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(in+private+schools)

  • 41 institution

    institution [ɛ̃stitysjɔ̃]
    feminine noun
       a. ( = organisme, structure) institution ; ( = école) private school
       b. ( = instauration) [de pratique] institution ; [de relations] establishment
    * * *
    ɛ̃stitysjɔ̃
    1.
    1) ( administration) institution
    2) ( établissement d'enseignement) private school
    3) ( action) institution (de of)
    4) (établissement pour enfants, vieillards, malades) institution

    2.
    institutions nom féminin pluriel Politique institutions
    * * *
    ɛ̃stitysjɔ̃ nf
    2) (= collège) private school
    * * *
    A nf
    1 ( administration) institution;
    2 ( établissement d'enseignement) private school; institution de jeunes filles private school for girls; institution religieuse ( de jeunes filles) convent school; ( de jeunes gens) school for boys (run by a religious order);
    3 ( action) institution (de of);
    4 (établissement pour enfants, vieillards, malades) institution;
    5 Jur institution d'héritier appointment of an heir.
    B institutions nfpl Pol institutions.
    l'institution hospitalière hospitals (pl); l'institution judiciaire the judiciary; l'institution militaire the military; l'institution policière the police (+ v pl); l'institution scolaire schools (pl).
    [ɛ̃stitysjɔ̃] nom féminin
    1. [établissement privé] institution
    a. [catholique] Catholic school
    2. [coutume] institution
    3. [mise en place] institution, establishment
    [d'une loi] introduction
    [d'une règle] laying down
    institution d'un héritier appointment ou institution of an heir
    ————————
    institutions nom féminin pluriel

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > institution

  • 42 independent

    1. adjective

    independent income/means — eigenes Einkommen

    2) (not wanting obligations) selbstständig
    2. noun
    (Polit.) Unabhängige, der/die
    •• Cultural note:
    Eine britische überregionale Tageszeitung. Ihr Pendant am Sonntag heißt The Independent on Sunday. Obgleich der Independent politisch eher links als rechts steht, strebt er, wie der Name schon andeutet, eine unabhängige überparteiliche Berichterstattung an
    Eine Privatschule in Großbritannien, die sich selbst finanziert, und zwar durch Elternbeiträge. Sie erhält keine staatliche Unterstützung. academic.ru/58860/public_school">public schools und preparatory schools fallen in diese Kategorie
    * * *
    [indi'pendənt]
    1) (not controlled by other people, countries etc: an independent country; That country is now independent of Britain.) unabhängig
    2) (not willing to accept help: an independent old lady.) selbständig
    3) (having enough money to support oneself: She is completely independent and receives no money from her family; She is now independent of her parents.) unabhängig
    4) (not relying on, or affected by, something or someone else: an independent observer; to arrive at an independent conclusion.) unabhängig
    •
    - independence
    - independently
    * * *
    in·de·pend·ent
    [ˌɪndɪˈpendənt]
    I. adj
    1. inv (autonomous, self-governing) unabhängig
    to become \independent from sth von etw dat unabhängig werden, seine Unabhängigkeit von etw dat erlangen
    2. (uninfluenced) unabhängig (of von + dat); (impartial) unparteiisch
    \independent financial adviser unabhängiger Finanzberater/unabhängige Finanzberaterin
    \independent enquiry [or AM usu inquiry] unabhängige Untersuchung
    3. (unassisted) selbstständig
    to have \independent means private Mittel [o ein Privateinkommen] haben
    \independent traveller [or AM usu traveler] Individualreisende(r) f(m)
    to be financially \independent finanziell unabhängig sein
    4. (separate, unconnected) unabhängig
    ... quite \independent of each other... ganz unabhängig voneinander
    \independent statements voneinander unabhängige Aussagen
    \independent witnesses Zeugen, die nichts miteinander zu tun haben
    5. AUTO
    [fully] \independent suspension Einzelradaufhängung f
    6. LING
    \independent clause Hauptsatz m, übergeordneter Satz
    II. n
    1. POL Unabhängige(r) f(m), Parteilose(r) f(m)
    2. COMM
    ▪ the \independents pl die unabhängigen Unternehmen
    * * *
    ["Indɪ'pendənt]
    1. adj
    1) (= autonomous) unabhängig (of sb/sth von jdm/etw) (ALSO POL country); person (in attitude, spirit) selbstständig, unabhängig; income eigen, privat

    a man of independent means — eine Person mit Privateinkommen, ein Privatmann m

    2) (= unconnected) report, research, thinker etc unabhängig

    independent confirmation — Bestätigung f aus unabhängiger Quelle

    they reached the summit by independent routes — sie erreichten den Gipfel auf getrennten or gesonderten Wegen

    the two explosions were independent of each other — die beiden Explosionen hatten nichts miteinander zu tun or hatten keine gemeinsame Ursache

    2. n (POL)
    Unabhängige(r) mf
    * * *
    independent [ˌındıˈpendənt]
    A adj (adv independently)
    1. unabhängig (of von) ( auch POL), selbstständig:
    independent travel(l)er Einzelreisende(r) m/f(m)
    2. unbeeinflusst (Beobachter etc)
    3. finanziell unabhängig:
    independent gentleman Privatier m;
    be independent auf eigenen Füßen stehen
    4. finanziell unabhängig machend (Vermögen etc):
    a man of independent means ein finanziell unabhängiger Mann
    5. independent(ly) of ungeachtet (gen)
    6. freiheitsliebend
    7. selbstbewusst, -sicher
    8. PARL partei-, fraktionslos
    9. MATH unabhängig:
    independent variable unabhängige Veränderliche
    10. LING unabhängig, Haupt…:
    independent clause Hauptsatz m
    11. TECH unabhängig, eigen, Einzel…:
    independent axle Schwingachse f;
    independent fire MIL Einzel-, Schützenfeuer n;
    independent suspension AUTO Einzelradaufhängung f
    B s
    1. Unabhängige(r) m/f(m)
    2. PARL Partei-, Fraktionslose(r) m/f(m)
    3. REL → Congregationalist A
    4. freie Tankstelle
    I. abk
    5. Island ( Islandspl), Isle ( Isles pl)
    ind. abk
    5. LING indicative
    * * *
    1. adjective

    independent income/means — eigenes Einkommen

    2) (not wanting obligations) selbstständig
    2. noun
    (Polit.) Unabhängige, der/die
    •• Cultural note:
    Eine britische überregionale Tageszeitung. Ihr Pendant am Sonntag heißt The Independent on Sunday. Obgleich der Independent politisch eher links als rechts steht, strebt er, wie der Name schon andeutet, eine unabhängige überparteiliche Berichterstattung an
    Eine Privatschule in Großbritannien, die sich selbst finanziert, und zwar durch Elternbeiträge. Sie erhält keine staatliche Unterstützung. public schools und preparatory schools fallen in diese Kategorie
    * * *
    (of) adj.
    unabhängig (von) adj. adj.
    eigenständig adj.
    eigenverantwortlich adj.
    rechnerunabhängig adj.
    selbstständig adj.
    selbständig (alt.Rechtschreibung) adj.

    English-german dictionary > independent

  • 43 apuntar

    v.
    1 to make a note of, to note down.
    he apuntado a mi hijo a clases de natación I've put my son's name down for swimming lessons, I've signed my son up for swimming lessons
    apúntamelo (en la cuenta) put it on my account
    2 to point (dirigir) (dedo).
    apuntar una pistola hacia alguien, apuntar a alguien con una pistola to aim a gun at somebody
    Pedro apunta el arma Peter points the gun.
    3 to prompt (Teatro).
    fue expulsada de clase por apuntar las respuestas a un compañero she was thrown out of the classroom for whispering the answers to a classmate
    4 to hint at.
    5 to appear.
    6 to write down, to note down, to jot down, to put in writing.
    María apunta los comentarios Mary writes down the comments.
    7 to take aim.
    Pedro apunta hacia Ricardo Peter takes aim at Richard.
    8 to enroll, to add on to the list.
    María apunta a Silvia Mary enrolls Silvia.
    9 to point out, to indicate.
    Pedro apunta las necesidades de ella Peter points out her needs.
    10 to denote to, to indicate to, to suggest to.
    La carta apunta desistir del plan The letter denotes to desist of the plan
    * * *
    1 (señalar) to point (a, at)
    ■ apuntó que... she pointed out that...
    2 (arma) to aim
    ■ ¡apunten! take aim!
    3 (anotar) to note down, make a note of
    ■ se lo apunto en cuenta I'll put it on your account, I'll charge it to your account
    4 (estar encaminado) to be aimed (a, at), be designed (a, to)
    5 (insinuar) to suggest, indicate
    6 (sujetar) to stitch, pin lightly, tack lightly
    7 TEATRO to prompt
    8 familiar (en un examen) to whisper the answer to
    1 to begin to appear
    2 TEATRO to prompt
    1 (inscribirse) to enrol
    2 familiar (participar) to take part (a, in)
    ■ ¿te apuntas? are you game?
    \
    apuntarse un tanto to score a point
    * * *
    verb
    5) suggest, hint
    •
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=dirigir) [+ cámara, pistola, misil] to aim (a at)
    train (a on)
    2) (=sugerir) to point out

    apuntó la posibilidad de que no hubiera sido un suicidio — she suggested the possibility that it mightn't have been suicide, she pointed out that it mightn't have been suicide

    3) (=anotar)
    a) [en cuaderno] make a note of, note down; [en lista, tabla] to enter, record

    apuntó la dirección en su agenda — she made a note of the address in her diary, she noted down the address in her diary

    apuntó la temperatura en un gráfico — she recorded o wrote down the temperature on a graph

    b) (Estadística) [+ velocidad, tiempo] to log
    4) (=inscribir) [en lista] to put down; [en colegio, curso] to enrol, enroll (EEUU); [en concurso, competición] to enter, put down

    ¿me puedes apuntar para la cena de Navidad? — could you put me down for the Christmas dinner?

    5) (=decir en voz baja) [a actor] to prompt
    6) (=afilar) to sharpen, put a point on
    7) (=apostar) [+ dinero] to bet
    8) (Cos) to fasten
    2. VI
    1) (=señalar) [con arma] to aim; [con dedo, objeto] to point at

    no apuntes hacia ninguna persona — [con arma] don't aim at anybody o don't point your gun at anybody; [con dedo] don't point at anybody

    ¡apunten! ¡disparen! — take aim! fire!

    apuntar con: todos le apuntaban con el dedo — everyone pointed their fingers at her

    apuntar a algn con un arma — to aim a gun at sb, point a gun at sb

    me apuntó al pecho con un fusil — he aimed o pointed the gun at my chest

    2) (=dirigirse) to point
    3) (=anotar) to note down

    ¿tienes dónde apuntar? — have you got something to note this down on?

    apunta, dos kilos de patatas y uno de uvas — note this down o make a note, two kilos of potatoes and a kilo of grapes

    4) (=surgir) [barba] to sprout

    el maíz apunta bien este año — LAm the corn is coming on nicely this year

    5)

    todo apunta a que van a ganar las elecciones — there is every indication o sign that they will win the elections, everything points to them winning the election

    todo parece apuntar a que... — everything seems to indicate that...

    6) LAm (=apostar) to bet, place bets
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) ( tomar nota de) to make a note of, note down
    b) (para excursión, actividad) to put... down
    2) (Teatr) to prompt; (Educ)

    mi amiga me apuntaba las respuestas — (fam) my friend whispered the answers to me

    3) (señalar, indicar) to point at
    4) ( afirmar) to point out
    2.
    1)
    a) ( con arma) to aim

    preparen... apunten... fuego! — ready... take aim... fire!

    apuntar a alguien/algo — to aim at somebody/something

    le apuntó con una pistola — she pointed/aimed a gun at him

    b) (indicar, señalar) to point

    la aguja apunta al or hacia el norte — the needle points north

    2) ( anotar)

    apunta: comprar limones, leche... — make a note, you need to buy lemons, milk...

    ¿tienes lápiz? pues apunta — have you got a pencil? well, take o jot this down

    3) (Teatr) to prompt
    4) (liter) día to break; barba to appear, begin to show; flor/planta to sprout
    3.
    apuntarse v pron
    1)

    apuntarse a or en algo — a curso to enroll* on something; a clase to sign up for something

    vamos a la discoteca ¿te apuntas? — we're going to the disco, do you want to come (along)?

    me voy a tomar un café ¿quién se apunta? — I'm going out for a coffee, anyone want to join me? (colloq)

    b) ( obtener) < tanto> to score; < victoria> to chalk up, achieve
    2) ( manifestarse) tendencia to become evident
    * * *
    = get at, point, point out, jot down, take + aim, take down, mark + Nombre + down as, mark + Nombre + up.
    Ex. What I'm getting at is this: At least in the CIP entry that I have seen, LC, following customary practice, made a title entry for the main title, 'Women in Librarianship', but nothing under Melvil's 'Rib Symposium'.
    Ex. An arrow pointing upwards indicates when the terminal is in insert mode.
    Ex. By means of the arrangement of document substitutes in library catalogues, and also by the arrangement of documents themselves, it is possible to point out, or indicate, classes of documents.
    Ex. Find some scrap paper and jot down the subject areas taught in schools.
    Ex. This article has been a discussion of how public libraries can take aim on quality.
    Ex. All technical processes that take place before, during and directly after the flight are taken down automatically by the flight recorder in the cockpit.
    Ex. One look convinced the employer that she was unsuited for the work, and he marked her down as unsuitable.
    Ex. If you fax your document, please include a return address -- we will edit and mark it up by hand and return it to you by post.
    ----
    * apuntar a = point + the way to, point to.
    * apuntar a la misma conclusión = point to + the same conclusion.
    * apuntar con el dedo = point + the fingers at.
    * apuntar el hecho de que = point to + the fact that.
    * apuntar muy alto = reach for + the stars, shoot for + the stars.
    * apuntarse = enrol [enroll -USA], sign up, be game, register (with).
    * apuntarse a = join + Asociación.
    * apuntarse medallas = chalk up + achievements.
    * evidencia + apuntar a = evidence + points towards.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) ( tomar nota de) to make a note of, note down
    b) (para excursión, actividad) to put... down
    2) (Teatr) to prompt; (Educ)

    mi amiga me apuntaba las respuestas — (fam) my friend whispered the answers to me

    3) (señalar, indicar) to point at
    4) ( afirmar) to point out
    2.
    1)
    a) ( con arma) to aim

    preparen... apunten... fuego! — ready... take aim... fire!

    apuntar a alguien/algo — to aim at somebody/something

    le apuntó con una pistola — she pointed/aimed a gun at him

    b) (indicar, señalar) to point

    la aguja apunta al or hacia el norte — the needle points north

    2) ( anotar)

    apunta: comprar limones, leche... — make a note, you need to buy lemons, milk...

    ¿tienes lápiz? pues apunta — have you got a pencil? well, take o jot this down

    3) (Teatr) to prompt
    4) (liter) día to break; barba to appear, begin to show; flor/planta to sprout
    3.
    apuntarse v pron
    1)

    apuntarse a or en algo — a curso to enroll* on something; a clase to sign up for something

    vamos a la discoteca ¿te apuntas? — we're going to the disco, do you want to come (along)?

    me voy a tomar un café ¿quién se apunta? — I'm going out for a coffee, anyone want to join me? (colloq)

    b) ( obtener) < tanto> to score; < victoria> to chalk up, achieve
    2) ( manifestarse) tendencia to become evident
    * * *
    = get at, point, point out, jot down, take + aim, take down, mark + Nombre + down as, mark + Nombre + up.

    Ex: What I'm getting at is this: At least in the CIP entry that I have seen, LC, following customary practice, made a title entry for the main title, 'Women in Librarianship', but nothing under Melvil's 'Rib Symposium'.

    Ex: An arrow pointing upwards indicates when the terminal is in insert mode.
    Ex: By means of the arrangement of document substitutes in library catalogues, and also by the arrangement of documents themselves, it is possible to point out, or indicate, classes of documents.
    Ex: Find some scrap paper and jot down the subject areas taught in schools.
    Ex: This article has been a discussion of how public libraries can take aim on quality.
    Ex: All technical processes that take place before, during and directly after the flight are taken down automatically by the flight recorder in the cockpit.
    Ex: One look convinced the employer that she was unsuited for the work, and he marked her down as unsuitable.
    Ex: If you fax your document, please include a return address -- we will edit and mark it up by hand and return it to you by post.
    * apuntar a = point + the way to, point to.
    * apuntar a la misma conclusión = point to + the same conclusion.
    * apuntar con el dedo = point + the fingers at.
    * apuntar el hecho de que = point to + the fact that.
    * apuntar muy alto = reach for + the stars, shoot for + the stars.
    * apuntarse = enrol [enroll -USA], sign up, be game, register (with).
    * apuntarse a = join + Asociación.
    * apuntarse medallas = chalk up + achievements.
    * evidencia + apuntar a = evidence + points towards.

    * * *
    apuntar [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 (tomar nota de) to make a note of, note down
    apunta todo lo que tienes que comprar make a note of o note down o jot down everything you have to buy
    apunta en una libreta todo lo que ha hecho en el día he notes down o writes down in a notebook everything he's done during the day, he makes a note of everything he's done during the day in a notebook
    tengo que apuntar tu dirección I must make a note of your address, I must write down your address
    apúntelo en mi cuenta put it on my account
    apunta todo porque tiene muy mala memoria he writes everything down because he has a terrible memory
    2 (en un curso) to enroll*, put … down; (para una excursión, actividad) to put … down
    quiero apuntar a la niña a or en clases de inglés I want to put my daughter's name down for o enroll my daughter for English classes
    apúntame para el sábado put me down for Saturday
    B ( Teatr) to prompt
    pasa aquí al frente para que no te apunten las respuestas ( fam); come up to the front so that no one can whisper the answers to you o help you with the answers
    C (señalar, indicar) to point at
    no la apuntes con el dedo don't point (your finger) at her
    apuntó con el dedo dónde estaba el error he pointed (with his finger) to where the mistake was, he pointed (his finger) to where the mistake was
    apuntó con una regla el lugar exacto en el mapa he used a ruler to point to o indicate the exact spot on the map
    D (afirmar, señalar) to point out
    el presidente apuntó la necesidad de un cambio radical the president pointed out the need o pointed to the need for a radical change
    apuntó que no se trataba de obtener privilegios he pointed out that it was not a matter of getting privileges
    —no sólo ocurre en este país —apuntó this isn't the only country where it happens, he pointed out
    ■ apuntar
    vi
    A
    1 (con un arma) to aim
    preparen … apunten … ¡fuego! ready … take aim … fire!
    apunta hacia or para otro lado aim (it) somewhere else
    apuntar A algn/algo to aim AT sb/sth
    apuntar al blanco to aim at the target
    le apuntó con una pistola she pointed/aimed a gun at him
    2 (indicar, señalar) to point
    la aguja apunta siempre al or hacia el norte the needle always points north
    ningún dato parece apuntar a la existencia de un compló there is no information to point to o indicate the existence of a plot
    B
    (anotar): apunta, comprar harina, leche, pan … make a note, you need to buy flour, milk, bread …
    ¿tienes papel y lápiz? pues apunta have you got paper and a pencil? well, take o jot this down
    C ( Teatr) to prompt
    D ( liter); «día» to break; «barba» to appear, begin to show; «flor/planta» to sprout
    al apuntar el alba at the break of day ( liter)
    ya apuntan los primeros capullos the first buds are already appearing
    A
    1 (inscribirse) apuntarse A or EN algo:
    me apunté a or en un cursillo de natación I enrolled on o signed up for a swimming course
    apuntarse al paro ( Esp); to register as unemployed, to sign on ( BrE colloq)
    ¿te vas a apuntar al or en el torneo? are you going to put your name down o put yourself down for the tournament?
    me apunté para ir a la excursión I put my name o myself down for the outing
    nos vamos a la discoteca ¿te apuntas? we're going to the disco, do you want to come (along) o ( BrE) do you fancy coming?
    vamos a salir a cenar — oye, yo me apunto we're going out for dinner — oh, I'll come!
    me voy a tomar un café ¿quién se apunta? I'm going out for a coffee, anyone interested? o anyone want to join me? ( colloq)
    2 (obtener, anotarse) ‹tanto› to score; ‹victoria› to chalk up, achieve, gain
    se apuntó un gran éxito con este libro she scored a great hit with this book
    el jugador que se apuntó el gol de la victoria the player who scored the winning goal
    B (manifestarse) to become evident
    las tendencias artísticas que ya se apuntaban a finales del siglo pasado the artistic tendencies which were already becoming evident at the end of the last century
    el festival ha profundizado en una dirección que ya se apuntaba en años anteriores the festival has continued in a direction which was already becoming evident in previous years
    * * *

     

    apuntar ( conjugate apuntar) verbo transitivo
    1

    b) (para excursión, actividad) to put … down

    2 (señalar, indicar) to point at;

    verbo intransitivo

    ◊ preparen … apunten … ¡fuego! ready … take aim … fire!;

    le apuntó con una pistola she pointed/aimed a gun at him
    b) (indicar, señalar) to point

    apuntarse verbo pronominal
    a) ( inscribirse) apuntarse a or en algo ‹ a curso› to enroll( conjugate enroll) on sth;

    ‹ a clase› to sign up for sth;

    apuntarse al paro (Esp) to register as unemployed, to sign on (BrE colloq)
    b) ( obtener) ‹ tanto› to score;

    ‹ victoria› to chalk up, achieve
    apuntar
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (escribir) to note down, make a note of
    2 (sugerir, indicar) to indicate, suggest
    apuntar a..., to point to...
    3 (un arma) to aim
    4 (señalar) to point out
    5 Teat to prompt
    II verbo intransitivo apuntaba el siglo, the century was dawning
    ' apuntar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    señalar
    - anotar
    - nota
    English:
    aim
    - cover
    - down
    - enter
    - get down
    - jot down
    - level
    - note
    - note down
    - prompt
    - put down
    - record
    - take down
    - train
    - wildly
    - jot
    - take
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [anotar] to make a note of, to note down;
    apuntar a alguien [en lista] to put sb down (en on); [en curso] to put sb's name down, to sign sb up (en o a for); [m5] apunta en una lista todo lo que quieres que compre jot down everything you want me to buy, make a list of the things you want me to buy;
    tengo que apuntar tu número de teléfono I must make a note of your phone number, I must write your phone number down somewhere;
    he apuntado a mi hijo a clases de natación I've put my son's name down for swimming lessons, I've signed my son up for swimming lessons;
    apunté a mis padres para ir a la excursión I put my parents down for the trip;
    apúntamelo (en la cuenta) put it on my account;
    ya puedes ir con cuidado, que esto lo apunto [amenaza] you'd better watch out, I'm not going to forget this
    2. [dirigir] [dedo] to point;
    [arma] to aim;
    apuntar a alguien [con el dedo] to point at sb;
    [con un arma] to aim at sb;
    apuntar una pistola hacia alguien, apuntar a alguien con una pistola to aim a gun at sb;
    les apuntó con un rifle he aimed o pointed a rifle at them;
    apuntó al blanco y disparó he took aim at the target and shot;
    la brújula apunta al norte the compass points (to the) north
    3. Teatro to prompt;
    Fam
    fue expulsada de clase por apuntar las respuestas a un compañero she was thrown out of the classroom for whispering the answers to a classmate
    4. [sugerir] to hint at;
    [indicar] to point out;
    apuntó la posibilidad de subir los impuestos he hinted that he might raise taxes;
    la policía ha apuntado la posibilidad de que los secuestradores la hayan matado the police have admitted that the kidnappers may have killed her;
    el joven jugador apunta buenos conocimientos the young player shows a lot of promise
    5. [afilar] to sharpen
    6. Col [abotonar] to button up
    ♦ vi
    1. [vislumbrarse] to appear;
    [día] to break;
    en los árboles ya apuntaban las primeras hojas the first leaves were appearing on the trees
    2. [indicar]
    apuntar a to point to;
    todo apunta a que ganará Brasil everything points to a win for Brazil;
    todas las pruebas apuntan a su culpabilidad all the evidence points to him being guilty;
    las sospechas apuntan a un grupo separatista a separatist group is suspected
    3. Teatro to prompt
    4. [con un arma] to aim;
    ¡carguen, apunten, fuego! ready, take aim, fire!;
    apuntar a lo más alto to set one's sights very high
    * * *
    I v/t
    1 ( escribir) note down, make a note of
    2 TEA prompt
    3 en curso, para viaje etc put one’s name down (en, a on;
    para for)
    4
    :
    apuntar con el dedo point at o to
    II v/i
    1 con arma aim;
    apuntar alto fig aim high, have big ambitions
    2
    :
    apunta el día lit day is breaking
    * * *
    1) : to aim, to point
    2) anotar: to write down, to jot down
    3) indicar, señalar: to point to, to point out
    4) : to prompt (in the theater)
    1) : to take aim
    2) : to become evident
    * * *
    1. (escribir) to make a note of / to note down
    2. (inscribir) to put somebody's name down [pt. & pp. put]
    3. (dirigir un arma) to aim / to point

    Spanish-English dictionary > apuntar

  • 44 mixto

    adj.
    mixed, mingled.
    * * *
    1 mixed
    1 (sandwich) toasted ham and cheese sandwich
    \
    colegio mixto coeducational school, co-ed school
    ————————
    1 (sandwich) toasted ham and cheese sandwich
    * * *
    (f. - mixta)
    adj.
    * * *
    1.
    ADJ (=mezclado) mixed; [comité] joint; [empresa] joint
    2. SM
    1) (=sandwich) (toasted) cheese and ham sandwich
    2) (=fósforo) match
    3) (Mil) explosive compound
    4) (Ferro) passenger and goods train
    * * *
    I
    - ta adjetivo
    1)
    a) < escuela> mixed, coeducational
    b) <partido/equido> mixed
    2)
    a) <comisión/comité> joint (before n)
    b) <economía/agricultura> mixed
    II
    * * *
    = mixed, coeducational [co-educational], joint, blended, merged, interracial, cross-functional, match.
    Ex. The notation of LCC is mixed, including both letter and numbers.
    Ex. Gerould College, a co-educational undergraduate institution, is located on the outskirts of a peaceful, hideaway village in the Northeast, far from the rumbling tempo of industrialism.
    Ex. Library schools must build bridges such as joint programmes and joint professorships that link them with their parent academic institution.
    Ex. There is an overarching need to establish a shared set of values that defines the blended organisation.
    Ex. We are convinced that this process will go a long way towards breaking down the few barriers that still exist between the merged entities that make up Learning Services.
    Ex. The article is entitled ' Interracial children's books: problems and progress'.
    Ex. In the field of information technology academic institutions should adopt a cross-functional approach that provides a curriculum content that addresses real-world situations in a global setting.
    Ex. Early matches were made with sulfur.
    ----
    * curso mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich course.
    * ensalada mixta = tossed salad.
    * equipo mixto = cross-functional team.
    * grupo mixto = cross-functional team.
    * notación mixta = mixed notation.
    * programa mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich programme.
    * * *
    I
    - ta adjetivo
    1)
    a) < escuela> mixed, coeducational
    b) <partido/equido> mixed
    2)
    a) <comisión/comité> joint (before n)
    b) <economía/agricultura> mixed
    II
    * * *
    = mixed, coeducational [co-educational], joint, blended, merged, interracial, cross-functional, match.

    Ex: The notation of LCC is mixed, including both letter and numbers.

    Ex: Gerould College, a co-educational undergraduate institution, is located on the outskirts of a peaceful, hideaway village in the Northeast, far from the rumbling tempo of industrialism.
    Ex: Library schools must build bridges such as joint programmes and joint professorships that link them with their parent academic institution.
    Ex: There is an overarching need to establish a shared set of values that defines the blended organisation.
    Ex: We are convinced that this process will go a long way towards breaking down the few barriers that still exist between the merged entities that make up Learning Services.
    Ex: The article is entitled ' Interracial children's books: problems and progress'.
    Ex: In the field of information technology academic institutions should adopt a cross-functional approach that provides a curriculum content that addresses real-world situations in a global setting.
    Ex: Early matches were made with sulfur.
    * curso mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich course.
    * ensalada mixta = tossed salad.
    * equipo mixto = cross-functional team.
    * grupo mixto = cross-functional team.
    * notación mixta = mixed notation.
    * programa mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich programme.

    * * *
    mixto1 -ta
    A
    1 ‹escuela› mixed, coeducational
    educación mixta coeducation
    2 ‹partido› mixed
    B
    1 ‹comisión/comité› joint ( before n)
    2 ‹economía/capitales› mixed
    3 ‹agricultura/explotación› mixed
    4 ( Ferr):
    un tren mixto a train carrying passengers and freight
    un mixto de jamón y queso a toasted ham and cheese sandwich
    B ( Ferr) train carrying passengers and goods
    C
    1 ( Mil) gunpowder
    2 ( Jueg) cap
    3 ( ant) (cerilla) match
    echando mixtos: se fue echando mixtos he dashed off, he left like a shot
    * * *

    mixto 1
    ◊ -ta adjetivo

    mixed;
    educación mixta coeducation
    mixto 2 sustantivo masculino
    toasted sandwich ( with two different fillings)
    mixto,-a adjetivo mixed: sandwich mixto, combination sandwich

    ' mixto' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    mixta
    English:
    co-ed
    - joint
    - mixed
    * * *
    mixto, -a
    ♦ adj
    1. [con dos elementos] mixed;
    capital mixto mixed capital;
    comisión mixta joint committee;
    financiación mixta public-private financing
    2. [con hombres y mujeres] mixed;
    un colegio mixto a mixed school;
    los dobles mixtos the mixed doubles
    3. [matrimonio] mixed
    ♦ nm
    [sándwich] cheese and ham sandwich
    * * *
    I adj
    1 colegio mixed
    2 comisión joint
    II m toasted ham and cheese sandwich
    * * *
    mixto, -ta adj
    1) : mixed, joint
    2) : coeducational
    * * *
    mixto adj mixed

    Spanish-English dictionary > mixto

  • 45 éducation

    éducation [edykasjɔ̃]
    1. feminine noun
       a. ( = enseignement) education
       b. ( = manières) manners
    ► l'Éducation nationale ( = système) state education ; ( = ministère) ≈ Department for Education and Employment (Brit) Department of Education (US)
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    State education in France is divided into four levels: « maternelle » (for children 2-6 years old), « primaire » (including « école élémentaire » and « école primaire », for 7 to 11-year-olds), « secondaire » (including « collège » and « lycée », for 12 to 18-year-olds) and « supérieur » (universities and other higher education establishments).
    Private education (mainly in Catholic schools) is structured in a similar way to the state system. → ACADÉMIE  COLLÈGE  CONCOURS  DIPLÔMES  LYCÉE
    * * *
    edykasjɔ̃
    1) ( enseignement) education
    2) ( formation de personne) education
    3) ( entraînement) training
    4) ( bonnes manières) manners (pl)
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    edykasjɔ̃ nf

    Il n'a pas beaucoup d'éducation. — He's not very well educated.

    2) (familiale) upbringing

    Il a reçu une éducation très stricte. — He had a very strict upbringing.

    3) (= savoir-vivre) manners pl

    sans éducation — bad-mannered, ill-bred

    * * *
    1 ( enseignement) education; éducation artistique/musicale/permanente/sexuelle art/music/continuing/sex education; ici, les enfants reçoivent une très bonne éducation here, children get a very good education;
    2 ( formation de personne) education; faire l'éducation de qn to educate sb;
    3 ( entraînement) training; éducation de la mémoire memory training; éducation de la voix vocal ou voice training; éducation de la volonté development of willpower;
    4 ( bonnes manières) manners (pl); manquer d'éducation to show a lack of manners; avoir de l'éducation to have good manners; être sans éducation to be ill-mannered.
    Éducation Nationale, EN ( ministère) ministry of Education; ( système) state education; éducation physique physical education, PE GB, phys ed US; éducation surveillée Admin state education system for young offenders.
    [edykasjɔ̃] nom féminin
    1. [instruction] education
    éducation physique (et sportive) physical education, PE
    2. [d'un enfant] upbringing
    [bonnes manières] good manners
    comment, tu ne connais pas, c'est toute une éducation à refaire! (humoristique) what do you mean you've never heard of it, where on earth have you been?

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > éducation

  • 46 public school

    noun
    1) (Brit.) Privatschule, die; attrib. Privatschul-
    2) (Scot., Amer.): (school run by public authorities) staatliche od. öffentliche Schule
    •• Cultural note:
    Eine Privatschule in England und Wales für Schüler im Alter von dreizehn bis achtzehn Jahren, die vorher meist eine academic.ru/57591/preparatory_school">preparatory school besucht haben. Die meisten public schools sind Internate, normalerweise entweder für Jungen oder Mädchen. Die Eltern zahlen für die Ausbildung ihrer Kinder und andere Angebote innerhalb der Schule Schulgeld. In Schottland und den USA ist eine public school eine staatliche Schule
    * * *
    pub·lic ˈschool
    n BRIT Privatschule f; AM, AUS, SCOT staatliche Schule
    * * *
    PS abk
    3. postscript PS n
    * * *
    noun
    1) (Brit.) Privatschule, die; attrib. Privatschul-
    2) (Scot., Amer.): (school run by public authorities) staatliche od. öffentliche Schule
    •• Cultural note:
    Eine Privatschule in England und Wales für Schüler im Alter von dreizehn bis achtzehn Jahren, die vorher meist eine preparatory school besucht haben. Die meisten public schools sind Internate, normalerweise entweder für Jungen oder Mädchen. Die Eltern zahlen für die Ausbildung ihrer Kinder und andere Angebote innerhalb der Schule Schulgeld. In Schottland und den USA ist eine public school eine staatliche Schule

    English-german dictionary > public school

  • 47 IEP

       popularly referred to as Sciences Po, IEP are selective-entry schools of politics and economics, within the French university system. There are currently nine IEP, the most prestigious of them being the IEP de Paris. IEP provide a rounded multidisciplinary higher education and training for future leaders of the private sector and the civil service. They also prepare students for the gruelling competitive entry exams for the ENA, France's top school of administration, and other graduate schools. Students follow courses in politics and economics, but also languages, sociology, history and geography; this multidisciplinary approach, while going against the grain of many traditional concepts of higher education, is popular in France, and is much appreciated by students and employers. Graduates obtain a first degree or a masters degree, depending on the point of exit. The Paris IEP was founded in 1872, the others after the Second World War. See Higher Education.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > IEP

  • 48 INSEAD

       One of France's top schools of management, located in Fontainebleau, south of Paris. It has a branch in Singapore. A private institution founded in 1957, INSEAD is one of the world's top business schools, and one renowned for its multicultural and "non-dogmatic" approach to learning. INSEAD's list of alumni includes the CEOs of dozens of leading international companies.

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > INSEAD

  • 49 school

    [skuːl] I 1. сущ.

    She works at / in a school. — Она работает в школе.

    Their son is still at school. — Их сын ещё учится в школе.

    comprehensive school — общеобразовательная школа; единая, комплексная школа

    divinity school — семинария, духовная школа

    graduate school — амер. последипломный курс, магистратура

    pilot school — амер. экспериментальная школа

    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]school[/ref]
    2)
    а) обучение, учение

    to finish / leave school — оканчивать школу

    to drop out of school — выбыть из школы; оказаться исключённым из школы

    She left school and went to university. — Она окончила школу и поступила в университет.

    б) занятия в школе, уроки ( без артикля)

    to attend school — ходить на занятия, посещать занятия

    3) употр. с гл. в ед. и мн.
    а) учащиеся одной школы; ученики одного преподавателя
    б) сторонники одной и той же идеи, единомышленники
    •
    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]school[/ref]
    4)
    а) класс, классная комната
    б) здание, в котором расположена школа
    5) школа, направление (в науке, литературе, искусстве)

    a school of opinion / thought — школа мысли

    6)

    undergraduate school — амер. факультет с базовым циклом обучения

    б) ( the schools) средневековые университеты
    в) институт; колледж ( как высшие учебные заведения)
    Syn:
    7) ( schools) брит. экзамены на учёную степень
    8) уст.; разг. банда, шайка воров, бандитов
    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]school[/ref]
    2. гл.
    1) книжн.
    а) приучать (к чему-л.); тренировать; воспитывать

    Every soldier has to be schooled in the care of his weapons. — Каждый солдат должен быть приучен к аккуратному обращению с оружием.

    б) обучать (чему-л.), натаскивать (в какой-л. области)

    He is well schooled in languages. — Он хорошо знает языки.

    •
    Syn:
    2) уст. дисциплинировать; обуздывать, сдерживать

    It is difficult for someone with my character to school myself to patience. — Человеку с таким характером, как у меня, трудно сдерживать себя.

    Syn:
    3) уст. посылать в школу, посылать учиться
    II 1. сущ. 2. гл.
    1) собираться косяками, плавать косяками
    2) = school up собираться у поверхности воды ( о рыбах)

    Англо-русский современный словарь > school

  • 50 частная школа

    1) General subject: a fee-paying school
    2) Economy: private school
    3) Australian slang: public school (в некоторых штатах Австралии; образована по образцу британских public schools; тж. private school)

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > частная школа

  • 51 college

    noun
    1) (esp. Brit.): (independent corporation in university) College, das
    2) (place of further education) Fach[hoch]schule, die

    go to college — (esp. Amer.) studieren

    start college — (esp. Amer.) sein Studium aufnehmen

    3) (esp. Brit.): (school) Internatsschule, die; Kolleg, das
    * * *
    ['koli‹]
    ((any or all of the buildings housing) a higher-education institution: He studies at agricultural college.) das College
    * * *
    col·lege
    [ˈkɒlɪʤ, AM ˈkɑ:-]
    n
    1. (school) Gymnasium nt; (privately funded) Kolleg nt; (boarding school) Internatsschule f
    art \college Kunstakademie f
    to drop out of \college vom Kolleg [o Gymnasium] abgehen; BRIT, AUS (children's private school) Privatschule f
    2. (university) Universität f, Hochschule f; (privately funded) Akademie f, College nt
    to go to \college auf die Universität gehen, studieren
    3. BRIT (division of university) College nt
    to go to [or be at] a \college die Universität besuchen, studieren; (members of college) College nt
    4. AM (university faculty) Fakultät f, Fachbereich m
    I attended the C\college of Arts and Sciences ich habe an der kunst- und naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät studiert; (college building) Universitätsgebäude nt, Hochschulgebäude nt
    5. esp BRIT (collegiate group) Kollegium nt, Kammer f
    \college of Medicine Ärztekollegium nt
    \college of Physicians Ärztekammer f, Ärztebund m
    * * *
    College ist ein allgemeiner Oberbegriff für höhere Bildungsinstitute. In Großbritannien kann er sich auf Einrichtungen beziehen, in denen man in einzelnen Fachbereichen, wie Kunst oder Musik, einen Hochschulabschluss erwerben kann, aber ebenso auf Schulen ohne weiteren Abschluss, z. B. für Sekretärinnen oder Friseure. Einige britische Universitäten, darunter Oxford und Cambridge, setzen sich aus Colleges zusammen. In diesen collegiate universities sorgen die Colleges für die Unterbringung und Ausbildung der Studenten, auch wenn die Universität dann die Abschlüsse verleiht. Zu den bekanntesten Colleges zählen wohl das King's College in Cambridge und das Magdalen College in Oxford. In den USA werden die Universitäten in Verwaltungseinheiten unterteilt, die als Colleges bezeichnet werden: zum Beispiel das "College of Arts and Sciences" oder das "College of Medicine". Graduate schools, die normalerweise Teil einer Universität sind, bieten auf dem bachelor aufbauende Studiengänge zur weiteren Spezialisierung an. Junior oder community colleges sind Institute, an denen man nach zweijähriger Studienzeit einen berufsbezogenen Abschluss machen kann sie bieten auch Weiterbildungen für Berufstätige an See: → DEGREE, OXBRIDGE
    * * *
    college [ˈkɒlıdʒ; US ˈkɑ-] s
    1. Br College n:
    a) einer Universität angegliederte Lehranstalt mit Wohngemeinschaft von Dozenten und Studenten
    b) zur Hochschulreife führende private Internatsschule: → academic.ru/25170/Eton_College">Eton College
    2. US College n (Eingangsstufe der Universität), weitS. Universität f:
    go to college studieren
    3. Fach(hoch)schule f:
    college of education schott pädagogische Hochschule;
    college of music Musikhochschule;
    college of technology technische Hochschule
    4. College(gebäude) n
    5. Kollegium n:
    a) organisierte Vereinigung von Personen mit gemeinsamen Pflichten und Rechten
    b) Ausschuss m: → electoral 1
    6. REL (Kardinals- etc) Kollegium n:
    7. Br sl obs Kittchen n (Gefängnis)
    col. abk
    5. color (colour)
    6. colored (coloured)
    coll. abk
    * * *
    noun
    1) (esp. Brit.): (independent corporation in university) College, das
    2) (place of further education) Fach[hoch]schule, die

    go to college — (esp. Amer.) studieren

    start college — (esp. Amer.) sein Studium aufnehmen

    3) (esp. Brit.): (school) Internatsschule, die; Kolleg, das
    * * *
    n.
    Hochschule -n f.

    English-german dictionary > college

  • 52 educate

    transitive verb
    1) (bring up) erziehen
    2) (provide schooling for)

    he was educated at Eton and Cambridge — er hat seine Ausbildung in Eton und Cambridge erhalten

    3) (give intellectual and moral training to) bilden

    educate oneself — sich [weiter]bilden

    4) (train) schulen [Geist, Körper]; [aus]bilden [Geschmack]

    educate oneself to do something — sich dazu erziehen, etwas zu tun

    * * *
    ['edjukeit]
    (to train and teach: He was educated at a private school.) erziehen
    - academic.ru/23406/education">education
    - educational
    - educationalist
    - educationist
    * * *
    edu·cate
    [ˈeʤʊkeɪt]
    vt
    1. (teach knowledge)
    ▪ to \educate sb jdn unterrichten; (train) jdn ausbilden
    to be \educated at Oxford in Oxford auf die [o zur] Schule gehen
    I was \educated in the private school system ich habe Privatschulen besucht
    ▪ to \educate sb jdn aufklären
    to \educate the public die Öffentlichkeit aufklären [o informieren]
    ▪ to \educate sb about [or in] [or on] sth jdn über etw akk aufklären
    3. ( rare: bring up)
    ▪ to \educate sb jdn erziehen
    * * *
    ['edjʊkeɪt]
    vt
    1) (SCH, UNIV) erziehen
    2) public informieren

    we need to educate our children about drugs — wir müssen dafür sorgen, dass unsere Kinder über Drogen Bescheid wissen

    3) the mind schulen; one's tastes (aus)bilden
    * * *
    educate [ˈedjuːkeıt; US ˈedʒə-] v/t
    1. erziehen, unterrichten, (aus)bilden:
    educate o.s. sich bilden;
    he was educated at X er besuchte die (Hoch)Schule in X;
    she educated her children at the best schools sie schickte ihre Kinder auf die besten Schulen
    2. weitS. (to)
    a) erziehen (zu)
    b) gewöhnen (an akk)
    3. verbessern
    4. Tiere abrichten, dressieren
    * * *
    transitive verb
    1) (bring up) erziehen

    educate oneself — sich [weiter]bilden

    4) (train) schulen [Geist, Körper]; [aus]bilden [Geschmack]

    educate oneself to do something — sich dazu erziehen, etwas zu tun

    * * *
    v.
    ausbilden v.
    erziehen v.

    English-german dictionary > educate

  • 53 enseignement

    enseignement [ɑ̃sεɲ(ə)mɑ̃]
    masculine noun
       a. ( = cours, système scolaire) education
    • enseignement primaire/secondaire primary/secondary education
       b. ( = carrière) l'enseignement teaching
    * * *
    ɑ̃sɛɲmɑ̃
    nom masculin
    1) ( institution) education
    2) ( activité) teaching
    3) ( formation) instruction
    4) ( cours) tuition
    5) ( leçon) lesson
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    ɑ̃sɛɲ(ə)mɑ̃
    1. nm
    (= éducation) education

    enseignement primaire — primary education Grande-Bretagne grade school education USA

    enseignement secondaire — secondary education Grande-Bretagne high school education USA

    2. enseignements nmpl
    (= leçon, morale) teachings
    * * *
    1 ( institution) education; l'enseignement primaire/secondaire/supérieur primary/secondary/higher education; l'enseignement public/privé/universitaire state GB ou public US/private/university education; politique/secteur de l'enseignement education policy/sector; réforme de l'enseignement educational reform;
    2 ( activité) teaching; se consacrer à l'enseignement to devote oneself to teaching; l'enseignement des langues vivantes modern language teaching; programmes/méthodes/matériaux d'enseignement teaching programmesGB/methods/materials; carrière de l'enseignement teaching career; entrer dans l'enseignement to enter the teaching profession; activités/équipements d'enseignement educational activities/facilities;
    3 ( formation) instruction; l'enseignement théorique/pratique theoretical/practical instruction;
    4 ( cours) tuition; l'enseignement individuel individual tuition; dispenser/recevoir un enseignement to give/receive tuition;
    5 ( leçon) lesson; enseignements d'un échec/de l'expérience lessons drawn from failure/experience; plein or riche d'enseignements full of lessons to be learned; tirer les enseignements de to draw a lesson from.
    enseignement artistique art education; enseignement assisté par ordinateur, EAO computer-aided learning, CAL; enseignement audiovisuel audiovisual teaching; enseignement par correspondance distance learning; enseignement à distance distance learning; enseignement général mainstream education; enseignement libre denominational education; enseignement ménager Scol domestic science; enseignement mixte coeducation; enseignement professionnel vocational training ou education; enseignement religieux religious instruction; enseignement technique technical education.
    [ɑ̃sɛɲmɑ̃] nom masculin
    1. [instruction] education
    2. [méthodes d'instruction] teaching (methods)
    3. [système scolaire]
    enseignement primaire/supérieur primary/higher education
    4. [profession]
    l'enseignement teaching, the teaching profession
    5. [leçon] lesson, teaching

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > enseignement

  • 54 ♦ public

    ♦ public /ˈpʌblɪk/
    A a.
    pubblico ( in ogni senso): a public building, un edificio pubblico; (leg.) public law, diritto pubblico; a public protest, una protesta pubblica; public relations, relazioni pubbliche; public education, pubblica istruzione; public health, salute pubblica; sanità; (fin.) public expenditure (o public spending) la spesa pubblica; (fin.) the public debt, il debito pubblico; to be public knowledge, essere di dominio pubblico; to make public, pubblicare, rendere di pubblico dominio
    B n.
    1 pubblico; clientela; spettatori, lettori, ascoltatori: the sporting public, gli sportivi (in quanto spettatori)
    2 pubblico; gente: the general public, il grande pubblico; The museum is closed to the public on Mondays, il lunedì il museo è chiuso al pubblico
    ● public accountant, ragioniere professionista ( iscritto all'albo); commercialista □ public-address system, sistema d'amplificazione sonora; impianto di diffusione sonora □ (edil., leg.) public area, parti comuni ( di un condominio) □ ( USA) public assistance, assistenza sociale □ (in GB) public bar, sala esterna ( di un pub: meno elegante e meno cara delle altre) □ (polit.) public bill, disegno di legge d'iniziativa governativa; ( anche) proposta di legge d'interesse generale □ (fin.) public company, società di capitali ( ad azionariato diffuso generalmente quotata in Borsa; cfr. private company, sotto private); società per azioni □ public conveniences, gabinetti ( di decenza); latrine pubbliche □ (fin.) public corporation, (in GB) ente di diritto pubblico ( come la BBC); ( USA) società (o azienda) statale; ( anche) società di capitali ( quotata in Borsa; cfr. public company, sopra) □ (leg., USA) public defender, difensore d'ufficio □ (leg., USA) public domain, pubblico dominio; ( anche) demanio, proprietà demaniali □ (leg.) public easement, servitù pubblica □ public finance, finanza pubblica; ( anche) scienza delle finanze □ public holiday, festa nazionale; pubblica festività □ public house, pub; locale pubblico in cui si consumano alcolici □ public housing, edilizia popolare; alloggi popolari □ (econ., fin.) public issue, offerta al pubblico; offerta pubblica di sottoscrizione (OPS) □ (comput.) public-key cryptography, crittografia a chiave pubblica □ public life, vita pubblica; politica □ public limited company = public company ► sopra □ a public man, un uomo che ricopre cariche pubbliche □ public-minded, animato da senso civico; che ha una coscienza sociale □ public nuisance, (leg.) turbativa dell'ordine pubblico; (fam.) seccatore; scocciatore, rompiscatole (fam.) □ (econ., fin.) public offering, = public issue ► sopra □ public opinion, opinione pubblica □ public-opinion poll, sondaggio d'opinione; indagine demoscopica □ public orator, oratore ufficiale □ public park, parco pubblico □ (leg.) public prosecutor, pubblico ministero □ the public purse, l'erario □ (in GB) the Public Record Office, l'Archivio di Stato ( a Londra) □ public relations officer, addetto alle pubbliche relazioni □ (leg.) public safety, sicurezza pubblica □ public school, (in GB) scuola privata ( residenziale, a livello secondario); (in USA e Scozia) scuola pubblica ( a livello elementare) NOTE DI CULTURA: public school: in Inghilterra e nel Galles è un tipo di scuola secondaria privata (in genere un collegio) soprattutto maschile per ragazzi dagli 11 ai 18 anni. Le public schools di solito sono esigenti in fatto di rendimento scolastico e danno grande importanza allo sport e allo spirito di corpo. A causa delle loro rette elevate, sono tradizionalmente frequentate da ragazzi di ceto elevato. I loro diplomati sono spesso ammessi alle università di Oxford o Cambridge. L'aggettivo public deriva dal fatto che in origine si trattava di scuole non religiose create e finanziate a beneficio dei comuni cittadini. Le più antiche sono Eton, Harrow, Winchester e Rugby, tutte fondate nel XV secolo □ (econ.) the public sector, il settore pubblico □ (fin.) public-sector borrowing requirement, fabbisogno finanziario dello Stato □ public servant, funzionario statale (spec. se eletto) □ the public services, i servizi pubblici □ (fin.) public service cuts, tagli alle spese dei servizi pubblici □ public service announcement, comunicazione sociale □ public speaking, oratoria □ public spirit, senso civico; civismo □ public-spirited = public-minded ► sopra □ public utility, servizio pubblico; impresa pubblica (o d'interesse pubblico) □ the public welfare, il bene comune; la salute pubblica □ public works, lavori pubblici; opere pubbliche □ (relig.) public worship, il culto; servizio religioso □ to go public, ( di una persona) fare rivelazioni; uscire allo scoperto; (fin.: d'una società di capitali non quotata) trasformarsi in una ► «public company» ( sopra) □ in public, in pubblico □ ( di notizia) to be in the public domain, essere di dominio pubblico □ ( di persona) to be in the public eye, essere molto in vista □ the reading public, il pubblico che legge; i lettori.
    NOTA D'USO: - public, audience, spectators- NOTA D'USO: - the public is o the public are?-

    English-Italian dictionary > ♦ public

  • 55 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 56 Catholic church

       The Catholic Church and the Catholic religion together represent the oldest and most enduring of all Portuguese institutions. Because its origins as an institution go back at least to the middle of the third century, if not earlier, the Christian and later the Catholic Church is much older than any other Portuguese institution or major cultural influence, including the monarchy (lasting 770 years) or Islam (540 years). Indeed, it is older than Portugal (869 years) itself. The Church, despite its changing doctrine and form, dates to the period when Roman Lusitania was Christianized.
       In its earlier period, the Church played an important role in the creation of an independent Portuguese monarchy, as well as in the colonization and settlement of various regions of the shifting Christian-Muslim frontier as it moved south. Until the rise of absolutist monarchy and central government, the Church dominated all public and private life and provided the only education available, along with the only hospitals and charity institutions. During the Middle Ages and the early stage of the overseas empire, the Church accumulated a great deal of wealth. One historian suggests that, by 1700, one-third of the land in Portugal was owned by the Church. Besides land, Catholic institutions possessed a large number of chapels, churches and cathedrals, capital, and other property.
       Extensive periods of Portuguese history witnessed either conflict or cooperation between the Church as the monarchy increasingly sought to gain direct control of the realm. The monarchy challenged the great power and wealth of the Church, especially after the acquisition of the first overseas empire (1415-1580). When King João III requested the pope to allow Portugal to establish the Inquisition (Holy Office) in the country and the request was finally granted in 1531, royal power, more than religion was the chief concern. The Inquisition acted as a judicial arm of the Catholic Church in order to root out heresies, primarily Judaism and Islam, and later Protestantism. But the Inquisition became an instrument used by the crown to strengthen its power and jurisdiction.
       The Church's power and prestige in governance came under direct attack for the first time under the Marquis of Pombal (1750-77) when, as the king's prime minister, he placed regalism above the Church's interests. In 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, although they were allowed to return after Pombal left office. Pombal also harnessed the Inquisition and put in place other anticlerical measures. With the rise of liberalism and the efforts to secularize Portugal after 1820, considerable Church-state conflict occurred. The new liberal state weakened the power and position of the Church in various ways: in 1834, all religious orders were suppressed and their property confiscated both in Portugal and in the empire and, in the 1830s and 1840s, agrarian reform programs confiscated and sold large portions of Church lands. By the 1850s, Church-state relations had improved, various religious orders were allowed to return, and the Church's influence was largely restored. By the late 19th century, Church and state were closely allied again. Church roles in all levels of education were pervasive, and there was a popular Catholic revival under way.
       With the rise of republicanism and the early years of the First Republic, especially from 1910 to 1917, Church-state relations reached a new low. A major tenet of republicanism was anticlericalism and the belief that the Church was as much to blame as the monarchy for the backwardness of Portuguese society. The provisional republican government's 1911 Law of Separation decreed the secularization of public life on a scale unknown in Portugal. Among the new measures that Catholics and the Church opposed were legalization of divorce, appropriation of all Church property by the state, abolition of religious oaths for various posts, suppression of the theology school at Coimbra University, abolition of saints' days as public holidays, abolition of nunneries and expulsion of the Jesuits, closing of seminaries, secularization of all public education, and banning of religious courses in schools.
       After considerable civil strife over the religious question under the republic, President Sidónio Pais restored normal relations with the Holy See and made concessions to the Portuguese Church. Encouraged by the apparitions at Fátima between May and October 1917, which caused a great sensation among the rural people, a strong Catholic reaction to anticlericalism ensued. Backed by various new Catholic organizations such as the "Catholic Youth" and the Academic Center of Christian Democracy (CADC), the Catholic revival influenced government and politics under the Estado Novo. Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar was not only a devout Catholic and member of the CADC, but his formative years included nine years in the Viseu Catholic Seminary preparing to be a priest. Under the Estado Novo, Church-state relations greatly improved, and Catholic interests were protected. On the other hand, Salazar's no-risk statism never went so far as to restore to the Church all that had been lost in the 1911 Law of Separation. Most Church property was never returned from state ownership and, while the Church played an important role in public education to 1974, it never recovered the influence in education it had enjoyed before 1911.
       Today, the majority of Portuguese proclaim themselves Catholic, and the enduring nature of the Church as an institution seems apparent everywhere in the country. But there is no longer a monolithic Catholic faith; there is growing diversity of religious choice in the population, which includes an increasing number of Protestant Portuguese as well as a small but growing number of Muslims from the former Portuguese empire. The Muslim community of greater Lisbon erected a Mosque which, ironically, is located near the Spanish Embassy. In the 1990s, Portugal's Catholic Church as an institution appeared to be experiencing a revival of influence. While Church attendance remained low, several Church institutions retained an importance in society that went beyond the walls of the thousands of churches: a popular, flourishing Catholic University; Radio Re-nascenca, the country's most listened to radio station; and a new private television channel owned by the Church. At an international conference in Lisbon in September 2000, the Cardinal Patriarch of Portugal, Dom José Policarpo, formally apologized to the Jewish community of Portugal for the actions of the Inquisition. At the deliberately selected location, the place where that religious institution once held its hearings and trials, Dom Policarpo read a declaration of Catholic guilt and repentance and symbolically embraced three rabbis, apologizing for acts of violence, pressures to convert, suspicions, and denunciation.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Catholic church

  • 57 school

    [̈ɪsku:l]
    basic school начальная школла boarding school пансион, закрытое учебное заведение, школа-интернат business school школа бизнеса co-educational school школа совместного обучения commercial school торговая школа correctional training school исправительная школа driver's school школа вождения elementary (или primary) school начальная школа elementary school начальная школа evening school вечерняя школа evening secondary school вечерняя средняя школа folk high school народная средняя школа graduate school амер. аспирантура grammar school пятый-восьмой классы средней школы (США) grammar school средняя классическая школа (Великобритания) school школа; secondary (амер. high) school средняя школа; higher school высшая школа to attend school ходить в школу; учиться в школе; to leave school бросать учение в школе motoring school школа вождения nautical school мореходная школа normal school педагогическое училище nursery school детский сад private independent school частная независимая школа private school частная школа public school бесплатная средняя школа (в США и Шотландии) public school привилегированное частное закрытое среднее учебное заведение для мальчиков (в Англии) reformatory school реформаторская школа sabbath school воскресная школа school дисциплинировать, обуздывать; приучать; школить school занятия в школе, уроки; there will be no school today сегодня занятий не будет school класс, классная комната school уст. посылать в школу, посылать учиться school собираться косяками school (the schools) pl средневековые университеты school стая, косяк (рыб) school собир. учащиеся одной школы school учебное заведение school учение, обучение school факультет университета (дающий право на получение ученой степени) school школа, направление (в науке, литературе, искусстве) school школа; secondary (амер. high) school средняя школа; higher school высшая школа school школа school attr. школьный, учебный school health service служба школьного здравоохранения school house квартира директора или учителя при школе school house пансионат при школе school of economics школа экономики school social worker школьный социальный работник school школа; secondary (амер. high) school средняя школа; higher school высшая школа secondary school средняя школа secondary: school средний (об образовании); secondary school средняя школа special school специальная школа special school спецшкола summer school курс лекций в университете (во время летних каникул) Technical school техническая школа technical school техническая школа technical school техническое учебное заведение technical school техническое училище tec: tec разг. сокр. от technical school technical: school технический; промышленный; technical school (или institute) техническое училище school занятия в школе, уроки; there will be no school today сегодня занятий не будет trade school производственная школа, ремесленное училище trade school школа торговли upper secondary school общеобразовательная школа старшей ступени vestibule school амер. производственная школа (при фабрике или заводе) veterinary school ветеринарная школа vocational school профессиональное училище vocational school ремесленное училище vocational school школа профессионального обучения vocational: vocational профессиональный; vocational school ремесленное училище; vocational training профессиональное обучение; профессионально-техническое образование

    English-Russian short dictionary > school

  • 58 session

    ˈseʃən сущ.
    1) заседание, собрание, совещание a session on ≈ заседание посвященное (чему-л.) to hold a special session on problems of air pollution ≈ проводить специальное заседание по вопросам загрязнения воздуха to hold a session ≈ проводить заседание biennial session ≈ сессия, созываемая раз в два года briefing session ≈ информационное совещание, брифинг bull session, rap session ≈, разг. разговоры, беседа в мужской компании jam session ≈ исполнение импровизаций и экспромтов джазовым оркестром joint session ≈ совместное заседание plenary session ≈ пленарное заседание rump session ≈ "сессия охвостья" (сессия законодательного собрания с неполным представительством) special session ≈ внеочередная сессия, экстренное заседание split session ≈ разделенная сессия working session ≈ рабочее заседание Syn: sitting, meeting
    2) сессия а) парламентская, судебная Court of Session ≈ Шотландский Верховный гражданский суд panic session ≈ кризисная сессия (сессия законодательного собрания, созванная под влиянием паники или какой-либо кризисной ситуации) petty sessions ≈ судебное заседание в присутствии нескольких мировых судей без присяжных заседателей secret session ≈ закрытая сессия summer session ≈ летний курс (платный лекционный учебный цикл, предлагаемый в некоторых университетах) б) музыкальная a session musician ≈ сессионный музыкант в) вчт. сеанс работы пользователя с системой
    3) а) учебный семестр или триместр( в шотл. и американских университетах) б) амер. занятия, учебное время в школе
    5) амер. разг. время, занятое чем-л. (особ. чем-л. неприятным) заседание, собрание, совещание - plenary * пленарное заседание - private /secret/ * закрытое заседание - *s of a commission заседание комиссии - to be in * заседать - the Senate is now in * в сенате идут заседания, сенат сейчас работает - they had a long * они долго заседали - to go into secret * обсуждать на закрытом заседании (что-л.) - to have a * on smth. совещаться по какому-л. вопросу (юридическое) судебное заседание;
    день судебного заседания - closed * закрытое заседание суда - in full * в открытом судебном заседании - to be in * заседать (о суде) (the *s) суд четвертных, квартальных сессий (съезды мировых судей графства, созываемые четыре раза в год, рассматривающие уголовные и гражданские дела) (американизм) суд, заседающий раз в три месяца сессия (судебная, парламентская) - autumn * осенняя сессия парламента - extraordinary * чрезвычайная сессия - to present bills at this * of Parliament внести законопроекты на обсуждение текущей сессии парламента - Court of S. Сессионный суд (высший суд Шотландии по гражданским делам) учебный триместр или семестр - Summer *s (летние) курсы усовершенствования преподавателей учебный год( в некоторых университетах) (американизм) занятия;
    учебное время - six and eight week *s шестинедельный и восьминедельный курсы обучения - most of these schools have night *s во многих из этих школ проводятся вечерние занятия( американизм) (разговорное) время, занятое чем-л. (особ. чем-л. неприятным) - he had quite a * with the policeman у него был долгий и неприятный разговор с полицейским встреча для какой-л. цели - dancing * вечер с танцами - card * встреча для игры в карты;
    переброситься в картишки - recording * сеанс звукозаписи - a few kids gor together for a study * несколько ребят собралось, чтобы вместе позаниматься( австралийское) (сленг) групповая пьянка( компьютерное) сеанс (работы пользователя с системой) (редкое) сидячее положение autumn ~ осеннее заседание autumn ~ парл. осенняя сессия ~ заседание;
    to be in session заседать, быть в сборе briefing ~ инструктивное заседание ~ сессия (парламентская, судебная) ;
    Court of Session Шотландский Верховный гражданский суд court ~ заседание суда editing ~ вчт. сеанс редактирования emergency ~ чрезвычайная сессия extraordinary ~ парл. чрезвычайная сессия general ~ генеральная сессия main ~ основное заседание ordinary examination ~ обычная экзаменационная сессия ordinary ~ обычное заседание parliamentary ~ заседание парламента parliamentary ~ сессия парламента petty ~s судебное заседание в присутствии нескольких мировых судей без присяжных заседателей plenary ~ заседание в полном составе plenary ~ пленарное заседание session разг. время, занятое (чем-л.) (особ. чем-л. неприятным) ~ амер. занятия, учебное время в школе ~ заседание;
    to be in session заседать, быть в сборе ~ заседание ~ вчт. сеанс ~ сессия (парламентская, судебная) ;
    Court of Session Шотландский Верховный гражданский суд ~ сессия ~ сессия парламента ~ собрание ~ совещание ~ судебное заседание ~ учебный семестр (в шотл. и американских университетах) ;
    summer session летние курсы при университете ~ of court судебное заседание spring ~ весенняя сессия ~ учебный семестр (в шотл. и американских университетах) ;
    summer session летние курсы при университете terminal ~ вчт. сеанс диалога user ~ вчт. сеанс пользователя

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > session

  • 59 session

    [ʹseʃ(ə)n] n
    1. заседание, собрание, совещание

    private /secret/ session - закрытое заседание

    to be in session - заседать [см. тж. 2, 1)]

    the Senate is now in session - в сенате идут заседания, сенат сейчас работает

    to have a session on smth. - совещаться по какому-л. вопросу

    2. 1) юр. судебное заседание; день судебного заседания
    2) (the sessions) = quarter-sessions
    3. сессия (судебная, парламентская)

    extraordinary [special] session - чрезвычайная [специальная] сессия

    to present bills at this session of Parliament - внести законопроекты на обсуждение текущей сессии парламента

    4. 1) учебный триместр или семестр
    3) амер. занятия; учебное время

    six and eight week sessions - шестинедельный и восьминедельный курсы обучения

    most of these schools have night sessions - во многих из этих школ проводятся вечерние занятия

    5. амер. разг. время, занятое чем-л. (особ. чем-л. неприятным)

    he had quite a session with the policeman - у него был долгий и неприятный разговор с полицейским

    6. встреча для какой-л. цели

    card session - встреча для игры в карты; ≅ переброситься в картишки

    a few kids got together for a study session - несколько ребят собралось, чтобы вместе позаниматься

    7. австрал. сл. групповая пьянка
    9. редк. сидячее положение

    НБАРС > session

  • 60 PSF

    1) Компьютерная техника: Pc Screen Font
    2) Авиация: Passenger Service Fee (see http://www.snowwhitetours.com.bt/flightinfo.htm)
    3) Американизм: Political Survival Fund
    8) Оптика: point spread function
    9) Сокращение: Point-Spread Function, Popular Struggle Front (for liberation of Palestine), Postal Service Fund (under PAEA), Provisional Sinn Fein, pound-force per square foot, (private security firm) ЧОП (частное охранное предприятие)
    10) Вычислительная техника: permanent swap file, Print Services Facility (IBM), Point Spread Function (Space), Python Software Foundation (organization, Python)
    11) Целлюлозно-бумажная промышленность: (Plug Screw Feeder) напорный шнековый питатель
    12) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Production Support Facilities (WP&B)
    13) Образование: Priority Schools Funding
    14) Сетевые технологии: Progressive Segmented Frame
    15) Полимеры: polysulfone
    16) Океанография: Program Support Facility
    17) Авиационная медицина: performance shaping factor
    19) Военно-политический термин: Peace Support Forces
    20) Аэропорты: Pittsfield, Massachusetts USA

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > PSF

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