Zero image size = caption = Theatrical poster director = Marek Kanievska producer = Jon Avnet Jordan Kerner Marvin Worth writer = Harley Peyton (screenplay) Bret Easton Ellis (novel) starring = Andrew McCarthy Jami… …   Wikipedia

  • List of important publications in mathematics — One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid s Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100. The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.[1] This is a list of important publications in mathematics, organized by field. Some… …   Wikipedia

  • Not One Less — Not One Less …   Wikipedia

  • List of important publications in computer science — This is a list of important publications in computer science, organized by field. Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important: Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic Breakthrough – A publication that… …   Wikipedia

  • go by the boards — become less important, be neglected or omitted    When he returned to school, his social life went by the boards …   English idioms

  • Digital divide — Graph of internet users per 100 inhabitants between 1997 and 2007 by International Telecommunication Union …   Wikipedia

  • Sri Lanka — Sri Lankan, adj., n. /sree lahng keuh, lang keuh, shree / an island republic in the Indian Ocean, S of India: a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. 18,762,075; 25,332 sq. mi. (65,610 sq. km). Cap.: Colombo. Formerly, Ceylon. Arabic, Serendip.… …   Universalium

  • football — /foot bawl /, n. 1. a game in which two opposing teams of 11 players each defend goals at opposite ends of a field having goal posts at each end, with points being scored chiefly by carrying the ball across the opponent s goal line and by place… …   Universalium

  • Spiral of silence — The spiral of silence is a political science and mass communication theory propounded by the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle Neumann. The theory asserts that a person is less likely to voice an opinion on a topic if one feels that one …   Wikipedia

  • SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — Biblical and Hebraic Influences One result of the Christian struggle against Muslim invaders of the Iberian peninsula from the eighth century onward was the blending of national and religious aspirations, which revealed itself in Spanish… …   Encyclopedia of Judaism

  • Perfection — For other uses, see Perfection (disambiguation). Perfect redirects here. For other uses, see Perfect (disambiguation). Perfection is, broadly, a state of completeness and flawlessness. The term perfection is actually used to designate a range of… …   Wikipedia

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»