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21 Wren, Sir Christopher
SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building[br]b. 20 October 1632 East Knoyle, Wiltshire, Englandd. 25 February 1723 London, England[br]English architect whose background in scientific research and achievement enhanced his handling of many near-intractable architectural problems.[br]Born into a High Church and Royalist family, the young Wren early showed outstanding intellectual ability and at Oxford in 1654 was described as "that miracle of a youth". Educated at Westminster School, he went up to Oxford, where he graduated at the age of 19 and obtained his master's degree two years later. From this time onwards his interests were in science, primarily astronomy but also physics, engineering and meteorology. While still at college he developed theories about and experimentally solved some fifty varied problems. At the age of 25 Wren was appointed to the Chair of Astronomy at Gresham College in London, but he soon returned to Oxford as Savilian Professor of Astronomy there. At the same time he became one of the founder members of the Society of Experimental Philosophy at Oxford, which was awarded its Royal Charter soon after the Restoration of 1660; Wren, together with such men as Isaac Newton, Robert Hooke, John Evelyn and Robert Boyle, then found himself a member of the Royal Society.Wren's architectural career began with the classical chapel that he built, at the request of his uncle, the Bishop of Ely, for Pembroke College, Cambridge (1663). From this time onwards, until he died at the age of 91, he was fully occupied with a wide and taxing variety of architectural problems which he faced in the execution of all the great building schemes of the day. His scientific background and inventive mind stood him in good stead in solving such difficulties with an often unusual approach and concept. Nowhere was this more apparent than in his rebuilding of fifty-one churches in the City of London after the Great Fire, in the construction of the new St Paul's Cathedral and in the grand layout of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich.The first instance of Wren's approach to constructional problems was in his building of the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford (1664–9). He based his design upon that of the Roman Theatre of Marcellus (13–11 BC), which he had studied from drawings in Serlio's book of architecture. Wren's reputation as an architect was greatly enhanced by his solution to the roofing problem here. The original theatre in Rome, like all Roman-theatres, was a circular building open to the sky; this would be unsuitable in the climate of Oxford and Wren wished to cover the English counterpart without using supporting columns, which would have obscured the view of the stage. He solved this difficulty mathematically, with the aid of his colleague Dr Wallis, the Professor of Geometry, by means of a timber-trussed roof supporting a painted ceiling which represented the open sky.The City of London's churches were rebuilt over a period of nearly fifty years; the first to be completed and reopened was St Mary-at-Hill in 1676, and the last St Michael Cornhill in 1722, when Wren was 89. They had to be rebuilt upon the original medieval sites and they illustrate, perhaps more clearly than any other examples of Wren's work, the fertility of his imagination and his ability to solve the most intractable problems of site, limitation of space and variation in style and material. None of the churches is like any other. Of the varied sites, few are level or possess right-angled corners or parallel sides of equal length, and nearly all were hedged in by other, often larger, buildings. Nowhere is his versatility and inventiveness shown more clearly than in his designs for the steeples. There was no English precedent for a classical steeple, though he did draw upon the Dutch examples of the 1630s, because the London examples had been medieval, therefore Roman Catholic and Gothic, churches. Many of Wren's steeples are, therefore, Gothic steeples in classical dress, but many were of the greatest originality and delicate beauty: for example, St Mary-le-Bow in Cheapside; the "wedding cake" St Bride in Fleet Street; and the temple diminuendo concept of Christ Church in Newgate Street.In St Paul's Cathedral Wren showed his ingenuity in adapting the incongruous Royal Warrant Design of 1675. Among his gradual and successful amendments were the intriguing upper lighting of his two-storey choir and the supporting of the lantern by a brick cone inserted between the inner and outer dome shells. The layout of the Royal Hospital at Greenwich illustrates Wren's qualities as an overall large-scale planner and designer. His terms of reference insisted upon the incorporation of the earlier existing Queen's House, erected by Inigo Jones, and of John Webb's King Charles II block. The Queen's House, in particular, created a difficult problem as its smaller size rendered it out of scale with the newer structures. Wren's solution was to make it the focal centre of a great vista between the main flanking larger buildings; this was a masterstroke.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1673. President, Royal Society 1681–3. Member of Parliament 1685–7 and 1701–2. Surveyor, Greenwich Hospital 1696. Surveyor, Westminster Abbey 1699.Surveyor-General 1669–1712.Further ReadingR.Dutton, 1951, The Age of Wren, Batsford.M.Briggs, 1953, Wren the Incomparable, Allen \& Unwin. M.Whinney, 1971, Wren, Thames \& Hudson.K.Downes, 1971, Christopher Wren, Allen Lane.G.Beard, 1982, The Work of Sir Christopher Wren, Bartholomew.DY -
22 flush
̈ɪflʌʃ I
1. сущ.
1) а) внезапный прилив, повышение уровня (о жидкости, потоке) ;
наводнение б) смывание, промывание сильной струей воды( какой-л. емкости, напр., унитаза)
2) а) мед. прилив, приток крови;
тж. перен. краска, румянец( на лице) б) приступ( лихорадки и т.п.) ;
мед. период болезни, когда у пациента высокая температура в) прилив (о чувствах), упоение, безудержная радость A momentary flush of passionate indignation. ≈ Внезапный приступ страстного негодования. Syn: elation
3) а) прям. перен. буйный рост, расцвет;
свежая поросль, новые побеги Syn: glow, freshness, vigour б) внезапное изобилие чего-л., быстрый приток
2. прил.
1) наполненный до краев, готовый разлиться( о потоке) Syn: swollen
2) а) щедрый;
изобилующий, многочисленный (в частности, о деньгах) ;
благоприятный, хороший( о периоде времени, обстоятельствах) The first floor lodgers were flush of furniture. ≈ У жителей первого этажа было много мебели. Tom is always very flush or very hard up. ≈ У Тома кошелек или просто ломится от купюр, или там шаром покати - ничего между. That were flush times. ≈ Времена были хоть куда. be flush with money б) расточительный, раздающий направо и налево Syn: lavish, profuse
3) а) живой, веселый, жизнерадостный, пышущий жизнью;
перен. уверенный в себе Her bright eyes, brown hair and flush beauty. ≈ Ее яркие глаза, темные волосы и сияющая красота. Syn: lively, lusty, vigorous б) залитый краской, румяный Syn: blushing, ruddy, flushed
4) а) ровный, плоский;
находящийся на одном уровне, заподлицо с чем-л. Why not place the building flush with the surrounding wall? ≈ Почему бы не поставить дом вровень с внешней стеной? flush work Syn: even, level б) мор. (о корабельной палубе) идущая на одном уровне от носа до кормы;
(о корабле) не имеющий надстроек над такой палубой в) не выступающий за границы строки( о типе типографского шрифта)
5) прямой, от плеча ( об ударе в кулачных боях, боксе;
может употребляться как наречие) Wilson got the left flush on the face. ≈ Уилсон получил удар левой прямо в лицо.
3. гл.
1) а) (за) бить струей, обильно (по) течь, хлынуть, хлестать( о потоке жидкости) ;
орошать (поле) б) промывать сильным напором струи;
(тж. flush away/off) ;
отводить воду The criminal put the torn papers in the lavatory and tried to flush them away. ≈ Преступник бросил в унитаз клочки бумаги и попытался смыть их. flush the toilet в) выходить из берегов, затоплять( о реке, потоке) ;
переливаться через край, выкипать, выплескиваться г) перен. наполнять, переполнять( о чувстве, переживании)
2) а) приливать к какой-л. части тела (особенно лицу, о крови) б) вспыхнуть, (по) краснеть;
заставлять краснеть, смущать( кого-л.) The blood flushed in Eliza's pale face. ≈ Бледно лицо Элизы залила краска. Syn: redden, blush в) возбуждать, воодушевлять, подбадривать Armies flushed with conquest. ≈ Завоевания воодушевили военных. Syn: animate, encourage
3) откармливать овец перед периодом спаривания (метод стимуляции)
4) делать плоским, ровным;
выравнивать, подравнивать, сравнивать The whole of the work is to be flushed up with mortar or cement. ≈ Поверхность должна быть целиком выровнена с помощью цемента или известкового раствора. ∙ flush from flush out II
1. сущ. вспугнутая стая птиц тж. перен. A body which might almost be called a mere flush of skirmishers. ≈ Воинская единица, которой более походило бы название "потревоженная стая стрелков".
2. гл.
1) а) прям. перен. спугивать, поднимать дичь( from, out of) They were flushed from their hiding place. ≈ Их спугнули, и они убежали из своего укрытия. Syn: chase, start б) взлетать, вспархивать Syn: soar, fly up
2) изгонять кого-л. откуда-л. When we flushed them out of the old city of Jerusalem we really knew fear. ≈ Когда мы вытеснили их из иерусалимского Старого Города, мы узнали, что такое страх. Syn: drive out
3) раскрывать, открывать Syn: reveal, bring into the open III сущ. карт. флэш (все карты одной масти на руке, или указываемое правилами число карт одной масти на руке) I guess there's a straight flush against me. ≈ Похоже, против меня стейт флэш. внезапный прилив, приток, поток (воды) внезапная краска, прилив крови( к лицу) ;
румянец - the * of angered shame краска стыда и гнева краски зари (на небе) - the * of dawn рассвет, утренняя заря порыв, прилив ( чувства) - a * of joy порыв радости - a * of hope вспышка надежды - in the first * of victory упоенный радостью победы - he felt a * of anger он почувствовал, что его охватывает гнев приступ (лихорадки и т. п.) буйный рост (зелени и т. п.) свежая, молодая поросль расцвет;
приток сил, энергии и т. п. - in the * of youth в расцвете юности - in full * в полном расцвете - in the first * of manhood на пороге возмужания - she is not in her first * она уже не первой молодости (ботаника) отросток, побег ( спортивное) змейка (фигура слалома) полный( до краев) - rivers are * in spring-time весной реки разливаются полный жизни, полнокровный;
жизнерадостный богатый, изобилующий ( чем-л.) - he felt very * on his first payday в день первой получки он почувствовал себя богачом - money is * (разговорное) денег хватает - to be * of money (разговорное) быть при деньгах, иметь много денег - * times хорошие времена, времена изобилия щедрый, расточительный - to be * with money легко тратить деньги, швыряться деньгами прямой, решительный, определенный - * statement открытое заявление - * blow прямой /резкий/ удар находящийся на одном уровне - the river is * with its banks река течет вровень с берегами - * with the ground вровень с землей( техническое) скрытый;
на одном уровне;
заподлицо, впотай вплотную - the door fits * into its frame дверь вплотную входит в дверную коробку /сделана как раз по коробке/ прямо, точно - I hit him * on the jaw я ударил /двинул/ его прямо в челюсть вспыхнуть, покраснеть;
раскраснеться - to * with shame покраснеть /зардеться/ от стыда румянить, заставлять краснеть - the exercise had *ed their cheeks от прогулки у них раскраснелись щеки возбуждать, воспламенять - to be *ed with victory быть упоенным победой внезапно хлынуть;
обильно течь, литься приливать (о крови, краске) - the blood *ed into his face кровь бросилась ему в лицо затоплять;
наполнять до краев - to * a meadow заливать луг промывать сильным напором струи - to * the toilet спускать воду в туалете смывать( при гидромеханизации) очищать - to * the lungs with air отдышаться, прочистить легкие свежим воздухом (техническое) выравнивать;
располагать заподлицо - * the headings on the page выровняйте заголовки на этой странице (военное) застигать врасплох - to * by fire подавлять огнем давать отростки, побеги (о растении) способствовать росту - rain *es the plants дождь способствует росту растений вспугнутая стая птиц спугивать (дичь) - we *ed a covey of quail мы вспугнули перепелиный выводок( from, out, of) спугивать, выгонять (людей) - they *ed the narcotics peddlers from /out of/ their hiding-place они выманили торговцев наркотиками из их притона вспархивать, взлетать флеш, пять карт одной масти (покер) (разговорное) игнорировать;
сторониться( кого-л.) ;
третировать( студенческое) (профессионализм) (тж. to * it) провалить (экзамен) ;
провалиться( на экзамене) to be ~ with money быть обеспеченным, быть с (большим) достатком to be ~ with money не считать деньги, сорить деньгами ~ наполнять, переполнять (чувством) ;
to be flushed with joy (pride, etc.) быть охваченным радостью (гордостью и т. п.) flush бить струей;
обильно течь, хлынуть ~ буйный рост (зелени и т. п.) ~ быстрый приток, внезапное изобилие (чего-л.) ~ взлетать, вспархивать ~ внезапный прилив, поток (воды) ~ вспугнутая стая птиц ~ вспыхнуть, (по) краснеть (часто flush up) ;
she flushed (up) when I spoke to her лицо ее залилось краской, когда я заговорил с ней ~ редк. давать новые побеги (о растениях) ~ затоплять ~ a predic. изобилующий;
щедрый, расточительный (with) ~ карты одной масти ~ наполнять, переполнять (чувством) ;
to be flushed with joy (pride, etc.) быть охваченным радостью (гордостью и т. п.) ~ тех. находящийся на одном уровне, заподлицо (с чем-л.) ~ полный (до краев - о реке) ~ прилив (чувства) ;
упоение (успехом и т. п.) ;
flush of hope вспышка надежды ~ прилив крови;
краска (на лице), румянец ~ приливать к лицу (о крови) ;
вызывать краску на лице ~ приступ (лихорадки) ~ промывать сильным напором струи;
to flush the toilet спустить воду в уборной ~ расцвет (молодости, сил и т. п.) ~ смывание, промывание сильной струей воды ( в унитазе и т. п.) ~ спугивать (дичь) ~ of cash приток наличности ~ прилив (чувства) ;
упоение (успехом и т. п.) ;
flush of hope вспышка надежды ~ промывать сильным напором струи;
to flush the toilet спустить воду в уборной flushed with victory упоенный победой ~ вспыхнуть, (по) краснеть (часто flush up) ;
she flushed (up) when I spoke to her лицо ее залилось краской, когда я заговорил с ней -
23 passage
noun1) (going by, through, etc.) (of river) Überquerung, die; (of time) [Ab-, Ver]lauf, der; (of seasons) Wechsel, der2) (transition) Übergang, der3) (voyage) Überfahrt, die4) Gang, der; (corridor) Korridor, der; (between houses) Durchgang, der; (in shopping precinct) Passage, diework one's passage — seine Überfahrt abarbeiten
7) (part of book etc.) Passage, die8) (Mus.) Passage, die; Stelle, die10) (Anat.)urinary passage — Harntrakt, der
air passages — Luft- od. Atemwege
* * *['pæsi‹]1) (a long narrow way through, eg a corridor through a building: There was a dark passage leading down to the river between tall buildings.) der Durchgang2) (a part of a piece of writing or music: That is my favourite passage from the Bible.) die Passage4) (a journey by boat: He paid for his passage by working as a steward.) die Überfahrt* * *pas·sage[ˈpæsɪʤ]nunderground \passage Unterführung fbird of \passage Zugvogel mto take \passage to South Africa eine Schiffsreise nach Südafrika unternehmento work one's \passage seine Überfahrt abarbeiten; ( fig)he's worked his \passage er hat es sich redlich verdientthe hijackers demanded safe \passage out of the country die Entführer verlangten sicheren Abzug aus dem Land7. no pl (progression) Voranschreiten nt; of troops Durchzug m; of a plane Überfliegen nt; of fire ungehindertes Sichausbreitenmany meteorites explode during their \passage through the atmosphere viele Meteoriten zerbersten auf ihrem Weg durch die Erdatmosphärethe \passage of time das Verstreichen der Zeitwith the \passage of time im Lauf[e] der Zeit* * *['psɪdZ]nthe passage of time — der Verlauf or Strom (geh) der Zeit
in or with the passage of time — mit der Zeit
2) (through country) Durchfahrt f, Durchreise f; (= right of passage) Durchreise f, Transit m, Durchreise- or Transitgenehmigung f3) (= voyage) Überfahrt f, Schiffsreise f; (= fare) Überfahrt f, Passage f → academic.ru/82936/work">workSee:→ work5) (= corridor) Gang mthe narrow passage between Denmark and Sweden — die schmale Durchfahrt zwischen Dänemark und Schweden
he forced a passage through the crowd — er bahnte sich (dat) einen Weg durch die Menge
a passage from Shakespeare/the Bible — eine Shakespeare-/Bibelstelle
* * *passage1 [ˈpæsıdʒ] s1. Herein-, Heraus-, Vorüber-, Durchgehen n, Durchgang m, -reise f, -fahrt f, -fließen n:2. Passage f, Durch-, Verbindungsgang m3. a) Furt fb) Kanal m4. besonders Br Gang m, Korridor m5. (See-, Flug) Reise f, (See-, Über) Fahrt f, Flug m:book a passage eine Schiffskarte lösen (to nach);6. TECH Durchtritt m, -lass m7. Vergehen n, -streichen n, Ablauf m:with the passage of time im Laufe der Zeit8. PARL Durchgehen n, -kommen n, Annahme f, Inkrafttreten n (eines Gesetzes)9. WIRTSCH (Waren)Transit m, Durchgang m11. MUS Passage f, Lauf m13. PHYSIOL (Darm)Entleerung f, Stuhlgang m14. ANAT (Gehör- etc) Gang m, (Harn- etc) Weg(e) m(pl)passage2 [ˈpæsıdʒ; pæˈsɑːʒ] s Dressurreiten: Passage f (Trab in höchster Versammlung, bei dem die diagonalen Beinpaare schwungvoll gehoben und länger in der Beugung gehalten werden)* * *noun1) (going by, through, etc.) (of river) Überquerung, die; (of time) [Ab-, Ver]lauf, der; (of seasons) Wechsel, der2) (transition) Übergang, der3) (voyage) Überfahrt, die4) Gang, der; (corridor) Korridor, der; (between houses) Durchgang, der; (in shopping precinct) Passage, die6) (right to travel) Passage, die7) (part of book etc.) Passage, die8) (Mus.) Passage, die; Stelle, die10) (Anat.)urinary passage — Harntrakt, der
air passages — Luft- od. Atemwege
* * *n.Buchstelle -n f.Durchfahrt f.Durchgang m.Durchreise f.Gang ¨-e m.Korridor -e m.Passage -n f.Stelle -n f.Übergang -¨e m.Übertritt m. -
24 waste
1. I1) the invalid (the old man, etc.) is wasting больней и т.д. слабеет /теряет силы/; the resources of the country are wasting ресурсы страны иссякают; his fortune is wasting его богатство тает; the day is wasting день кончается /подходит к концу/; the might of England is wasting Англия теряет свою былую мощь2) the energy is wasting энергия расходуется зря; turn the water off, don't let it waste закрой воду, пусть зря не течет; I have no time to waste у меня нет лишнего времени, я не могу тратить время зря2. IIIwaste smth.1) waste money транжирить деньги; waste words /one's breath/ говорить впустую; waste one's time попусту /даром/ терять время; waste one's life (one's youth) бесполезно прожить /растратить/ свою жизнь (свою молодость); waste an opportunity (a chance) упускать возможность (случай); don't waste your energy (your efforts, your labour, your eloquence, etc.) не тратьте /не расходуйте/ понапрасну силы и т.д.; do not waste anything ничего не должно пропадать зря; it is wrong to waste food нельзя выбрасывать пищу2) waste a country (the enemy's fields, the land, etc.) опустошать /разорять/ страну и т.д.; disease wastes the body болезнь изнуряет тело; wars waste strength войны истощают силы; the waves waste the rock (the shore, etc.) волны подтачивают /подмывают/ скалы и т.д.3. IVwaste smth. in some manner waste smth. ruthlessly (carelessly, wantonly, unprofitably, etc.) безжалостно и т.д. растрачивать что-л.4. VIIwaste smth. to do smth. waste a chance to go to college упустить возможность попасть в колледж5. VIIIwaste time doing smth. he wastes a lot of time talking (looking at illustrations, trying to help them, etc.) он теряет массу времени на разговоры и т.д.6. XI1) be wasted all his efforts (their resources, all her labours, etc.) are wasted все его усилия и т.д. пропадают даром /напрасны/; be wasted somewhere nothing is wasted here здесь ничего не пропадает; he is simply wasted in that job на этой работе он не может проявить свой талант; be wasted by smth. our schoolboys' time is wasted by our old fashioned system of teaching foreign languages время школьников растрачивается впустую из-за устарелой системы преподавания иностранного языка; be wasted on smb. my joke (the allusion, her speech, etc.) was wasted on him моя шутка и т.д. не произвела на него впечатления /до него не дошла/; all my advice was wasted on her она не прислушалась к моим советам; this present will be wasted on him он не оценит этого подарка2) be wasted by smth. be wasted by a long war (by fire, by a hurricane, etc.) быть разоренным /опустошенным/ длительной войной и т.д.; the patient (the child, smb.'s body, etc.) was wasted by a long illness (by a disease and hunger, etc.) больной и т.д. истощен длительной болезнью и т.д.; be wasted into smth. he is wasted into a shadow [он так истощен, что] от него осталась только тень7. XXI1waste smth. (up)on (over) smb., smth. waste money on amusements (on luxuries, upon useless things, on such rubbish, etc.) тратить /растрачивать, транжирить/ деньги на развлечения и т.д.; waste time on things that have no importance (on people who refuse to help themselves, etc.) терять /тратить/ попусту время на вещи, которые не имеют значения и т.д.; I will not waste words on such a fool я не буду попусту тратить слова на такого дурака; I have no time (no money, etc.) to waste on him у меня нет времени и т.д. на него; he has no time to waste on your complaints у него нет времени разбирать твои жалобы; many a day does he waste over those useless schemes немало дней тратит он на эти бессмысленные планы /прожекты/ -
25 range
1. n ряд, линия; цепь, вереница2. n серия, рядrange of — ряд; множество
3. n редк. строй, шеренга4. n линия; направление5. n сфера, зона; область, круг; поле, аренаa wide range of interests — разнообразные интересы; широкий круг интересов
Latin is out of my range — латынь — это не по моей части
variable range — область переменной; переменный диапазон
6. n пределы7. n эк. изменение, колебание, движение8. n размах9. n физ. размах колебаний10. n протяжение, пространство; пределы11. n спец. радиус действия; предел применения; досягаемостьover the range — в пределах; в диапазоне
12. n спец. диапазонfrequency range — радио диапазон частот, частотный диапазон
13. n спец. чувствительность14. n спец. мощность15. n мат. область значений функций16. n дальность; расстояние, дистанцияat long range — на большом расстоянии; далеко; издали
17. n радио дальность передачиrecord range — пристрелянная дальность по реперу, ориентиру
18. n воен. дальнобойность, дальность19. n воен. прицел20. n переход с места на место; блужданиеfree range — полный простор, полная свобода
21. n открытая местность, степь22. n охотничье угодье23. n с. -х. неогороженное пастбище24. n ассортимент, сортамент; номенклатура25. n спец. шкала26. n биол. ареал; район обитания; область распространения27. n биол. период существования на Земле28. n биол. редк. класс, слой29. n биол. физ. длина пробега, пробег30. n спец. степень31. n спец. класс, разряд32. n спец. спорт. направление атаки33. n спец. мор. ряд портов, порты34. n спец. мор. створ35. n спец. воен. полигон, стрельбище; тирrifle range — тир, стрельбище
36. n спец. амер. геод. меридианный ряд населённых пунктов37. n спец. амер. двусторонний стеллаж38. v выстраивать в ряд; ставить, располагать в порядке39. v обыкн. выстраиваться, строиться в ряд; становиться, располагаться в порядке40. v простираться; тянуться вдольhouses that range along the railway — дома, которые тянутся вдоль железной дороги
41. v стоять на одной линии42. v быть на одном уровне, стоять наравне; относиться к числуhe ranges with the great writers — он стоит в одном ряду с великими писателями; он относится к числу великих писателей
43. v занимать определённую позицию44. v редк. вовлекать, привлекать45. v колебаться в определённых пределах46. v поэт. бродить, блуждать; странствовать; исколесить47. v бродить; блуждатьto range far and wide — отвлекаться от темы, уходить в сторону
48. v охватыватьresearches ranging over a wide field — изыскания, охватывающие широкую сферу
49. v классифицировать; систематизировать; распределять по категориям; относить к классу, разрядуluxury range — изделия категории " люкс "
50. v книжн. убирать, приводить в порядок51. v наводить, нацеливать52. v мор. воен. передвигаться, перемещаться53. v воен. двигаться впереди, в первом эшелоне54. v мор. проходить, обгонять55. v редк. проявлять непостоянство56. v биол. водиться, встречаться57. v с. -х. выпасать скот на неогороженном пастбище58. v полигр. выравнивать59. v мор. идти параллельно; проходить мимо, вдоль60. v мор. отпускать канат якоря61. v воен. определять расстояние до цели62. v воен. пристреливать цель по дальности; пристреливаться63. n кухонная плита64. n тех. агрегат, установкаdyeing range — агрегат для крашения; красильная установка
Синонимический ряд:1. ambit (noun) ambit; capacity; circle; compass; confine; confines; dimensions; extension; extensity; extent; grasp; horizon; ken; limits; orbit; panorama; purview; radius; realm; scope; sphere; stretch; sweep; width2. class (noun) class; kind; rank; sort3. diapason (noun) diapason; gamut; scale; spectrum4. distance (noun) distance; limit; reach5. expanse (noun) area; expanse; length; region6. grassland (noun) grassland; meadow; pasture; prairie7. habitat (noun) habitat; haunt; home; locality; site; stamping ground8. mountain range (noun) chain; group; mountain range; sierra9. order (noun) extent; magnitude; matter; neighborhood; order; tune; vicinity10. row (noun) file; line; row; series; tier11. extend (verb) extend; fluctuate; go; lie; occupy; run; stretch out; vary12. group (verb) arrange; array; assort; class; classify; dispose; distribute; group; marshal; order; organise; rank; sort; systematise13. line (verb) align; allineate; line; line up14. wander (verb) bat; circumambulate; drift; encompass; explore; gad; gad about; gallivant; maunder; meander; mooch; peregrinate; ramble; roam; roll; rove; straggle; stray; stroll; traipse; traverse; vagabond; vagabondize; wanderАнтонимический ряд:disconnect; disorder; disturb; intermit; remain -
26 Chronology
15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence ofBrazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister. -
27 Barber, John
[br]baptized 22 October 1734 Greasley, Nottinghamshire, Englandd. 6 November 1801 Attleborough, Nuneaton, England[br]English inventor of the gas turbine and jet propulsion.[br]He was the son of Francis Barber, coalmaster of Greasley, and Elizabeth Fletcher. In his will of 1765. his uncle, John Fletcher, left the bulk of his property, including collieries and Stainsby House, Horsley Woodhouse, Derbyshire, to John Barber. Another uncle, Robert, bequeathed him property in the next village, Smalley. It is clear that at this time John Barber was a man of considerable means. On a tablet erected by John in 1767, he acknowledges his debt to his uncle John in the words "in remembrance of the man who trained him up from a youth". At this time John Barber was living at Stainsby House and had already been granted his first patent, in 1766. The contents of this patent, which included a reversible water turbine, and his subsequent patents, suggest that he was very familiar with mining equipment, including the Newcomen engine. It comes as rather a surprise that c.1784 he became bankrupt and had to leave Stainsby House, evidently moving to Attleborough. In a strange twist, a descendent of Mr Sitwell, the new owner, bought the prototype Akroyd Stuart oil engine from the Doncaster Show in 1891.The second and fifth (final) patents, in 1773 and 1792, were concerned with smelting and the third, in 1776, featured a boiler-mounted impulse steam turbine. The fourth and most important patent, in 1791, describes and engine that could be applied to the "grinding of corn, flints, etc.", "rolling, slitting, forging or battering iron and other metals", "turning of mills for spinning", "turning up coals and other minerals from mines", and "stamping of ores, raising water". Further, and importantly, the directing of the fluid stream into smelting furnaces or at the stern of ships to propel them is mentioned. The engine described comprised two retorts for heating coal or oil to produce an inflammable gas, one to operate while the other was cleansed and recharged. The resultant gas, together with the right amount of air, passed to a beam-operated pump and a water-cooled combustion chamber, and then to a water-cooled nozzle to an impulse gas turbine, which drove the pumps and provided the output. A clear description of the thermodynamic sequence known as the Joule Cycle (Brayton in the USA) is thus given. Further, the method of gas production predates Murdoch's lighting of the Soho foundry by gas.It seems unlikely that John Barber was able to get his engine to work; indeed, it was well over a hundred years before a continuous combustion chamber was achieved. However, the details of the specification, for example the use of cooling water jackets and injection, suggest that considerable experimentation had taken place.To be active in the taking out of patents over a period of 26 years is remarkable; that the best came after bankruptcy is more so. There is nothing to suggest that the cost of his experiments was the cause of his financial troubles.[br]Further ReadingA.K.Bruce, 1944, "John Barber and the gas turbine", Engineer 29 December: 506–8; 8 March (1946):216, 217.C.Lyle Cummins, 1976, Internal Fire, Carnot Press.JB -
28 Biringuccio, Vanoccio Vincenzio Agustino Luca
[br]b. 1480 Siena, Italyd. 1537 Rome, Italy[br]Italian author of the celebrated "Pirotechnia" on mining and metallurgy.[br]Biringuccio spent much of his life in the service of, or under the patronage of, the Petruccis, one of the leading families of Siena. In his youth, he was able to travel widely in Italy and Germany, observing mining and metallurgical processes at first hand. For example, his visit to the brass-works in Milan was to be the source of the detailed description in Pirotechnia, published alter his death. He held various appointments in charge of mines or other concerns, such as the Siena mint, under the patronage of the Petruccis. During two periods of exile, while the Petrucci fortunes were in eclipse, he engaged in military activities such as the casting of cannon. That included the great culverin of Florence cast in 1529, also described in the Pirotechnia. In December 1534 Pope Paul III offered him the post of Director of the papal foundry and munitions. He did not take up the post until 1536, but he died the following year.P irotechnia, which made Biringuccio famous, was published in Venice in 1540, three years after his death. The word "pirotechnia" had a wider meaning than that of fireworks, extending to the action of fire on various substances and including distillation and the preparation of acids. While owing something to earlier written sources, the book is substantially based on a lifetime of practical experience of mining and metalworking, including smelting, casting and alloying, and evidence in the book suggests that it was written between 1530 and 1535. Curzio Navo brought out the second and third editions in 1550 and 1559, as well as a Latin edition. A fourth edition was also printed in 1559. The appearance of four editions in such a short time testifies to the popularity and usefulness of the work.[br]Bibliography1942, Pirotechnia, Translated from the Italian with an Introduction and Notes, ed. Cyril S. Smith and Martha T.Gnudi, New York: American Institute of Mining and Metallurgi cal Engineers (the best account of Biringuccio's life, with bibliographical details of the various editions of the Pirotechnia, is in the preface).LRDBiographical history of technology > Biringuccio, Vanoccio Vincenzio Agustino Luca
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29 Born, Ignaz Edler von
[br]b. 26 December 1742 Karlsburg, Transylvania (now Alba lulia, Romania)d. 24 July 1791 Vienna, Austria[br]Austrian metallurgical and mining expert, inventor of the modern amalgamation process.[br]At the University of Prague he studied law, but thereafter turned to mineralogy, physics and different aspects of mining. In 1769–70 he worked with the mining administration in Schemnitz (now Banská Stiavnica, Slovakia) and Prague and later continued travelling to many parts of Europe, with special interests in the mining districts. In 1776, he was charged to enlarge and systematically to reshape the natural-history collection in Vienna. Three years later he was appointed Wirklicher Hofrat at the mining and monetary administration of the Austrian court.Born, who had been at a Jesuit college in his youth, was an active freemason in Vienna and exercised remarkable social communication. The intensity of his academic exchange was outstanding, and he was a member of more than a dozen learned societies throughout Europe. When with the construction of a new metallurgic plant at Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov, Czech Republic) the methods of extracting silver and gold from ores by the means of quicksilver demanded acute consideration, it was this form of scientific intercourse that induced him in 1786 to invite many of his colleagues from several countries to meet in Schemnitz in order to discuss his ideas. Since the beginnings of the 1780s Born had developed the amalgamation process as had first been applied in Mexico in 1557, by mixing the roasted and chlorinated ores with water, ingredients of iron and quicksilver in drums and having the quicksilver refined from the amalgam in the next step. The meeting led to the founding of the Societät der Bergbaukunde, the first internationally structured society of scientists in the world. He died as the result of severe injuries suffered in an accident while he was studying fire-setting in a Slovakian mine in 1770.[br]Bibliography1772–5, Lithophylacium Borniarum seu Index fossilium, 2 vols, Prague.1774 (ed.), Briefe an J.J.Ferber über mineralogische Gegenstände, Frankfurt and Leipzig.1775–84, Abhandlungen einer Privatgesellschaft in Böhmen, zur Aufnahme derMathematik, der vaterländischen Geschichte und der Naturgeschichte, 6 vols, Prague. 1786, Über das Anquicken der gold-und silberhaltigen Erze, Rohsteine, Schwarzkupferund Hüttenspeise, Vienna.1789–90, co-edited with F.W.H.von Trebra, Bergbaukunde, 2 vols, Leipzig.Further ReadingC.von Wurzbach, 1857, Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Österreich, Vol. II, pp. 71–4.L.Molnár and A Weiß, 1986, Ignaz Edler von Born und die Societät der Bergbaukunde 1786, Vienna: Bundesministerium für Handel, Gewerbe und Industrie (provides a very detailed description of his life, the amalgamation process and the society of 1786). G.B.Fettweis, and G.Hamann (eds), 1989, Über Ignaz von Born und die Societät derBergbaukunde, Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaft (provides a very detailed description).WK -
30 Wolf, Carl
SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology[br]b. 23 December 1838 Zwickau, Saxony, Germanyd. 30 January 1915 Zwickau, Saxony, Germany[br]German inventor of the most popular petroleum spirit safety lamp for use in mines.[br]From an old mining family in the Saxon coalfields, Wolf was aware from his youth of the urgent demand for a miner's lamp which would provide adequate light but not provoke firedamp explosions. While working as an engineer in Zwickau, Wolf spent his spare time conducting experiments for such a lamp. The basic concept of his invention was the principle that dangerous concentrations of methane and air would not explode within a small pipe; this had been established almost seventy years earlier by the English chemist Humphrey Davy. By combining and developing certain devices designed by earlier inventors, in 1883 Wolf produced a prototype with a glass cylinder, a primer fixed inside the lamp and a magnetic lock. Until the successful application of electric light, Wolfs invention was the safest and most popular mining safety lamp. Many earlier inventions had failed to address all the problems of lighting for mines; Davy's lamp, for example, would too quickly become sooty and hot. As Wolfs lamp burned petroleum spirit, at first it was mistrusted outside Saxony, but it successfully passed the safety tests in all the leading coal-producing countries at that time. As well as casting a safe, constant light, the appearance of the cap flame could indicate the concentration of fire-damp in the air, thus providing an additional safety measure. Wolfs first patent was soon followed by many others in several countries, and underwent many developments. In 1884 Heinrich Friemann, a merchant from Eisleben, invested capital in the new company of Friemann and Wolf, which became the leading producer of miners' safety lamps. By 1914 they had manufactured over one million lamps, and the company had branches in major mining districts worldwide.[br]Further ReadingF.Schwarz, 1914, Entwickelung und gegenwär-tiger Stand der Grubenbeleuchtung beim Steinkohlen-Bergbau, Gelsenkirchen (a systematic historical outline of safety lamp designs).WK -
31 account
1 ანგარიში, მოხსენება; account for ახსნა; on account of გამო, შედეგად; on no account of არავითარ შემთხვევაში2 მიიჩნევა (მიიჩნევს)the policeman let him off on account of his youth პოლიციელმა იგი არასრულწლოვანობის გამო გაუშვაto open a bottle / road / bank account / fire ბოთლის / გზის / საბანკო ანგარიშის / ცეცხლის გახსნაan incoherent lecture / account / letter უთავბოლო ლექცია / ანგარიში / წერილი●●his account was highly spiced მისი მონაყოლი პიკანტური დეტალებით იყო შეზავებულიI enclose a cheque in settlement of your account / your claim თწვენი ანგარიშის გასასწორებელ ჩეკს თან ვურთავ // თქვენი ზარალის ასანაზღაურებელ ჩეკს გიგზავნითa full description / account / agreement / figure სრული აღწერილობა / ანგარიში / შეთანხმება / ტანიthere's a discrepancy between the two accounts ამ ორ ანგარიშს შორის შეუსაბამობააto call smb. to account დანაშაულისათვის პასუხის მოთხოვნაto settle accounts with smb. ვინმესთან ანგარიშსწორებაto close/open an account საბანკო ანგარიში გახსნა/დახურვაI must account to my father for the expenses მამაჩემს დანახარჯების ანგარიში უნდა ჩავაბაროhow do you account for your conduct? როგორ აგვიხსნი შენს საქციელს?/ როგორ გავიგით შენი საქციელი?his being drunk accounts for his conduct მისი საქციელი სიმთვრალით აიხსნებაhe call smb. to account ვინმსგან პასუხის მოთხოვნაon my account ჩემი მიზეზით, ჩემს გამოon this account ამ მიზეზით, ამის გამოon account of რამეთუ, ვინაიდან, გამოhe gave an interesting account of the incident ინციდენტის საინტერესოდ აღწერა -
32 green
1. [gri:n] n1. 1) зелёный цвет2) pl оттенки зелёного цвета3) зелёный цвет как национальная эмблема Ирландии2. зелёная краска, зелень3. 1) растительность; листва2) pl зелёные ветви деревьев ( для украшения)4. pl зелёные овощи для варки (капуста, шпинат и т. п.)5. молодость, сила6. 1) зелёная лужайка, луг; зелёная лужайка, площадка ( для игр)2) площадка для игры в гольф2. [gri:n] a♢
do you see /is there/ any green in my eye? - неужели я кажусь вам таким легковерным /простаком/?1. 1) зелёный, зелёного цветаgreen dress - зелёное платье, платье зелёного цвета
green light - а) зелёный свет ( светофора); б) разг. «зелёная улица»
to give the green light - дать «зелёную улицу», «дать добро»
2) зелёный, бледный, болезненный ( о цвете лица)to grow /to go, to turn/ green - позеленеть, побледнеть
green with envy [jealousy] - позеленевший /побледневший/ от зависти [ревности]
2. 1) покрытый зеленью, зелёныйgreen tree - дерево, покрытое листвой; зелёное дерево
2) мягкий, тёплый, бесснежныйwe shall have a green Christmas - рождество будет бесснежным, на рождество снега не будет /снег не выпадет/
3. незрелый, неспелый, зелёныйgreen apple - неспелое /зелёное/ яблоко
4. 1) свежий, не подвергшийся обработкеgreen bacon - шпик, свиное сало (солёное, но не копчёное)
2) зелёный, сочный ( о кормах)3) сырой, невыдержанныйgreen wood - а) свежесрубленное дерево; б) невыдержанная древесина; [ср. тж. greenwood]
green timber /амер. lumber/ - свежераспиленный лесоматериал
green brick - сырец, необожжённый кирпич
4) свежий, незажившийgreen wound - свежая /незажившая/ рана
5. 1) свежий; цветущий, полный силgreen old age - цветущая /бодрая/ старость
enjoying a green old age - всё ещё бодрый, несмотря на годы
recollections of his youth were still green in his mind - воспоминания молодости были все ещё свежи в его памяти
2) молодой, нежный6. 1) неопытный, новый, молодой; зелёныйa green band - новичок, неопытный человек, молодой работник
green to one's job - новичок в своей работе, неопытный в своём деле
he is still very green - он ещё очень молод /неопытен, зелен/; ≅ у него ещё молоко на губах не обсохло
she is green from her village - она только-только из деревни, ей ещё привыкать и привыкать к городской жизни
2) воен. необученный, необстрелянный7. доверчивый, простодушный; простоватыйhe is not so green as he looks - он не так прост, как кажется; не смотрите, что он выглядит простачком
to be as green as to imagine that... - быть настолько наивным, чтобы думать, что...
8. редк. ревнивый♢
green finger /thumb/ - садоводческое искусствоhe has green fingers - что он ни посадит, у него всё растёт
in the green tree - библ. в дни процветания /расцвета/
3. [gri:n] vGreen mountain State - амер. шутл. «Штат Зелёной горы» ( Вермонт)
1. становиться зелёным, зеленеть2. 1) красить в зелёный цвет2) одевать в зелёный цвет3. разг. обманывать, мистифицировать -
33 memory
noun1) Gedächtnis, dashave a good/poor memory for faces — ein gutes/schlechtes Personengedächtnis haben
2) (recollection, person or thing remembered, act of remembering) Erinnerung, die (of an + Akk.)have a vague memory of something — sich nur ungenau an etwas (Akk.) erinnern
it slipped or escaped my memory — es ist mir entfallen
from memory — aus dem Gedächtnis od. Kopf
in memory of — zur Erinnerung an (+ Akk.); attrib.
a trip down memory lane — eine Reise in die Vergangenheit
3) (Computing) Speicher, der* * *['meməri]plural - memories; noun1) (the power to remember things: a good memory for details.) das Gedächtnis2) (the mind's store of remembered things: Her memory is full of interesting stories.) das Gedächtnis3) (something remembered: memories of her childhood.) die Erinnerung4) (the time as far back as can be remembered: the greatest fire in memory.) das Gedenken5) (a part of computer in which information is stored for immediate use; a computer with 8 megabytes of memory)•- academic.ru/46134/memorize">memorize- memorise
- from memory
- in memory of / to the memory of* * *memo·ry[ˈmeməri, AM -mɚi]nto have a \memory like an elephant ein Elefantengedächtnis habenloss of \memory Gedächtnisschwund mto have a good \memory for names/numbers ein gutes Namen-/Zahlengedächtnis habena bad/good/photographic \memory ein schlechtes/gutes/fotografisches Gedächtnisimpaired \memory Gedächtnisschwäche fwithin living/sb's \memory soweit man/jd zurückdenken kannthis is still within my \memory daran kann ich mich noch erinnernto commit sth to \memory sich dat etw einprägento recite sth from \memory etw aus dem Gedächtnis rezitierento search one's \memory versuchen, sich akk zu erinnernin \memory of sb/sth zum Gedenken an jdn/etwto bring back memories Erinnerungen wachrufen* * *['memərɪ]n1) Gedächtnis nt; (= faculty) Erinnerungsvermögen ntto commit sth to memory — sich (dat) etw einprägen; poem etw auswendig lernen
I have a bad memory for faces/names — ich habe ein schlechtes Personengedächtnis/Namensgedächtnis
See:→ living2) (= thing remembered) Erinnerung f (of an +acc)he had happy memories of his father — er verband angenehme Erinnerungen mit seinem Vater
3) (COMPUT) (Arbeits-, Haupt)speicher m4)sb's memory — jds Andenken nt ehren
in memory of — zur Erinnerung or zum Gedenken (form) an (+acc)
* * *memory [ˈmemərı] s1. Gedächtnis n, Erinnerung(svermögen) f(n):from memory aus dem Gedächtnis, auswendig;speak from memory frei sprechen;call to memory sich etwas ins Gedächtnis zurückrufen;escape sb’s memory jemandes Gedächtnis entfallen;the memory goes first zuerst wird man vergesslich;have a good (weak) memory ein gutes (schwaches) Gedächtnis haben;have a bad memory for names ein schlechtes Namensgedächtnis haben;have a bad memory for faces sich keine Gesichter merken können, ein schlechtes Personengedächtnis haben;retain a clear memory of sth etwas in klarer Erinnerung behalten;if my memory serves me (right) wenn ich mich recht erinnere;before memory, beyond memory vor undenklichen Zeiten;the best of my memory soweit ich mich erinnern kann; → commit 2, erase 3, jog1 A 1, living A 1, sieve A 1, sponge A 1, wipe out 22. Andenken n, Erinnerung f:of an akk):memories of one’s youth Jugenderinnerungen4. COMPUT Speicher m:memory access Speicherzugriff m;memory bank Speicherbank f;memory capacity Speicherkapazität f;memory expansion Speichererweiterung f;memory function Speicherfunktion f;memory location Speicherplatz m;memory protection Speicherschutz m;memory unit Speichereinheit f* * *noun1) Gedächtnis, dashave a good/poor memory for faces — ein gutes/schlechtes Personengedächtnis haben
2) (recollection, person or thing remembered, act of remembering) Erinnerung, die (of an + Akk.)have a vague memory of something — sich nur ungenau an etwas (Akk.) erinnern
it slipped or escaped my memory — es ist mir entfallen
from memory — aus dem Gedächtnis od. Kopf
in memory of — zur Erinnerung an (+ Akk.); attrib.
3) (Computing) Speicher, der* * *n.Andenken - n.Erinnerung f.Gedächtnis n. -
34 worker
ˈwə:kə сущ. рабочий;
трудящийся, работник;
сотрудник to dismiss a worker, fire a worker ≈ уволить рабочего to hire a worker, to take on a worker ≈ нанять рабочего, работника;
взять кого-л. на работу to make a worker redundant ≈ уволить работника по сокращению штатов to organize, unionize workers ≈ объединять/организовывать/поднимать рабочих (на какой-л. дело) to retrain workers ≈ проводить переподготовку кадров She ate her sandwich alongside several other office workers taking their breakfast. ≈ Она ела свой бутерброд вместе с несколькими другими завтракающими служащими. a call for the workers of the world to unite ≈ призыв к объединению рабочих всего мира blue-collar worker efficient worker full-time worker idle worker indefatigable worker office worker part-time worker skilled worker social worker unemployed worker unskilled worker white-collar worker Syn: labourer, working man, proletarian, wage-earner рабочий - factory and office *s рабочие и служащие трудящийся, работник;
сотрудник - brain * работник умственного труда - manual * работник физического труда - professional * лицо свободной профессии или интеллигентного труда - casual * временный работник - disabled * инвалид труда - full-time * работник, занятый полный рабочий день - registered * списочный рабочий - lay * непрофессионал, непрофессиональный работник труженик, работяга( в противоп. idler) рабочая пчела рабочий муравей( книжное) творец - *s of evil злодеи - *s of miracles чудотворцы active ~ активный работник agricultural ~ земледелец agricultural ~ сельскохозяйственный рабочий assembly line ~ рабочий на конвейере auxiliary ~ вспомогательный рабочий blue collar ~ "синий воротничок", работник физического труда blue-collar ~ рабочий boy ~ посыльный casual ~ временный рабочий casual ~ работник, выполняющий случайную работу clerical ~ канцелярский работник community ~ муниципальный работник;
общинный работник cottage ~ работающий на дому dock ~ докер dock ~ портовый грузчик dock ~ портовый рабочий extension ~ работник службы пропаганды сельскохозяйственных знаний factory ~ работник предприятия farm relief ~ работник по оказанию помощи фермам farm ~ сельскохозяйственный рабочий female ~ работница foreign ~ иностранный рабочий freelance ~ нештатный работник freelance ~ работающий без контракта full-time ~ работник, занятый полный рабочий день girl ~ работница immigrant ~ иностранный рабочий immigrant ~ рабочий-иммигрант industrial ~ промышленный рабочий manual ~ работник физического труда medical social ~ медицинский социальный работник migrant ~ мигрирующий рабочий migrant ~ сезонный рабочий mine ~ = miner mine ~ горняк, шахтер municipal ~ муниципальный служащий nonmanual ~ работник нефизического труда nonmanual ~ служащий nonunionized ~ рабочий не являющийся членом профсоюза office ~ конторский служащий old-age welfare ~ работник по социальному обеспечению престарелых organized ~s организованные трудящиеся, члены профсоюза own account ~ работающий на себя работник;
работник занимающийся индивидуальной трудовой деятельностью part-time ~ работающий неполное рабочее время part-time ~ рабочий, занятый неполный рабочий день permanent ~ постоянный рабочий plant ~ заводской рабочий plantation ~ рабочий плантации professional ~ профессиональный работник, служащий (бухгалтер, архитектор и т. д.) professional ~ профессиональный рабочий refugee ~ рабочий-беженец research ~ научный работник resident ~ работник, проживающий по месту службы salaried ~ служащий seasonal ~ сезонный рабочий semiskilled ~ недостаточно квалифицированный рабочий semiskilled ~ полуквалифицированный рабочий senior social ~ старший социальный работник shipyard ~ рабочий судостроительного завода short-time ~ временный работник skilled ~ квалифицированный работник skilled ~ квалифицированный рабочий, квалифицированный работник skilled ~ квалифицированный рабочий social ~ социальный работник social ~ участник общественных работ specialized ~ специализированный рабочий temporary ~ временный работник temporary ~ временный рабочий transport ~ работник транспорта unionized ~ рабочий - член профсоюза unpaid family ~ лицо, безвозмездно работающее на семейном предприятии unskilled ~ вспомогательный рабочий unskilled ~ неквалифицированный рабочий unskilled ~ подсобный рабочий wage ~ наемный рабочий welfare ~ работник благотворительной организации white collar ~ работник умственного труда woman ~ работница worker работник ~ рабочий, работник ~ рабочий;
работник;
workers of the world, unite! пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! ~ рабочий ~ сотрудник ~ труженик ~ attr. рабочий, трудовой ~ in industry промышленный рабочий ~ рабочий;
работник;
workers of the world, unite! пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! youth ~ работник занимающийся вопросами молодежи -
35 Styron, William Clark, Jr.
(р. 1925) Стайрон, Уильям Кларк мл.Писатель. Наибольшую известность приобрел его роман "Признания Ната Тернера" ["The Confessions of Nat Turner"] (1967), написанный от имени раба, поднявшего восстание в 1831. За этот роман писатель получил Пулитцеровскую премию [ Pulitzer Prize] по литературе за 1968. Среди других произведений: "Ложись в темноте" ["Lie Down in Darkness"] (1951), "Долгий марш" ["The Long March"] (1957), "Подожги этот дом" ["Set This House on Fire"] (1960), "Выбор Софи" ["Sophie's Choice"] (1979) - Американская книжная премия [American Book Award] 1980 - о живущей в США женщине, пережившей ужасы нацистского концлагеря; "Зримая тьма: мемуары о безумии" ["Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness"] (1990) - личные воспоминания писателя о периоде клинической депрессии и сборник "Утро прилива: три рассказа о юности" ["A Tidewater Morning: Three Tales from Youth"] (1993).English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Styron, William Clark, Jr.
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36 tender
tender ['tendə(r)](a) (affectionate → person) tendre, affectueux, doux (douce); (→ heart, smile, words, look) tendre; (→ memories) doux (douce);∎ they bade each other a tender farewell ils se sont fait de tendres adieux;∎ ironic I leave him to your tender mercies je l'abandonne à vos soins∎ my knee is still tender mon genou me fait encore mal;∎ that's rather a tender subject c'est un sujet assez délicat;∎ figurative to touch sb on a tender spot toucher le point sensible de qn(c) (meat, vegetables) tendre∎ she gave her first concert at the tender age of six elle a donné son premier concert alors qu'elle n'avait que six ans;∎ to be of tender years être d'âge tendre(b) (money, fare) tendre;∎ to tender sth to sb tendre qch à qnfaire une soumission;∎ to tender for a contract faire une soumission pour une adjudication, soumissionner une adjudication4 noun(a) (statement of charges) soumission f;∎ to make or put in a tender for sth soumissionner ou faire une soumission pour qch;∎ to invite tenders for a job, to put a job out to tender mettre un travail en adjudication;∎ by tender par voie d'adjudication;∎ a call for tender un appel d'offres(d) (supply vehicle) véhicule m ravitailleur;∎ British (fire) tender voiture f de pompier
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