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21 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
22 worker

n

1) рабочий

2) работник, сотрудник

- agricultural worker
- auxiliary worker
- average worker
- blue-collar worker
- brain worker
- casual worker
- clerical worker
- day worker
- dock worker
- efficient worker
- engineering worker
- experienced worker
- factory worker
- farm worker
- foreign worker
- full-time worker
- general worker
- heavy worker
- highly qualified worker
- highly skilled worker
- hired worker
- industrial worker
- inexperienced worker
- key worker
- low-income worker
- low-salaried worker
- low-skilled worker
- manual worker
- nonmanual worker
- nonunion worker
- odd-job worker
- office worker
- on-site workers
- part-time worker
- permanent worker
- piece worker
- piece-rate worker
- production worker
- professional worker
- qualified worker
- redundant worker
- regular worker
- research worker
- salaried worker
- seasonal worker
- semiskilled worker
- short-time worker
- skilled worker
- temporary worker
- transport worker
- underpaid worker
- unskilled worker
- wage worker
- warehouse worker
- welfare worker
- white collar worker
- workers of budgetary institutions
- discharge workers
- dismiss workers
- employ workers
- fire workers
- hire workers
- lay off workers
- recruit workers
- sack workers
- take on workers

English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > worker
23 Union

- Amalgamated Union of Engineering

- Asian Clearing Union

- Banking, Insurance and Finance Union

- Consumers Union

- Engineering Unions

- European Union for Wholesale Potato Trade

- European Cattle and Meat Trade Union

- European Payments Union

- International Union for Land Value Taxation and Free Trade

- International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

- International Union for the Scientific Study of Population

- International Union of Agricultural Sciences

- International Union of Family Organizations

- International Union of Food and Allied Workers

- International Union of Tenants

- International Population Union

- International Telecommunication Union

- Latin Monetary Union

- National Agricultural Workers' Union

- National Farmers Union

- National Taxpayers' Union

- Scandinavian Monetary Union

- Transport and General Workers' Union

- Universal Postal Union

Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > Union
24 Elder, John

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping, Steam and internal combustion engines

[br]

b. 9 March 1824 Glasgow, Scotland

d. 17 September 1869 London, England

[br]

Scottish engineer who introduced the compound steam engine to ships and established an important shipbuilding company in Glasgow.

[br]

John was the third son of David Elder. The father came from a family of millwrights and moved to Glasgow where he worked for the well-known shipbuilding firm of Napier's and was involved with improving marine engines. John was educated at Glasgow High School and then for a while at the Department of Civil Engineering at Glasgow University, where he showed great aptitude for mathematics and drawing. He spent five years as an apprentice under Robert Napier followed by two short periods of activity as a pattern-maker first and then a draughtsman in England. He returned to Scotland in 1849 to become Chief Draughtsman to Napier, but in 1852 he left to become a partner with the Glasgow general engineering company of Randolph Elliott \& Co. Shortly after his induction (at the age of 28), the engineering firm was renamed Randolph Elder \& Co.; in 1868, when the partnership expired, it became known as John Elder \& Co. From the outset Elder, with his partner, Charles Randolph, approached mechanical (especially heat) engineering in a rigorous manner. Their knowledge and understanding of entropy ensured that engine design was not a hit-and-miss affair, but one governed by recognition of the importance of the new kinetic theory of heat and with it a proper understanding of thermodynamic principles, and by systematic development. In this Elder was joined by W.J.M. Rankine, Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow University, who helped him develop the compound marine engine. Elder and Randolph built up a series of patents, which guaranteed their company's commercial success and enabled them for a while to be the sole suppliers of compound steam reciprocating machinery. Their first such engine at sea was fitted in 1854 on the SS Brandon for the Limerick Steamship Company; the ship showed an improved performance by using a third less coal, which he was able to reduce still further on later designs.

Elder developed steam jacketing and recognized that, with higher pressures, triple-expansion types would be even more economical. In 1862 he patented a design of quadruple-expansion engine with reheat between cylinders and advocated the importance of balancing reciprocating parts. The effect of his improvements was to greatly reduce fuel consumption so that long sea voyages became an economic reality.

His yard soon reached dimensions then unequalled on the Clyde where he employed over 4,000 workers; Elder also was always interested in the social welfare of his labour force. In 1860 the engine shops were moved to the Govan Old Shipyard, and again in 1864 to the Fairfield Shipyard, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west on the south bank of the Clyde. At Fairfield, shipbuilding was commenced, and with the patents for compounding secure, much business was placed for many years by shipowners serving long-distance trades such as South America; the Pacific Steam Navigation Company took up his ideas for their ships. In later years the yard became known as the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company Ltd, but it remains today as one of Britain's most efficient shipyards and is known now as Kvaerner Govan Ltd.

In 1869, at the age of only 45, John Elder was unanimously elected President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland; however, before taking office and giving his eagerly awaited presidential address, he died in London from liver disease. A large multitude attended his funeral and all the engineering shops were silent as his body, which had been brought back from London to Glasgow, was carried to its resting place. In 1857 Elder had married Isabella Ure, and on his death he left her a considerable fortune, which she used generously for Govan, for Glasgow and especially the University. In 1883 she endowed the world's first Chair of Naval Architecture at the University of Glasgow, an act which was reciprocated in 1901 when the University awarded her an LLD on the occasion of its 450th anniversary.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

President, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland 1869.

Further Reading

Obituary, 1869, Engineer 28.

1889, The Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith Elder \& Co. W.J.Macquorn Rankine, 1871, "Sketch of the life of John Elder" Transactions of the

Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Maclehose, 1886, Memoirs and Portraits of a Hundred Glasgow Men.

The Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Works, 1909, London: Offices of Engineering.

P.M.Walker, 1984, Song of the Clyde, A History of Clyde Shipbuilding, Cambridge: PSL.

R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (covers Elder's contribution to the development of steam engines).

RLH / FMW

Biographical history of technology > Elder, John
25 general

̈ɪˈdʒenərəl I прил.
1) общий, родовой( о понятии), общего характера (характерный для определенного класса, типа) bearing a general resemblance to the original ≈ имеющий общее (в общих чертах) сходство с оригиналом general workers ≈ неквалифицированные рабочие, разнорабочие general hospital ≈ неспециализированная больница, больница общего типа in general ≈ вообще Syn: accepted, common, generic, popular, public, universal
2) а) повсеместный;
широкий general opinion ≈ общее мнение general holiday ≈ общенародный праздник б) превалирующий;
наиболее широко распространенный Syn: prevalent
3) обычный, общепринятый Syn: customary, habitual, common, popular, public Ant: queer, specific, uncommon, unparalleled, unusual
4) главный, основной, генеральный general layout ≈ генеральный план( застройки, строительства) General Headquarters ≈ штаб главнокомандующего, ставка;
главное командование Syn: chief, main II сущ.
1) обобщающее понятие
2) генерал;
военачальник, командующий, полководец general of the Army ≈ командующий армией brigadier general ≈ бригадный генерал commanding general ≈ командующий/командир в звании генерала lieutenant general ≈ генерал-лейтенант major general ≈ генерал-майор three-star general ≈ генерал-лейтенант Syn: commander, military leader генерал - * of the Army (американизм) генерал армии (американизм) (сленг) начальство, "отец-командир" (о заведующем, директоре школы, главе семьи и т. п.) (the *) общее - the * and the particular общее и частное общие замечания;
общие положение;
общая часть( публикации) (разговорное) прислуга "за все" (церковное) глава ордена (устаревшее) большинство( устаревшее) (the *) народ( устаревшее) толпа, чернь, простонародье > *'s battle бой, исход которого решает умелое командование общий, всеобщий - * meeting общее собрание - * strike всеобщая забастовка - there was a * panic всех охватила паника - there was a * exodus все сдвинулись с места (разъезд, эмиграция и т. п.) - * education всеобщее образование /обучение/ - * knowledge то, что известно всем - * average общая авария - * library общая библиотека;
университетская библиотека - * debate общие прения /дебаты, -ая дискуссия/ - * ticket( американизм) общий список (избирательный бюллетень с кандидатами, представляющими штат или город в целом, а не их отдельные районы) - * pardon всеобщая амнистия - * favourite общий любимец;
тот, кого все считают наиболее вероятной кандидатурой ( на выборах, соревнованиях и т. п.) широкий;
повсеместный - * opinion общее мнение - * holiday общенародный праздник - * lay-out общее расположение, генеральный план - * counter-attack( военное) общая контратака;
контрнаступление - * support( военное) общая поддержка - * paralysis (медицина) прогрессивный паралич - * anesthesia( медицина) общий наркоз - * release (кинематографический) широкий /неограниченный/ прокат, выпуск на широкий экран - to work for the * welfare работать на общее благо - the book was a * favourite книга понравилась всем /пользовалась успехом у всех/ - it is a matter of * anxiety это беспокоит всех, это предмет всеобщего беспокойства - it is not in the * interest to close railways закрыть железнодорожное движение противоречит общим интересам - there has been * opposition to the scheme план вызвал протест широких масс, все были против этого плана - the rain has been fairly * можно сказать, что дождь шел повсюду распространенный;
общепринятый, обычный - * word обычное /общепринятое/ слово - * notion общепринятое понятие /представление/ - in * обычно, вообще, в большинстве случаев - in * people like her обычно она людям нравится - as a * rule обычно, как правило - the * idea is that... все считают, что..., существует общее мнение, что... - this word is in * use это очень употребительное слово - this type of behaviour is fairly * among young people такая модель поведения довольно характерна для молодежи общий, общего характера, неспециализированный, неспециальный - * public широкие массы - * reader широкий /рядовой, массовый/ читатель - the book was not accessible to the * reader для широкого читателя эта книга была недоступна - * dealer торговец товарами повседневного спроса;
хозяин лавки, в которой продаются различные товары - * store(s) универсальный магазин, неспециализированный магазин - * servant прислуга "за все" - * education общее образование - * knowledge знания в различных областях - * hospital неспециализированная больница;
больница общего типа - * practitioner врач широкого профиля - who is your * practitioner? кто ваш лечащий врач? - to be in * practice заниматься общей врачебной практикой - * pathology общая патология - * farming неспециализированное хозяйство - * overhaul капитальный ремонт - * reconnaissance общая разведка - * reserve( военное) общий резерв;
резерв общего назначения - * duties( военное) строевая служба - * engineering общее машиностроение - * cargo( морское) генеральный груз;
сборный груз - for * use для общего пользования расплывчатый, неточный, общий - * impression общее впечатление - * recommendations общие рекомендации - to have a * idea иметь общее представление - I've got the * idea в общих чертах я понял - to give a * outline наметить в общих чертах - to explain in * terms объяснить в общих чертах - the statement is too * это заявление носит слишком общий характер - if you go in the * direction of the church... видите церковь? Если вы будете держаться этого направления... - I see only a * resemblance я вижу только самое общее сходство - I can give only a * description я могу дать только самое общее описание главный, генеральный - * committee генеральный комитет (ООН) ;
президиум - Director G., G. Manager генеральный директор - * officer генерал - G. Commanding Officer командующий, командующий группой войск, командир соединения - * headquarters ставка, главное командование - * staff( американизм) общая часть штаба;
общий штаб - * court martial военный суд высшей инстанции ~ обычный;
as a general rule как правило;
in a general way обычным путем auditor ~ генеральный ревизор consul ~ генеральный консул director ~ генеральный директор general всеобщий ~ генерал;
полководец ~ генеральный ~ главный;
general layout генеральный план (строительства) ~ главный ~ неспециализированный ~ неспециальный ~ общий, общего характера, всеобщий;
генеральный;
general meeting общее собрание;
general impression общее впечатление ~ общий ~ обычный;
as a general rule как правило;
in a general way обычным путем ~ обычный ~ повсеместный General Headquarters штаб главнокомандующего, ставка;
главное командование;
general staff общевойсковой штаб ~ strike всеобщая забастовка;
general hospital неспециализированная больница, больница общего типа;
in general вообще hospital: general ~ общий госпиталь ~ общий, общего характера, всеобщий;
генеральный;
general meeting общее собрание;
general impression общее впечатление ~ главный;
general layout генеральный план (строительства) ~ общий, общего характера, всеобщий;
генеральный;
general meeting общее собрание;
general impression общее впечатление meeting: general ~ деловая встреча general ~ общее собрание ~ public широкая публика, общественность;
general workers неквалифицированные рабочие, разнорабочие public: general ~ общественность general ~ широкая публика General Headquarters штаб главнокомандующего, ставка;
главное командование;
general staff общевойсковой штаб General Staff генеральный штаб( сухопутных войск) ;
general (post) delivery первая утренняя разноска почты;
амер. (почта) до востребования staff: general ~ основной персонал ~ strike всеобщая забастовка;
general hospital неспециализированная больница, больница общего типа;
in general вообще strike: general ~ всеобщая забастовка general ~ всеобщая стачка ~ public широкая публика, общественность;
general workers неквалифицированные рабочие, разнорабочие ~ обычный;
as a general rule как правило;
in a general way обычным путем ~ strike всеобщая забастовка;
general hospital неспециализированная больница, больница общего типа;
in general вообще secretary ~ генеральный секретарь secretary: ~ секретарь, руководитель организации;
secretary general генеральный секретарь

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > general
26 Association

- Association for Payment Clearing Services

- Association of British Chambers of Commerce

- Association of British Factors

- Association of Certified and Corporate Accountants

- Association of International Bond Dealers

- Association of Management Consultants

- Association of Primary Dealers in Government Securities

- Association of Scientific, Technical and Managerial Staff

- Association of South East Asian Nations

- Agricultural Cooperative Association

- Aluminium Stockholders Association

- American Association of Advertising Agencies

- American Association of Equipment Lessors

- American Arbitration Association

- American Banker's Association

- American Economic Association

- American Management Association

- American Social Science Association

- American Sociological Association

- American Standards Association

- American Statistical Association

- American Trucking Association

- British Bankers' Association

- British Engineering Standards Association

- British Insurance Association

- British Merchant Banking and Securities Association

- British Overseas Banks Association

- Building Society Association

- Canadian Engineering Standards Association

- Central Landowners Association

- Civil Service Clerical Association

- Consumers' Association

- Engineers' and Managers' Association

- European Association for Animal Production

- European Free Trade Association

- Family Planning Association

- Federal National Mortgage Association

- Federal Savings and Loan Association

- Finance Houses Association

- Foreign Credit Insurance Association

- Government National Mortgage Association

- Health Insurance Association of America

- Independent Bankers' Association

- Independent Natural Gas Association of America

- Inter-American Association of Industrial Property

- International Association for Quality Research on Food Plants

- International Association for Research in Income and Wealth

- International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property

- International Association of Agricultural Economists

- International Association of Food Distribution

- International Association of Horticultural Producers

- International Association of Soil Science

- International Development Association

- International Patent and Trademark Association

- International Sociological Association

- International Standards Association

- Investment Bankers' Association

- Issuing Houses Association

- Latin-American Free Trade Association

- Life Insurance Association of America

- Life Office Management Association

- London Discount Market Association

- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

- National Association of Accountants

- National Association of Bank Auditors and Controllers

- National Association of Business Economists

- National Association of Cost Accountants

- National Association of County Agricultural Agents

- National Association of Electric Companies

- National Association of Home-Builders

- National Association of Insurance Brokers

- National Association of Investment Clubs

- National Association of Investment Companies

- National Association of Investors' Brokers

- National Association of Manufacturers

- National Association of Purchasing Management

- National Association of Realtors

- National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners

- National Association of Securities Dealers and Investment Managers

- National and Local Government Officers' Association

- National Birth Control Association

- National Farm Loan Association

- National Futures Association

- National Machine Accountants Association

- National Pest Control Association

- National Planning Association

- National Security Industrial Association

- New York Patent Law Association

- Pacific Industrial Property Association

- Population Association of America

- Production Credit Association

- Production Engineering Research Association

- Railway Accounting Officers' Association

- Scandinavian Agricultural Research Workers' Association

- Securities Association

- Transport Salaried Staff's Association

- World Association for the Struggle Against Hunger

- World Association of Industrial and Technological Research Organizations

- World Association of Travel Agencies

Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > Association
27 Maudslay, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

[br]

b. 22 August 1771 Woolwich, Kent, England

d. 15 February 1831 Lambeth, London, England

[br]

English precision toolmaker and engineer.

[br]

Henry Maudslay was the third son of an ex-soldier and storekeeper at Woolwich Arsenal. At the age of 12 he was employed at the Arsenal filling cartridges; two years later he was transferred to the woodworking department, adjacent to the smithy, to which he moved when 15 years old. He was a rapid learner, and three years later Joseph Bramah took him on for the construction of special tools required for the mass-production of his locks. Maudslay was thus employed for the next eight years. He became Bramah's foreman, married his housekeeper, Sarah Tindale, and, unable to better himself, decided to leave and set up on his own. He soon outgrew his first premises in Wells Street and moved to Margaret Street, off Oxford Street, where some examples of his workmanship were displayed in the window. These caught the attention of a visiting Frenchman, de Bacquancourt; he was a friend of Marc Isambard Brunel, who was then in the early stages of designing the block-making machinery later installed at Portsmouth dockyard.

Brunel wanted first a set of working models, as he did not think that the Lords of the Admiralty would be capable of understanding engineering drawings; Maudslay made these for him within the next two years. Sir Samuel Bentham, Inspector-General of Naval Works, agreed that Brunel's system was superior to the one that he had gone some way in developing; the Admiralty approved, and an order was placed for the complete plant. The manufacture of the machinery occupied Maudslay for the next six years; he was assisted by a draughtsman whom he took on from Portsmouth dockyard, Joshua Field (1786–1863), who became his partner in Maudslay, Son and Field. There were as many as eighty employees at Margaret Street until, in 1810, larger premises became necessary and a new works was built at Lambeth Marsh where, eventually, there were up to two hundred workers. The new factory was flanked by two houses, one of which was occupied by Maudslay, the other by Field. The firm became noted for its production of marine steam-engines, notably Maudslay's table engine which was first introduced in 1807.

Maudslay was a consummate craftsman who was never happier than when working at his bench or at a machine tool; he was also one of the first engineers to appreciate the virtues of standardization. Evidence of this appreciation is to be found in his work in the development of the Bramah lock and then on the machine tools for the manufacture of ship's blocks to Marc Brunel's designs; possibly his most important contribution was the invention in 1797 of the metal lathe. He made a number of surface plates of the finest quality. The most celebrated of his numerous measuring devices was a micrometer-based machine which he termed his "Lord Chancellor" because, in the machine shop, it represented the "final court of appeal", measuring to one-thousandth of an inch.

[br]

Further Reading

1934–5, "Maudslay, Sons \& Field as general engineers", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 15, London.

1963, Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1, London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers. L.T.C.Rolt, 1965, Tools for the Job, London: Batsford.

W.Steeds, 1969, A History of Machine Tools 1700–1910, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Maudslay, Henry
28 approach

əˈprəutʃ
1. сущ.
1) приближение;
наступление too near approaches to fire ≈ слишком близкое приближение к огню the approach of summer ≈ наступление лета With the approach of spring, we began to feel better. ≈ С приближением весны мы почувствовали себя лучше.
2) подход, подъезд, подступ;
воен. подступы, подходы (к позициям противника) approach road ≈ подъездной путь easy of approach ≈ легкодоступный подъезд, подход difficult of approach ≈ труднодоступный подъезд, подход Syn: access, avenue, passage
3) приближение, сближение( по качеству, характеру и т. п.) In this book he makes his closest approach to greatness. ≈ В этой книге он почти достиг величия.
4) подход (к решению проблемы, задачи и т. п.) to take a judicious approach to a problem ≈ подойти к проблеме с юридической точки зрения forthright approach ≈ прямой подход holistic approach ≈ глобальный подход pragmatic approach, rational approach ≈ прагматичный, прагматический подход scholarly approach, scientific approach ≈ научный подход, научный метод I like her approach to the problem. ≈ Мне нравится ее подход к проблеме. a highly individual approach to language ≈ весьма индивидуальный подход к изучению языка
5) мн. заигрывания, попытки установить контакты Syn: advances
6) авиац. заход на посадку landing field approach lights ≈ сигнальные огни на взлетной полосе The best approach speed is about 95 m.p.h. ≈ Наилучная скорость при заходе на посадку - 95 миль в час.
7) спорт выводящий удар в гольфе
2. гл.
1) подходить, приближаться;
воен. подступать, сближаться to approach the podium ≈ подходить к эстраде dawn approaches ≈ приближается рассвет Syn: near
2) приближаться, быть почти равным, похожим, граничить Its mathematics approaches mysticism. ≈ Его математика граничит с мистикой. as the quantity x approaches zero ≈ когда x приближается к нулю Syn: compare
3) обращаться( с просьбой, предложением) ;
начинать переговоры to approach the subject with an open mind ≈ подходить к решению проблемы непредвзято Few of the workers have approached the director about their working conditions. ≈ Несколько рабочих обратились к директору по поводу условий труда.
4) пытаться завязать дружбу и т. п., наладить контакты;
пытаться оказать влияние
5) авиац. заходить на посадку
приближение;
приход, наступление - the * of winter приближение зимы - at our * при нашем приближении, когда мы подошли - on nearer * we was... когда мы подошли ближе, мы увидели... - easy of * легкодоступный (о месте) (военное) подступ;
подход;
сближение - * march( военное) марш-поход - * march formation( военное) предбоевой порядок - * trench( военное) ход сообщения - * clearance разрешение на посадку - * light входной огонь аэродрома обыкн pl подступы - at the *es to the city на подступах к городу (дорожностроительное) подъезд, подъездной путь подход (к рассмотрению, изучению) - one-sided * односторонний подход - the best * to the study of the spoken language наилучший подход к изучению разговорного языка - new lines of * to the problem новый путь к разрешению этого вопроса авансы, подходы - to make *es to smb. делать авансы;
подъезжать с просьбой, предложением - to make *es to a girl ухаживать за девушкой;
заигрывать с девушкой (техническое) подача, подвод( суппорта станка) (метеорология) надвижение (спортивное) разбег (космонавтика) сближение (кораблей) - final * причаливание( спортивное) выводящий удар (гольф) подходить, приближаться - to * smb. подойти - to * the town подъезжать к городу - the boy is *ing manhood мальчик скоро станет взрослым - the work is *ing completion работа идет к концу близиться - winter is *ing наступает зима - holidays are *ing приближаются каникулы( военное) подступать, сближаться (военное) сближать (космонавтика) сближаться (о кораблях) граничить, приближаться - his kindness *es imbecility его доброта граничит с глупостью - to * perfection быть близким к совершенству - the wind was *ing a gale ветер становился ураганным обращаться (с просьбой, предложением) ;
вступать в переговоры - when is the best time to * him? когда удобнее всего поговорить с ним? - he was *ed by several Hollywood producers к нему обращались с предложениями несколько голливудских продюсеров (военное) обращаться - to a * commander обращаться к начальнику (разговорное) подъезжать, подкатываться - have you *ed the manager about a raise? ты не пробовал подъехать к заведующему относительно прибавки? ухаживать, пытаться соблазнить

analytical ~ аналитический метод

approach pl авансы;
попытки

~ приближение;
the approach of summer наступление лета

~ вступать в переговоры ~ делать предложения, начинать переговоры;
I approached him on the matter я обратился к нему по этому вопросу;
he approached me for information он обратился ко мне за сведениями ~ ав. заход на посадку;
instrument approach заход на посадку по приборам ~ метод ~ обращаться ~ (обыкн. pl) воен. подступ ~ подступ, подход (тж. перен.) ~ подход ~ приближать ~ приближаться, быть почти равным, похожим ~ приближаться, подходить ~ приближаться ~ приближение;
the approach of summer наступление лета ~ приближение ~ приблизить ~ принцип ~ пытаться повлиять( на кого-л.)

~ attr.: ~ road подъездной путь

~ attr.: ~ road подъездной путь

~ to an issue приступать к эмиссии

audit ~ метод проведения ревизии

bayesian ~ байесовский метод bayesian ~ байесовский подход Bayesian ~ байесовский подход

bottom-up ~ восходящий подход bottom-up ~ восходящий принцип

brute-force ~ грубый метод brute-force ~ метод решения в лоб

building-block ~ принцип компоновки из стандартных блоков

business ~ деловой подход

businesslike ~ практический подход

cut-and-try ~ метод проб и ошибок

database ~ вчт. подход на основе использования баз данных

delphi ~ вчт. метод экспертных оценок

difficult of ~ труднодоступный;
to make approaches (to smb.) стараться привлечь внимание( кого-л.) ;
разг. подъезжать (к кому-л.) ;
he's rather difficult to approach = к нему не подойдешь

divide-and-conquer ~ вчт. метод разобщения

easy of ~ легкодоступный

elimination ~ вчт. метод исключения переменных

engineering ~ инженерный метод engineering ~ инженерный подход

fulcrum ~ вчт. циклический подход

game-model ~ вчт. модельно-игровой подход

graphic ~ графический метод

graphical ~ графический метод

~ делать предложения, начинать переговоры;
I approached him on the matter я обратился к нему по этому вопросу;
he approached me for information он обратился ко мне за сведениями

difficult of ~ труднодоступный;
to make approaches (to smb.) стараться привлечь внимание (кого-л.) ;
разг. подъезжать (к кому-л.) ;
he's rather difficult to approach = к нему не подойдешь

heuristic ~ эвристический подход

holistic ~ целостный подход

~ делать предложения, начинать переговоры;
I approached him on the matter я обратился к нему по этому вопросу;
he approached me for information он обратился ко мне за сведениями

income ~ метод определения доходов

~ ав. заход на посадку;
instrument approach заход на посадку по приборам

difficult of ~ труднодоступный;
to make approaches (to smb.) стараться привлечь внимание (кого-л.) ;
разг. подъезжать (к кому-л.) ;
he's rather difficult to approach = к нему не подойдешь

managerial ~ управленческий метод

managing ~ метод управления

modular ~ вчт. модульный принцип

multilingual ~ вчт. многоязычный принцип

novel ~ новаторский подход

omnibus ~ обобщенный подход

optimization ~ метод оптимизации

performance sampling ~ вчт. метод выборочного рабочего обследования

probabilistic ~ вероятностный подход

problem-solving ~ метод обучения основанный на решении задач

sales ~ mark. метод стимулирования сбыта

self-targeting ~ саморегулирование потребления

shortest route ~ метод кратчайшего пути

simulation ~ имитационный принцип simulation ~ метод моделирования

standards ~ подход с применением стандартов

statistical ~ статистический метод

system ~ to training системный подход к обучению

system sandwich ~ вчт. построение методом сэндвича

systems ~ системный подход

top-down ~ нисходящий принцип

trial-and-error ~ метод проб и ошибок

turnkey ~ вчт. принцип сдачи под ключ

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > approach
29 Cotton, William

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. 1819 Seagrave, Leicestershire, England

d. after 1878

[br]

English inventor of a power-driven flat-bed knitting machine.

[br]

Cotton was originally employed in Loughborough and became one of the first specialized hosiery-machine builders. After the introduction of the latch needle by Matthew Townsend in 1856, knitting frames developed rapidly. The circular frame was easier to work automatically, but attempts to apply power to the flat frame, which could produce fully fashioned work, culminated in 1863 with William Cotton's machine. In that year he invented a machine that could make a dozen or more stockings or hose simultaneously and knit fashioned garments of all kinds. The difficulty was to reduce automatically the number of stitches in the courses where the hose or garment narrowed to give it shape. Cotton had early opportunities to apply himself to the improvement of hosiery machines while employed in the patent shop of Cartwright \& Warner of Loughborough, where some of the first rotaries were made. He remained with the firm for twenty years, during which time sixty or seventy of these machines were turned out. Cotton then established a factory for the manufacture of warp fabrics, and it was here that he began to work on his ideas. He had no knowledge of the principles of engineering or drawing, so his method of making sketches and then getting his ideas roughed out involved much useless labour. After twelve years, in 1863, a patent was issued for the machine that became the basis of the Cotton's Patent type. This was a flat frame driven by rotary mechanism and remarkable for its adaptability. At first he built his machine upright, like a cottage piano, but after much thought and experimentation he conceived the idea of turning the upper part down flat so that the needles were in a vertical position instead of being horizontal, and the work was carried off horizontally instead of vertically. His first machine produced four identical pieces simultaneously, but this number was soon increased. Cotton was induced by the success of his invention to begin machine building as a separate business and thus established one of the first of a class of engineering firms that sprung up as an adjunct to the new hosiery manufacture. He employed only a dozen men and turned out six machines in the first year, entering into an agreement with Hine \& Mundella for their exclusive use. This was later extended to the firm of I. \& R.Morley. In 1878, Cotton began to build on his own account, and the business steadily increased until it employed some 200 workers and had an output of 100 machines a year.

[br]

Bibliography

1863, British patent no. 1,901 (flat-frame knitting machine).

Further Reading

F.A.Wells, 1935, The British Hosiery and Knitwear Industry: Its History and Organisation, London (based on an article in the Knitters' Circular (Feb. 1898).

A brief account of the background to Cotton's invention can be found in T.K.Derry and T.I. Williams, 1960, A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to AD 1900, Oxford; C. Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. V, Oxford: Clarendon Press.

F.Moy Thomas, 1900, I. \& R.Morley. A Record of a Hundred Years, London (mentions cotton's first machines).

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Cotton, William
30 AEF

1) Общая лексика: Advertising Educational Foundation (сокр.) (Организация специалистов по обучению рекламированию товаров и их сбыту (США))

2) Медицина: aortoenteric fistulae

3) Французский язык: «Европейский центр федералистского действия» ( организация) (сокр. от Centre d’Action Européenne Fédéraliste = European Centre for Federalist Action)

4) Военный термин: Air Expeditionary Force, Allied Expeditionary Force, advanced electronics field, aeromedical evacuation flight

5) Техника: Argonne Experimental Facility, atomic energy facility

6) Сокращение: Air Expeditionary Force (USAF), Air Experience Flight, Amalgamated Union of Engineering and Foundry Workers, American Expeditionary Force, American Expeditionary Forces, АСФ (Amyloid enhancing factor - амилоид стимулирующий фактор.), Americans for Economic Freedom («Американцы — сторонники экономической свободы» (организация)), American Economic Foundation (Американская научно-экономическая организация), Armenian Educational Foundation (Организация помощи армянским школам в странах Среднего Востока (США)), Aerospace Education Foundation (Фонд аэрокосмического образования (США))

7) Вычислительная техника: Access control Enforcement Function, American Expeditionary Force (see)

8) Иммунология: adherence enhancing factor, allogenic effect factor

9) Пищевая промышленность: ИВП искусственно-выращенные продукты

10) Автоматика: AFOS Experimental Facility (сокр.) (экспериментальное устройство для нужд программы автоматизации полевых наблюдений и обслуживания)

11) Контроль качества: airborne equipment failure

12) Химическое оружие: Allied( or American) Expeditionary Force, acceptable exposure limit

13) Общественная организация: Aerospace Education Foundation, American Eagle Foundation

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > AEF
31 ♦ harbour

♦ harbour, ( USA) harbor /ˈhɑ:bə(r)/
n. [cu]

1 (naut.) porto: a natural [artificial] harbour, un porto naturale [artificiale]

2 (fig.) porto; asilo; rifugio

3 ( di un selvatico) tana

● harbour basin, bacino del porto □ harbour channel, canale portuale □ harbour dues, diritti portuali □ harbour engineering, ingegneria portuale □ harbour master, capitano del porto □ harbour office, capitaneria di porto □ harbour workers, (lavoratori) portuali □ harbour works, opere portuali.
(to) harbour, ( USA) (to) harbor /ˈhɑ:bə(r)/
A v. t.

1 albergare; alloggiare; ospitare

2 dare ricetto a; proteggere: to harbour a criminal, dare ricetto a un criminale

3 (fig.) covare, nutrire (fig.): to harbour a grudge, nutrire rancore; covare un risentimento

B v. i. (arc.)

1 (naut.) entrare in porto; gettare l'ancora (in un porto)

2 (fig.) rifugiarsi; trovare asilo.

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ harbour
32 management

noun

1) Durchführung, die; (of a business) Leitung, die; Management, das; (of money) Verwaltung, die

2) (managers) Leitung, die; Management, das; (of theatre etc.) Direktion, die

the management — die Geschäftsleitung

* * *

noun

1) (the art of managing: The management of this company is a difficult task.) diee Verwaltung, das Management

2) (or noun plural the managers of a firm etc as a group: The management has/have agreed to pay the workers more.) die Geschäftsleitung

* * *

man·age·ment

[ˈmænɪʤmənt]

I. n

1. no pl of business Management nt, Steuerung f, Verwaltung f, [Geschäfts]führung f, [Unternehmens]leitung f

2. + sing/pl vb (managers) [Unternehmens]leitung f, Management nt; of hospital, theatre Direktion f

junior \management untere Führungsebene; (trainees) Führungsnachwuchs m

middle \management mittlere Führungsebene

senior \management oberste Führungsebene, Vorstand m

3. no pl (handling) Umgang m (of mit + dat); of finances Verwalten nt

crisis \management Krisenmanagement nt

II. n modifier ECON

\management skills Führungsqualitäten pl

\management training Managementtraining nt

* * *
['mnɪdZmənt]
n

1) (= act) (of company) Leitung f, Führung f, Management nt; (of non-commercial organization) Leitung f; (of estate, assets, money) Verwaltung f; (of affairs) Regelung f

crisis/time/people management — Krisen-/Zeit-/Personalmanagement nt

management by objectives — Führen nt durch Zielvereinbarung

2) (= persons) Unternehmensleitung f; (of single unit or smaller factory) Betriebsleitung f; (non-commercial) Leitung f; (THEAT) Intendanz f

"under new management" — "neuer Inhaber"; (shop) "neu eröffnet"; (pub) "unter neuer Bewirtschaftung"

* * *

management [ˈmænıdʒmənt] s

1. (Haus- etc) Verwaltung f

2. WIRTSCH Management n, Unternehmensführung f:

junior (middle) management untere (mittlere) Führungskräfte pl;

top(-level) ( oder senior) management Top-, Spitzenmanagement n;

management consultancy Betriebs-, Unternehmensberatung f;

management consultant Betriebs-, Unternehmensberater(in);

management engineering US Betriebstechnik f;

management studies pl Betriebswirtschaft f;

management science Wissenschaft f von der Unternehmensführung;

management by objectives Führen n durch Zielvereinbarung

3. WIRTSCH Geschäfts-, Firmenleitung f, Direktion f:

under new management unter neuer Leitung, (Geschäft etc) neu eröffnet;

management buyout Management-Buy-out n (Übernahme eines Unternehmens durch in diesem Unternehmen tätige Führungskräfte);

management shares bes Br Gründeraktien, -anteile;

management and union Sozialpartner pl; → academic.ru/41284/labor">labor A 3

4. Bewirtschaftung f (eines Gutes etc)

5. Erledigung f (von Angelegenheiten etc)

6. Geschicklichkeit f, (kluge) Taktik:

more by luck than by management umg mit mehr Glück als Verstand

7. Kunstgriff m, Trick m

8. Handhabung f, Behandlung f:

management of the environment Umweltgestaltung f

9. MED Behandlung f (u. Pflege f)

* * *

noun

1) Durchführung, die; (of a business) Leitung, die; Management, das; (of money) Verwaltung, die

2) (managers) Leitung, die; Management, das; (of theatre etc.) Direktion, die

the management — die Geschäftsleitung

* * *

n.

Führung -en f.

Geschäftsführung f.

Handhabung f.

Leitung -en f.

Management n.

Regie -n (Führung) f.

Unternehmen n.

Verwaltung f.

English-german dictionary > management
33 profession

noun

1) Beruf, der

what is your profession? — was sind Sie von Beruf?

take up/go into or enter a profession — einen Beruf ergreifen/in einen Beruf gehen

she is in the legal profession — sie ist Juristin

be a pilot by profession — von Beruf Pilot sein

the [learned] professions — Theologie, Jura und Medizin

2) (body of people) Berufsstand, der

3) (declaration)

profession of friendship/sympathy — Freundschafts- / Sympathiebekundung, die

4) (Relig.): (affirmation of faith) Bekenntnis, das (of zu)

* * *

[-ʃən]

noun

1) (an occupation or job that needs special knowledge, eg medicine, law, teaching, engineering etc.) der Beruf

2) (the people who have such an occupation: the legal profession.) der Beruf

3) (an open statement or declaration.) das Bekenntnis

* * *

pro·fes·sion

[prəˈfeʃ^ən]

n

1. (field of work) Beruf m

teaching \profession Lehrberuf m

the oldest \profession in the world das älteste Gewerbe der Welt

to enter a \profession einen Beruf ergreifen

by \profession von Beruf

2. (body of workers) Berufsstand m

the medical \profession die Ärzteschaft

3. (claim) Bekundung f, Erklärung f

\profession of faith Glaubensbekenntnis nt

\profession of love/loyalty Liebes-/Loyalitätserklärung f

* * *
[prə'feSən]
n

1) (= occupation) Beruf m

the medical/teaching profession — der Arzt-/Lehrberuf

by profession — von Beruf

the professions — die gehobenen Berufe

the oldest profession in the world (hum) — das älteste Gewerbe der Welt

2)

(= members of the profession) the medical profession — die Ärzteschaft

the architectural profession — die Architekten pl

the whole profession was outraged — der gesamte Berufsstand war empört

3) (= declaration ALSO ECCL) Gelübde nt

profession of faith — Glaubensbekenntnis nt

a profession of love — eine Liebeserklärung

a profession of contempt — eine Missfallensäußerung

a profession of loyalty — ein Treuegelöbnis nt

the profession of Christianity — das Bekenntnis zum Christentum

he is, by his own profession,... — nach eigenem Bekunden ist er...

* * *

profession [prəˈfeʃn] s

1. ( besonders akademischer oder freier) Beruf, Stand m:

the professions die akademischen Berufe;

by profession von Beruf;

the world’s oldest profession euph das älteste Gewerbe der Welt; → academic.ru/46850/military_profession">military profession

2. the profession koll der Beruf oder Stand, die (gesamten) Vertreter pl oder Angehörigen pl eines Berufes oder Standes: → medical A 1

3. (Glaubens)Bekenntnis n

4. Bekundung f, ( auch falsche) Versicherung oder Behauptung, Erklärung f, Beteuerung f:

profession of faith Treuebekenntnis n;

profession of friendship Freundschaftsbeteuerung

5. REL Profess f:

a) (Ordens)Gelübde n

b) Ablegung f des (Ordens)Gelübdes

* * *

noun

1) Beruf, der

what is your profession? — was sind Sie von Beruf?

take up/go into or enter a profession — einen Beruf ergreifen/in einen Beruf gehen

she is in the legal profession — sie ist Juristin

be a pilot by profession — von Beruf Pilot sein

the [learned] professions — Theologie, Jura und Medizin

2) (body of people) Berufsstand, der

3) (declaration)

profession of friendship/sympathy — Freundschafts- / Sympathiebekundung, die

4) (Relig.): (affirmation of faith) Bekenntnis, das (of zu)

* * *

n.

Beruf -e m.

Metier -s n.

Stand ¨-e m.

English-german dictionary > profession
34 shop

1. noun
1) (premises) Laden, der; Geschäft, das

go to the shops — einkaufen gehen

keep a shop — einen Laden od. ein Geschäft haben

keep [the] shop for somebody — jemanden im Laden od. Geschäft vertreten

all over the shop — (fig. coll.) überall

2) (business)

set up shop — ein Geschäft eröffnen; (as a lawyer, dentist, etc.) eine Praxis aufmachen

shut up shop — das Geschäft schließen

talk shop — fachsimpeln (ugs.)

3) (workshop) Werkstatt, die
2. intransitive verb,
- pp- einkaufen

go shopping — einkaufen gehen

shop or go shopping for shoes — Schuhe kaufen gehen
3. transitive verb,
- pp- (Brit. sl.) verpfeifen

Phrasal Verbs:

- academic.ru/91520/shop_around">shop around

* * *
[ʃop] 1. noun
1) (a place where goods are sold: a baker's shop.) der Laden

2) (a workshop, or a place where any kind of industry is carried on: a machine-shop.) der Berieb
2. verb
((often go shopping) to visit shops for the purpose of buying: We shop on Saturdays; She goes shopping once a week.) einkaufen

- shopper
- shopping
- shop assistant
- shop floor
- shopkeeper
- shoplifter
- shoplifting
- shopping centre
- shopping mall
- shop around
* * *

shop

[ʃɒp, AM ʃɑ:p]

I. n

1. (store) Geschäft nt, Laden m

his latest novel will be in the \shops by Christmas sein neuester Roman wird bis Weihnachten erscheinen

baker's \shop esp BRIT Bäckerei f

betting \shop BRIT Wettbüro nt

book \shop Buchladen m

record \shop Schallplattengeschäft nt

sweet [or AM candy] \shop Süßwarenladen m, Zuckerlgeschäft nt ÖSTERR

to go to the \shops einkaufen gehen

to set up \shop (open a shop) ein Geschäft eröffnen [o fam aufmachen]; (start out in business) ein Unternehmen eröffnen; lawyer eine Kanzlei eröffnen

to set up \shop as a baker eine Bäckerei eröffnen

to set up \shop on one's own sich akk selbstständig machen

to shut [or AM close] up \shop sein Geschäft [o Unternehmen] schließen

she shut up \shop as a software consultant sie hörte auf, als Softwareberaterin zu arbeiten

the only lawyer in town shut up \shop der einzige Anwalt der Stadt schloss seine Kanzlei

2. BRIT, AUS (shopping) Einkauf m

to do the \shop einkaufen [gehen]

to do the weekly \shop den Wocheneinkauf erledigen

3. (workshop) Werkstatt f

engineering \shop BRIT Konstruktionsbüro nt

repair \shop [Reparatur]werkstatt f

closed [or AM union] \shop gewerkschaftspflichtiger Betrieb

4.

▶ to be all over the \shop BRIT ( fam) ein [völliges] Durcheinander sein

▶ to talk \shop über die Arbeit reden

II. vi

<- pp->

einkaufen

to \shop at the market auf dem Markt einkaufen

to \shop at Marks and Spencers bei Marks and Spencers einkaufen

to \shop till you drop ( hum) eine Shoppingorgie veranstalten hum

▪ to \shop for sth etw einkaufen

to \shop for bargains auf Schnäppchenjagd sein fam

III. vt

<- pp->

1. BRIT (sl: inform)

▪ to \shop sb to sb jdn bei jdm verpfeifen fam

2. (go shopping somewhere)

▪ to \shop sth certain shop irgendwo einkaufen gehen

* * *
[ʃɒp]
1. n

1) (esp Brit) Geschäft nt, Laden m; (= large store) Kaufhaus nt

I have to go to the shops —

shop! — Bedienung!

to set up shop — ein Geschäft or einen Laden eröffnen

to shut up or close up shop — zumachen, schließen

you've come to the wrong shop (fig inf) — da sind Sie an der falschen Adresse

all over the shop ( Brit inf ) — in der ganzen Gegend herum (inf)

to talk shop — über die or von der Arbeit reden; (esp of professional people) fachsimpeln

no shop, please! — keine Fachsimpelei, bitte!

2) (= workshop) Werkstatt f; (= workers) Arbeiter pl, Arbeiterschaft f

3) (Brit

= shopping) to do one's weekly shop — seinen wöchentlichen Einkauf erledigen

2. vi
einkaufen, Einkäufe machen
to go shopping — einkaufen gehen

we spend Saturday mornings shopping —

shop at Macfarlane's! — kaufen Sie bei Macfarlane!

to shop for fish — Fisch kaufen gehen

3. vt (Brit inf)

to shop sb (to sb) — jdn (bei jdm) verpfeifen (inf)

* * *

shop [ʃɒp; US ʃɑp]

A s

1. a) (Kauf)Laden m, Geschäft n: these CDs are not available in any shops sind im Handel nicht erhältlich;

set up shop ein Geschäft eröffnen;

set up shop as a lawyer eine Anwaltspraxis eröffnen;

come to the wrong shop umg an die falsche Adresse geraten;

all over the shop Br umg in der ganzen Gegend (herum), überall verstreut; in alle Himmelsrichtungen;

shut up shop das Geschäft (am Abend od für immer) schließen, den Laden dichtmachen umg; → keep B 13

b) US Abteilung f (eines Kaufhauses etc)

2. Werkstatt f:

carpenter’s shop Schreinerwerkstatt f, Schreinerei f

3. Betrieb m, Fabrik f, Werk n:

talk shop fachsimpeln; → closed shop, open shop

4. besonders Br Einkauf m

B v/i einkaufen, Einkäufe machen:

go shopping einkaufen gehen;

shop around

a) (vor dem Einkaufen) die Preise vergleichen,

b) fig sich umsehen ( for nach);

shop ( oder go shopping) for sth etwas kaufen gehen;

I was shopping for a pair of shoes, but … ich wollte mir ein Paar Schuhe kaufen, aber …

C v/t besonders Br sl einen Komplizen etc verpfeifen

* * *
1. noun
1) (premises) Laden, der; Geschäft, das

go to the shops — einkaufen gehen

keep a shop — einen Laden od. ein Geschäft haben

keep [the] shop for somebody — jemanden im Laden od. Geschäft vertreten

all over the shop — (fig. coll.) überall

2) (business)

set up shop — ein Geschäft eröffnen; (as a lawyer, dentist, etc.) eine Praxis aufmachen

shut up shop — das Geschäft schließen

talk shop — fachsimpeln (ugs.)

3) (workshop) Werkstatt, die
2. intransitive verb,
- pp- einkaufen

go shopping — einkaufen gehen

shop or go shopping for shoes — Schuhe kaufen gehen
3. transitive verb,
- pp- (Brit. sl.) verpfeifen

Phrasal Verbs:

- shop around

* * *

n.

Geschäft -e n.

Laden ¨-- m. v.

einkaufen v.

English-german dictionary > shop
35 production

noun

(process) production f, fabrication f; (amount produced) production;

∎ the workers have halted production les travailleurs ont arrêté la production;

∎ to go into/out of production être/ne plus être fabriqué(e);

∎ this model is now in production le modèle est en cours de production;

∎ is it in production yet? est-ce qu'on en a commencé la production?;

∎ this model went into/out of production in 2001 on a commencé la fabrication de ce modèle/ce modèle a été retiré de la production en 2001;

∎ to cease production arrêter la production;

∎ to move or shift production relocaliser son unité de production;

∎ an increase/a fall in production une hausse/une baisse de la production

production budget budget m de production;

production capacity capacité f de production;

production control direction f de la production;

production cost coût m de production;

production department service m (de) production;

production engineering productique f;

production facilities appareil m de production;

production factor facteur m de production;

production flowchart organigramme m de production;

production incentive prime f de rendement;

production lead time délai m de production;

production line chaîne f de montage;

∎ to work on a production line travailler à la chaîne;

∎ this model has just come off the production line ce modèle vient juste de sortir de la chaîne de production;

production management gestion f de la production;

production manager directeur(trice) m, f de la production;

ACCOUNTANCY production overheads frais m généraux de production;

production planning planning m de la production;

production plant usine f;

production schedule programme m de fabrication;

production scheduling programmation f de la production;

production target objectif m de production;

production tool outil m de production;

production unit unité f de production;

production worker agent m de fabrication

English-French business dictionary > production
36 service

1. n услужение

domestic service — домашняя работа, обязанности слуги

to be in service — быть слугой, служить

veteran service to the nation — долголетнее служение стране

she was put in service — её отдали в услужение

compassionate service — милосердное служение

priest service — служение священству

2. n работа

hard service — тяжёлая работа

to be out of service — быть без работы

to go out of service — уйти с работы

length of service — стаж работы; срок службы

net service test — проверка работы радиосети

intermittent service — некруглосуточная работа

service work — работа по техническому обслуживанию

general service job — работа по общему обслуживанию

3. n рабочий стаж, срок службы

prolonged meritorious service — выслуга лет

staff field service — полевая служба штабов

Ice Patrol Service — служба ледовых патрулей

continuous service — стаж непрерывной работы

health care service — служба здравоохранения

quartermaster service — интендантская служба

4. n государственная служба

the Civil Service — государственная служба

to be in the Civil Service — быть на гражданской службе

wide area information service — глобальная служба информации

unfitness for military service — негодность к военной службе

terminal information service — служба информации аэровокзала

radar advisory service — служба радиолокационного наблюдения

military-topographic service — военно-топографическая служба

5. n учреждение

information service — информационная служба

reporting services — отдел официальных отчётов

public unity service — коммунальное учреждение

6. n служба

telegraph service — телеграфная связь

communication service — служба связи

railway service, service of trains — железнодорожное сообщение

passenger service — пассажирское сообщение

to restore normal train service — восстановить регулярное движение поездов

to institute a new air service — ввести новую линию воздушного сообщения

card replacement service — служба замены утраченных карточек

airfield maintenance and supply service — аэродромная служба

United Parcel Service — Объединенная служба доставки посылок

radiometeorological service — радиометеорологическая служба

national exchange service — национальная служба книгообмена

7. n обслуживание, сервис

good service at a hotel — хорошее обслуживание в гостинице

prompt service — быстрое обслуживание

to give customers prompt service — быстро обслуживать покупателей

inquiry service — информационное обслуживание

service integration — совмещение обслуживания

service with delay — обслуживание с ожиданием

setup service — подготовительное обслуживание

maintaining service — обеспечение обслуживания

8. n сфера услуг; обслуживание населения; служба быта, сервис

service workers — работники, занятые в сфере обслуживания

service of — обслуживание

guard service — служба охраны

hauling service — служба тяги

service fee — плата за услуги

term of service — срок службы

9. n библиотечное обслуживание

service catalogue — служебный каталог

service technician — специалист по обслуживанию оборудования

service in cyclic order — обслуживание в циклическом порядке

fixed service level — ТМО фиксированный уровень обслуживания

exchange service — обслуживание с использованием коммутатора

constant service control — постоянное сервисное обслуживание

10. n военная служба

National Service

Selective Service — воинская повинность для отдельных граждан

active service, service with the colours — действительная военная служба

to be called up for active service — быть призванным на действительную военную службу

to be in the service — служить в армии

length of service — срок военной службы

fit for service — годен к военной службе

to quit the service — увольняться с военной службы

to be dismissed from the service — быть уволенным с военной службы

to retire from service — выйти в отставку

service ashore — береговая служба

sea service — служба на плавающих кораблях

flight service station — станция службы обеспечения полетов

Aviation Engineering Service — инженерно-авиационная служба

military transportation service — служба военных сообщений

mastering service — служба по изготовлению мастер-образцов

information service unit — информационно-справочная служба

11. n воен. вид вооружённых сил; род войск

the three services — the army, the navy, the aviation — три рода войск: сухопутные войска, военно-морской флот и военно-воздушные силы

correlation of service branches — соотношение родов войск

over-all service — обеспечение всеми видами обслуживания

tactics of service branch — тактика рода войск

Service tactics — тактика вида вооруженных сил

branch service school — школа рода войск

12. n услуга, одолжение; помощь

I am at your service — я к вашим услугам

glad to be of service to you — рад быть вам полезным

will you do me a service? — окажите мне услугу

what good services this pen has done me! — эта ручка мне хорошо послужила!

you do yourself no service by such replies — вы себе только вредите такими ответами

in gratitude for your valuable services — в благодарность за ваши неоценимые услуги

connection-based service — услуги с установлением соединения

travel assistance service — дополнительная дорожная услуга

service advertising protocol — протокол предлагаемых услуг

insurance service charges — сборы за услуги по страхованию

additional service charge — плата за дополнительные услуги

13. n заслуга

great services — большие заслуги

distinguished service order — орден "За боевые заслуги"

14. n сервиз

dinner service — обеденный сервиз

coffee service — кофейный сервиз

15. n прибор

toilet service — туалетный прибор

16. n церк. богослужение, служба

morning service — утренняя служба

burial service — отпевание

marriage service — венчание

baptismal service — крестины

memorial service — заупокойная служба, панихида

to attend a service — присутствовать на богослужении

to conduct a service — вести службу

are you going to service? — ты идёшь в подача мяча

your service! — ваша подача!

church service — богослужение

divine service — богослужение

sacred service — богослужение

time service — служба времени

camp service — лагерная служба

17. n юр. исполнение постановления суда; вручение; судебное извещение

personal service — личное оповещение

substituted service — оповещение по почте

service of execution — приведение в исполнение приговора

service of warrant — вручение судебного приказа, ордера

runtime service — сервис в период исполнения программы

service of process — вручение судебного документа

service of appeal — вручение апелляционной жалобы

18. n с. -х. случка

service period — сервис-период

19. n мор. клетневание

20. n тех. эксплуатация

service instructions — правила эксплуатации

service life — эксплуатационный срок службы

a radio set with free 12 months service — радиоприёмник с гарантией на год

remove from service — выводить из эксплуатации

withdraw from service — снимать с эксплуатации

bringing into service — введение в эксплуатацию

continue in service — оставаться в эксплуатации

introduction into service — ввод в эксплуатацию

21. a военный; относящийся к вооружённым силам

service age — призывной возраст

service aviation — военная авиация

service call — уставной сигнал

service chevron — нашивка за шестимесячную службу на фронте

service families — семьи военнослужащих

service number — личный номер

service record — послужной список

service ribbon — орденская планка

service test — испытания в войсках, войсковые испытания

service troops — войска обслуживания; тыловые части и подразделения

service uniform — повседневная форма одежды

service code — сервисный код

tank service — расходный бак

labor service unit — рабочая сила

fighting service — вид вооруженных сил

service fuel tank — рабочий топливный бак

22. a служебный

service entrance — служебный вход

service call — служебный телефонный разговор

service braking — служебное торможение

radio service code — служебный радиокод

service codegram — служебная кодограмма

service indicator — служебный индикатор

service compartment — служебное отделение

23. a повседневный; прочный, ноский

service dress — повседневное обмундирование

24. a обслуживающий

service trades — профессии, относящиеся к сфере обслуживания

service technicians — обслуживающий персонал

service staff — младший обслуживающий персонал

central service input — главный обслуживающий вход

junior service staff — младший обслуживающий персонал

service computer — обслуживающая вычислительная машина

25. v обслуживать

service a ship — обслуживать корабль

service a vessel — обслуживать корабль

26. v производить осмотр и текущий ремонт

to service a car — обслуживать автомобиль

service stock — текущий запас

service mechanic — техник по ремонту

running service — текущее обслуживание

service shop — мастерская текущего ремонта

service rig — установка для ремонта скважин

27. v заправлять

to service a car with gasoline — заправлять машину горючим

service a truck — заправлять машину

service a tank — заправлять резервуар

28. n бот. рябина домашняя

wild service — кустарник или невысокое дерево с горькими плодами

the stigma attached to domestic service — непрестижность работы домашней прислуги

Синонимический ряд:

1. action (noun) action; combat

2. agency (noun) agency; bureau; commission; department

3. aid (noun) aid; assistance; attendance; cooperation; help; ministration; usefulness; value

4. armed forces (noun) armed forces; military

5. army (noun) army; duty; stint

6. benefit (noun) benefit; utility; wear

7. effort (noun) effort; labor

8. favor (noun) courtesy; dispensation; favor; favour; grace; indulgence; kindness

9. rite (noun) ceremonial; ceremony; formality; liturgy; observance; rite; ritual; sermon; worship

10. tableware (noun) china; set; setting; silver; tableware

11. use (noun) account; advantage; applicability; application; appropriateness; avail; employment; fitness; relevance; serviceability; use; utilisation

12. maintain (verb) maintain; preserve; repair; sustain

English-Russian base dictionary > service
37 Albert, Prince Consort

SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Civil engineering

[br]

b. 26 August 1819 The Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany

d. 14 December 1861 Windsor Castle, England

[br]

German/British polymath and Prince Consort to Queen Victoria.

[br]

Albert received a sound education in the arts and sciences, carefully designed to fit him for a role as consort to the future Queen Victoria. After their marriage in 1840, Albert threw himself into the task of establishing his position as, eventually, Prince Consort and uncrowned king of England. By his undoubted intellectual gifts, unrelenting hard work and moral rectitude, Albert moulded the British constitutional monarchy into the form it retains to this day. The purchase in 1845 of the Osborne estate in the Isle of Wight provided not only the growing royal family with a comfortable retreat from London and public life, but Albert with full scope for his abilities as architect and planner. With Thomas Cubitt, the eminent engineer and contractor, Albert erected at Osborne one of the most remarkable buildings of the nineteenth century. He went on to design the house and estate at Balmoral in Scotland, another notable creation.

Albert applied his abilities as architect and planner in the promotion of such public works as the London sewer system and, in practical form, the design of cottages for workers, such as those in south London, as well as those on the royal estates. Albert's other main contribution to technology was as educationist in a broad sense. In 1847, he was elected Chancellor of Cambridge University. He was appalled at the low standards and narrow curriculum prevailing there and at Oxford. He was no mere figurehead, but took a close and active interest in the University's affairs. With his powerful influence behind them, the reforming fellows were able to force measures to raise standards and widen the curriculum to take account, in particular, of the rapid progress in the natural sciences. Albert was instrumental in ending the lethargy of centuries and laying the foundations of the modern British university system.

In 1847 the Prince became Secretary of the Royal Society of Arts. With Henry Cole, the noted administrator who shared Albert's concern for the arts, he promoted a series of exhibitions under the auspices of the Society. From these grew the idea of a great exhibition of the products of the decorative and industrial arts. It was Albert who decided that its scope should be international. As Chairman of the organizing committee, by sheer hard work he drove the project through to a triumphant conclusion. The success of the Exhibition earned it a handsome profit for which Albert had found a use even before it closed. The proceeds went towards the purchase of a site in South Kensington, for which he drew up a grand scheme for a complex of museums and colleges for the education of the people in the sciences and the arts. This largely came to fruition and South Kensington today is a fitting memorial to the Prince Consort's wisdom and concern for the public good.

[br]

Further Reading

Sir Theodore Martin, 1875–80, The Life of His Royal Highness, the Prince Consort, 5 vols, London; German edn 1876; French edn 1883 (the classic life of the Prince).

R.R.James, 1983, Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, London: Hamish Hamilton (the standard modern biography).

L.R.Day, 1989, "Resources for the study of the history of technology in the Science Museum Library", IATUL Quarterly 3:122–39 (provides a short account of the rise of South Kensington and its institutions).

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Albert, Prince Consort
38 Bosch, Robert August

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Steam and internal combustion engines

[br]

b. 23 September 1861 Albeck, near Ulm, Germany

d. 9 March 1942 Stuttgart, Germany

[br]

German engineer, industrialist and pioneer of internal combustion engine electrical systems.

[br]

Robert was the eighth of twelve children of the landlord of a hotel in the village of Albeck. He wanted to be a botanist and zoologist, but at the age of 18 he was apprenticed as a precision mechanic. He travelled widely in the south of Germany, which is unusual for an apprenticeship. In 1884, he went to the USA, where he found employment with Thomas A. Edison and his colleague, the German electrical engineer Siegmund Bergmann. During this period he became interested and involved in the rights of workers.

In 1886 he set up his own workshop in Stuttgart, having spent a short time with Siemens in England. He built up a sound reputation for quality, but the firm outgrew its capital and in 1892 he had to sack nearly all his employees. Fortunately, among the few that he was able to retain were Arnold Zähringer, who later became Manager, and an apprentice, Gottlieb Harold. These two, under Bosch, were responsible for the development of the low-tension (1897) and the high-tension (1902) magneto. They also developed the Bosch sparking plug, again in 1902. The distributor for multi-cylinder engines followed in 1910. These developments, with a strong automotive bias, were stimulated by Bosch's association with Frederick Simms, an Englishman domiciled in Hamburg, who had become a director of Daimler in Canstatt and had secured the UK patent rights of the Daimler engine. Simms went on to invent, in about 1898, a means of varying ignition timing with low-tension magnetos.

It must be emphasized, as pointed out above, that the invention of neither type of magneto was due to Bosch. Nikolaus Otto introduced a crude low-tension magneto in 1884, but it was not patented in Germany, while the high-tension magneto was invented by Paul Winand, a nephew of Otto's partner Eugen Langen, in 1887, this patent being allowed to lapse in 1890.

Bosch's social views were advanced for his time. He introduced an eight-hour day in 1906 and advocated industrial arbitration and free trade, and in 1932 he wrote a book on the prevention of world economic crises, Die Verhütung künftiger Krisen in der Weltwirtschaft. Other industrialists called him the "Red Bosch" because of his short hours and high wages; he is reputed to have replied, "I do not pay good wages because I have a lot of money, I have a lot of money because I pay good wages." The firm exists to this day as the giant multi-national company Robert Bosch GmbH, with headquarters still in Stuttgart.

[br]

Further Reading

T.Heuss, 1994, Robert Bosch: His Life and Achievements (trans. S.Gillespie and J. Kapczynski), New York: Henry Holt \& Co.

JB

Biographical history of technology > Bosch, Robert August
39 Corliss, George Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

[br]

b. 2 June 1817 Easton, Washington City, New York, USA

d. 21 February 1888 USA

[br]

American inventor of a cut-off mechanism linked to the governor which revolutionized the operation of steam engines.

[br]

Corliss's father was a physician and surgeon. The son was educated at Greenwich, New York, but while he showed an aptitude for mathematics and mechanics he first of all became a storekeeper and then clerk, bookkeeper, salesperson and official measurer and inspector of the cloth produced at W.Mowbray \& Son. He went to the Castleton Academy, Vermont, for three years and at the age of 21 returned to a store of his own in Greenwich. Complaints about stitching in the boots he sold led him to patent a sewing machine. He approached Fairbanks, Bancroft \& Co., Providence, Rhode Island, machine and steam engine builders, about producing his machine, but they agreed to take him on as a draughtsman providing he abandoned it. Corliss moved to Providence with his family and soon revolutionized the design and construction of steam engines. Although he started working out ideas for his engine in 1846 and completed one in 1848 for the Providence Dyeing, Bleaching and Calendering Company, it was not until March 1849 that he obtained a patent. By that time he had joined John Barstow and E.J.Nightingale to form a new company, Corliss Nightingale \& Co., to build his design of steam-engines. He used paired valves, two inlet and two exhaust, placed on opposite sides of the cylinder, which gave good thermal properties in the flow of steam. His wrist-plate operating mechanism gave quick opening and his trip mechanism allowed the governor to regulate the closure of the inlet valve, giving maximum expansion for any load. It has been claimed that Corliss should rank equally with James Watt in the development of the steam-engine. The new company bought land in Providence for a factory which was completed in 1856 when the Corliss Engine Company was incorporated. Corliss directed the business activities as well as technical improvements. He took out further patents modifying his valve gear in 1851, 1852, 1859, 1867, 1875, 1880. The business grew until well over 1,000 workers were employed. The cylindrical oscillating valve normally associated with the Corliss engine did not make its appearance until 1850 and was included in the 1859 patent. The impressive beam engine designed for the 1876 Centennial Exhibition by E. Reynolds was the product of Corliss's works. Corliss also patented gear-cutting machines, boilers, condensing apparatus and a pumping engine for waterworks. While having little interest in politics, he represented North Providence in the General Assembly of Rhode Island between 1868 and 1870.

[br]

Further Reading

Many obituaries appeared in engineering journals at the time of his death. Dictionary of American Biography, 1930, Vol. IV, New York: C.Scribner's Sons. R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (explains Corliss's development of his valve gear).

J.L.Wood, 1980–1, "The introduction of the Corliss engine to Britain", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 52 (provides an account of the introduction of his valve gear to Britain).

W.H.Uhland, 1879, Corliss Engines and Allied Steam-motors, London: E. \& F.N.Spon.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Corliss, George Henry
40 Davidson, Robert

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 18 April 1804 Aberdeen, Scotland

d. 16 November 1894 Aberdeen, Scotland

[br]

Scottish chemist, pioneer of electric power and builder of the first electric railway locomotives.

[br]

Davidson, son of an Aberdeen merchant, attended Marischal College, Aberdeen, between 1819 and 1822: his studies included mathematics, mechanics and chemistry. He subsequently joined his father's grocery business, which from time to time received enquiries for yeast: to meet these, Davidson began to manufacture yeast for sale and from that start built up a successful chemical manufacturing business with the emphasis on yeast and dyes. About 1837 he started to experiment first with electric batteries and then with motors. He invented a form of electromagnetic engine in which soft iron bars arranged on the periphery of a wooden cylinder, parallel to its axis, around which the cylinder could rotate, were attracted by fixed electromagnets. These were energized in turn by current controlled by a simple commutaring device. Electric current was produced by his batteries. His activities were brought to the attention of Michael Faraday and to the scientific world in general by a letter from Professor Forbes of King's College, Aberdeen. Davidson declined to patent his inventions, believing that all should be able freely to draw advantage from them, and in order to afford an opportunity for all interested parties to inspect them an exhibition was held at 36 Union Street, Aberdeen, in October 1840 to demonstrate his "apparatus actuated by electro-magnetic power". It included: a model locomotive carriage, large enough to carry two people, that ran on a railway; a turning lathe with tools for visitors to use; and a small printing machine. In the spring of 1842 he put on a similar exhibition in Edinburgh, this time including a sawmill. Davidson sought support from railway companies for further experiments and the construction of an electromagnetic locomotive; the Edinburgh exhibition successfully attracted the attention of the proprietors of the Edinburgh 585\& Glasgow Railway (E \& GR), whose line had been opened in February 1842. Davidson built a full-size locomotive incorporating his principle, apparently at the expense of the railway company. The locomotive weighed 7 tons: each of its two axles carried a cylinder upon which were fastened three iron bars, and four electromagnets were arranged in pairs on each side of the cylinders. The motors he used were reluctance motors, the power source being zinc-iron batteries. It was named Galvani and was demonstrated on the E \& GR that autumn, when it achieved a speed of 4 mph (6.4 km/h) while hauling a load of 6 tons over a distance of 1 1/2 miles (2.4 km); it was the first electric locomotive. Nevertheless, further support from the railway company was not forthcoming, although to some railway workers the locomotive seems to have appeared promising enough: they destroyed it in Luddite reaction. Davidson staged a further exhibition in London in 1843 without result and then, the cost of battery chemicals being high, ceased further experiments of this type. He survived long enough to see the electric railway become truly practicable in the 1880s.

[br]

Bibliography

1840, letter, Mechanics Magazine, 33:53–5 (comparing his machine with that of William Hannis Taylor (2 November 1839, British patent no. 8,255)).

Further Reading

1891, Electrical World, 17:454.

J.H.R.Body, 1935, "A note on electro-magnetic engines", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 14:104 (describes Davidson's locomotive).

F.J.G.Haut, 1956, "The early history of the electric locomotive", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 27 (describes Davidson's locomotive).

A.F.Anderson, 1974, "Unusual electric machines", Electronics \& Power 14 (November) (biographical information).

—1975, "Robert Davidson. Father of the electric locomotive", Proceedings of the Meeting on the History of Electrical Engineering Institution of Electrical Engineers, 8/1–8/17 (the most comprehensive account of Davidson's work).

A.C.Davidson, 1976, "Ingenious Aberdonian", Scots Magazine (January) (details of his life).

PJGR / GW

Biographical history of technology > Davidson, Robert

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