this+problem

Grammatical information: v.

Meaning: `to look around, to look back, to spy, to contemplate, to consider, to survey' (Il; Att. has fo it σκοπέω, - έομαι; s. below)

Other forms: Aor. σκέψασθαι (Od.), fut. σκέψομαι, perf. ἔσκεμμαι (IA.), aor. pass. σκεφθῆναι (Hp.), σκεπ-ῆναι w. fut. - ήσομαι (LXX).

Compounds: Often w. ἐπι-, κατα-, προ-, δια- a. o.

Derivatives: A. With ε-vowel: 1. σκέψις ( ἐπί-, κατά- σκέπτομαι a.o.) `contemplation, deliberation, examination' (IA.). 2. σκέμ-μα (rarely w. δια- a. o.) `examination, problem' (Hp., Pl. a. o.). 3. σκεπτ-οσύνη f. = σκέψις (Timo, Cerc.). 4. - ήριον n. `test' (Man.). 5. - ικός ( ἐπι-, δια- σκέπτομαι) `cogitating, revising', οἱ σκέπτομαι name of a philos. sect (hell. a. late). B. With ο-ablaut: 1. σκοπός m. (f.) `spy, guard, scout; goal, purpose' (Il.) with hypostases: ἐπί-σκοπος, adv. -α `hitting the goal' (Hdt., trag., late), ἀπό-σκοπος `missing the goal' (Emp.); σκόπ-ιμος `purposive, appropriate' (late; Arbenz 97); as 2. member, e.g. οἰωνο-σκόπος m. `bird-watcher' with - έω, - ία, - ικός, - εῖον (E., hell. a. late). 2. To the prefixcompp.: ἐπί-, κατά-, πρό-σκοπος m. `spy, supervisor, foresighted etc.' (Hom., Pi., IA.). 3. σκοπή ( κατα-, ἐπι- a. o.) f., the spying, watch-tower' (Att. etc.) with σκοπάω (Ar. Fr. 854). 4. σκοπιά, Ion. - ιή f. `mountain-, castle-watching-place, mountain-summit, watch-tower' (ep. Ion. poet. Il., also hell. a. late prose; favoured by the metre, Scheller Oxytonierung 82 f.) with σκοπ-ιήτης m. `summit dweller' = Πάν (Paus.), - ιάζω ( ἀπο-) `to spy, to look out' (ep. Il.), - ιάομαι `to percieve' (Il.; only w. δια-). 5. σκοπέω, - έομαι iterat.-intensive to σκέπτομαι (Pi., IA.), non-pres. forms late: σκοπ-ῆσαι, - ήσασθαι, - ήσω, - ήσομαι, ἐσκόπημαι. 6. σκοπεύω ( κατα-, ἀπο-, ἐπι-), prob. second. for σκοπέω (Schwyzer 732; X., LXX, pap. etc.) with σκόπ-ευσις, - ευτής (Aq.), - εῖα n. pl. (Procl.). -- S. also σκόπελος and σκώψ.

Origin: IE [Indo-European] [984] *speḱ- `see sharply, spy'

Etymology: As old yot-present σκέπτομαι stands with metathesis (Schwyzer 268) for *σπέκ-ι̯ομαι, which is identical with Lat. speciō, Av. spasyeiti and (except for anl. s-) with Skt. páśyati `see'. The aor. σκέψασθαι too can in the same way be identified with Lat. spexī ; in both cases we have however to do with innovations against the suppletive Skt. ádarśam, 3. pl. ádr̥śan (s. δέρκομαι). Through the iterative-intensive σκοπέω, - έομαι a new opposition was created in Greek to σκέψασθαι etc. in the same way as Skt. pásyati: ádarśam, ὁράω: εἶδον. -- Semant. and phonetic identity is also found in σκοπός and Skt. spaśa- `spy', which is enlarged from spaś- (s. below; Wackernagel-Debrunner II: 2, 90); to this further OWNo. spār `predicting' from PGm. * spaha- (IE *spóḱo-). Thus σκοπή agrees, but for the accent, with OWNo. spā f. `prophesy' from PGm. * spahō (IE *spóḱā). Greek does not have the old root noun Skt. spaś-, Av. spas- `spy', Lat. haru-spex a. o., from which σκέπτομαι etc. prob. arose as denominative. -- Further details w. lit. in WP. 2, 659f., Pok. 984, W.-Hofmann and Ernout-Meillet s. speciō. NGr. forms in Caratzas Glotta 33, 322 ff.

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Grammatical information: v.

Meaning: `to draw, to trail, to drag, to pull, to ravish, to sweep'(IA.).

Other forms: Aor. σῦραι, pass. σῠρῆναι (late), fut. συρῶ (LXX), perf. σέσυρμαι, - κα (hell. a. late).

Compounds: Very often w. prefix in diff. shades of meaning, e.g. δια- (also `to hackle, to mock'), ἐπι- (also `to be, treat neglectful etc.'), κατα-, παρα-. As 1. member in σύργαστρος (s.v.)?

Derivatives: 1. σύρμα ( ἀπό-, ἐπί-, παρά-, περί-) n. `train-dress, sweepings, dragging movement' (Ion., X., hell. a. late) with συρμα-τῖτις κόπρος `manure-heap consisting of sweepings' (Thphr.; Redard 109), - τικη φωνή `drawn-out accent' (VII<sup>p</sup>), - τὶς στρατιά ἡ τὰ συμψήγματα καὶ φρύγανα σύρουσα καὶ συλλέγουσα H. 2. συρμός ( ἐπι-, περι-, ὑπο-) m. `grinding, dragging, pulling movement' (of a wind, a gulf, a meteor, a snake a.o.; Arist. etc), `the vomiting' (Nic.); δια- σύρω `the pulling apart, to bemock' (hell. a. late); from this συρ-μάδες f. pl. `snowdrifts' (late), - μαία, Ion. - μαίη f. `vomitive, radish' (Ion., Ar. etc.), also name of a Lacon. priestrank (inscr., H.), with - μαΐζω `to take a vomitive', -μαϊσμός m. (Hdt., medic.), - μίον λάχανόν τι σελίνῳ ἐοικός H., - μιστήρ ξυλο-πώλης H. 3. συρμή f. `trailing tail of a snake' (sch.). -- 4. σύρ-της m. `towing-rope' (Man., H.), - τῶν gen. pl. (nom. sg. - της or - τός) name of a dance (Akraiphia I<sup>p</sup>), διασύρ-της m. `slanderer' (Ptol.), δια-, ἐκ-συρτικός (hell. a. late). 5. ἀνασυρτ-όλις f. `lewd woman' (Hippon.; cf. οἰφόλις and Chantraine Form. 237 f.). 6. Prob. also Σύρτις f. name of a sea-gulf on the northcoast of Africa with sandy shores and dangerous breakers (Hdt. etc.) as "the pulling one" (cf. v. Wilamowitz on Tim. Pers. 99); metaph. `destruction' (Tim. Pers. 99, H.). 7. σύρσις f. ( διά- σύρω) `the drawing of a plough' (late). -- With φ -enlargement: 8. σύρφη φρύγανα H. 9. συρφ-ετός m. `sweepings, filth' (Hes., Call., Plu. a.o.), `rabble' (Pl. a.o.) with - ετώδης `vulgar' (Plb., Luc. a.o.); cf. νιφετός a.o. (Chantraine Form. 300, Schwyzer 501). 10. -ᾱξ m. `rabble' (Ar. V. 673 [anap.], Luc.), popular-hypocoristic formation. -- On σύρφος s. σέρφος. Cf. ἀσυρής.

Origin: PG [a word of Pre-Greek origin]X [probably]

Etymology: Prob. to σαίρω `sweep' (s. v. w. lit.), but without certain cognates outside Greek. With σύρφ-η, - ετός, - αξ one compares a Germ. word for `sweep, turn (sweep turning), wipe off' in Goth. af-, bi-swairban ' εξαλεῖψαι, ἐκμάξαι', OHG swerban `drive quickly to and fro, whirl, wipe off' etc., to which also Celt., e.g. Welsh chwerfu `whirl, turn around' (Persson Stud. 55, WP. 2, 529f., Pok. 1050f. w. lit.). The semant. certainly possible connection presents the same phonetic problem as σέλας, σῦς etc. (s. vv.). In auslaut agrees σύρφη, prob. not accidentally, to the synonymous κάρφη; so formally influenced by it? An old variation bh: m in σύρ-φη: συρ-μός (Specht Ursprung 269) does not help; but it would show Pre-Greek origin -- The connection with σαίρω, both from *tu̯r̥- is hardly convincing.

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Grammatical information: m. pl.

Meaning: name of an (the) older Pre-Greek population of the Agaean area, sg. - ός `Pelasgian' (Il.).

Derivatives: Πελασγ-ικός `Pelasgian' (Il., Hdt.), - ιος `id.' (A., E.), f. - ίς (Hdt., A. R.), - ιάς (Call.); - ίη f. = Έλλάς (Hdt.); - ιῶται m. pl., - ιῶτις f. sg. inhabitants of the Πελασγιῶτις f. landscape in southern Thessalia (Hdt.). -- Πελαργικὸν τεῖχος n. name of the ground at the northerly river of the Acropolis in Athens (Hdt., Att.) with old transition of σγ (= zg) to ργ (Schwyzer 218)?

Origin: XX [etym. unknown]

Etymology: No etymology. Widely accepted was the hypothesis of Kretschmer (first Glotta 1, 16 f.) which explained Πελασγοί from *Πελαγσ-κοί as "inhabitant of flat land", from πέλαγος in orig. sense of `plain'. This semantically uncertain, formally contestable interpretation was also several times doubted; s. F. Lochner-Hüttenbach Die Pelasger (Arb. Inst. Sprachw. 6. Wien 1960) 143ff. with referee of also other proposals and extensive treatment of the whole problem (on Πελαργικόν ibd. 116 w. n. 74); cf. the dicussion by Kronassers, Sprache 7, 218ff.

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γεύομαι fut. γεύσομαι, 1 aor. ἐγευσάμην (Hom. et al.; pap, LXX; TestReub 1:10 [v.l. ἔφαγον]; TestZeb 4:2; TestJos 6:3; JosAs 10:20; ApcEsdr 7:1 p. 32, 8 Tdf.; ApcMos, Philo, Joseph.) to have perception of someth. either by mouth or by experience, esp. in ref. to relatively small quantity.

① to partake of someth. by mouth, taste, partake of w. acc. (rarely in Gk. lit. with this verb [for acc. w. verbs of consumption, but not γεύομαι, s. Kühner-G. I 356, 2]: Anth. Pal. 6, 120 ἔρσης ἰκμάδα γευόμενος ‘tasting the juicy dew’; also Sb 1106 οἱ συμπόσιον γευόμενοι; 1 Km 14:43; Job 12:11; 34:3; Tob 7:12 BA) water J 2:9. μηδὲν εἰ μὴ ἄρτον καὶ ὕδωρ Hs 5, 3, 7. W. gen. of thing (Crates, Ep. 14 ἰχθύος κ. οἴνου; Dio Chrys. 2, 47; POxy 658, 12; 1576, 4 τοῦ οἴνου; 1 Km 14:24; 2 Km 3:35 al.): a meal=take part in it Lk 14:24. μηδενός (Jos., Ant. 7, 42) Ac 23:14; poisonous plants ITr 11:1. The obj. of the verb is indicated by the context Mt 27:34; Ac 20:11. μὴ ἅψῃ μηδὲ γεύσῃ μηδὲ θίγῃς Col 2:21 (s. ἅπτω 3).—Abs. with apparent ref. to the initial phase of dining γεύομαι= eat (ins Sb 1944; Tob 2:4 BA ‘left his meal untouched’; Jos., Ant. 6, 119 ‘taste’ in contrast to ‘eat’ [ἐσθίω]; 338 the witch of Endor urges Saul to ‘take some food’ [in contrast to his fasting]; cp. Appian, Bell. Civ. 2, 98 §407 ‘dine’) Ac 10:10.

② to experience someth. cognitively or emotionally, come to know someth. fig. ext. of 1 (Hom. et al.; Pr 31:18; Pfuhl-Möbius II, 1310, 8 ‘taste of words’, or lit.). W. gen. of thing (Pind., N. 6, 24 πόνων; Hdt. 6, 5 ἐλευθερίης; Lycophron vs. 1431 φυγῆς [of Xerxes]; Dio Chrys. 15 [32], 72 πολέμου; Ael. Aristid. 28, 60 K.=49 p. 510 D.: ἀλαζονείας; Maximus Tyr. 33, 4c ἡδονῶν): θανάτου (analogous to rabb. טָעַם מִיתָה [Billerb. I 751f; 4 Esdr 6:26]; Leonidas in Anth. Pal. 7, 662 ἀδελφὸν ἀστόργου γευσάμενον θανάτου; cp. γ. ζωῆς IGUR III, 1216, 1; s. HRüger, ZNW 59, ’68, 113f) Mt 16:28; Mk 9:1; Lk 9:27; J 8:52; Hb 2:9; Ox 654, 5 (where θανάτου is supplied)=ASyn. 247, 20; partake of knowledge 1 Cl 36:2 (cp. Herm. Wr. 10, 8 γ. ἀθανασίας; Philo, Virt. 188 σοφίας al.; Jos., Bell. 2, 158); obtain a gift Hb 6:4. W. acc. of thing (B-D-F §169): a word of God vs. 5. W. ὅτι foll.: γεύσασθαι ὅτι χρηστὸς ὁ κύριος experience the Lord’s kindness 1 Pt 2:3 (Ps 33:9); RPerdelwitz, D. Mysterienrel. u. d. Problem des 1 Pt 1911, 65ff.—B. 1030. DELG. M-M. New Docs 4, 41. TW.

διακονέω (s. two next entries) impf. διηκόνουν; fut. διακονήσω; 1 aor. διηκόνησα; pf. inf. δεδιηκονηκέναι (AssMos Fgm. k, Denis p. 67); aor. pass. διηκονήθην, for augm. s. B-D-F §69, 4; W-S. §12, 6; Mlt-H. 192 (Soph., Hdt. et al.; rare in ins, pap; never in LXX, but in Philo, Joseph.) gener. to render service in a variety of ways either at someone’s behest or voluntarily and freq. with suggestion of movement.

① to function as an intermediary, act as go-between/agent, be at one’s service w. intermediary function either expressed or implied (lead tablet Sb 4947, 2 διακόνησόν μοι; in lover’s petition ‘serve as intermediary [medium] for me’ PWarr 21, 4; 8; Lucian, Cont. 1 of Hermes as messenger for Zeus; Theophr. Char. 2, 9 fetch things; Just., D. 79, 2; cp. the role of Repentance JosAs 15:7) w. dat. of pers. and acc. of thing οὐχ ἑαυτοῖς ὑμῖν δὲ διηκόνουν αὐτά they were not acting as agents in their own behalf but for yours in the things 1 Pt 1:12 (for a service consisting in the delivery of a message cp. Jos., Ant. 6, 298). For a similar contrast, and with suggestion of an intermediary’s mission: οὐκ ἦλθεν διακονηθῆναι ἀλλὰ διακονῆσαι came not to be served, but to serve Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45 (i.e. the Human One [Son of Man] came to carry out an assignment not to benefit himself but others [by giving his life in ransom]; cp. Mt 4:11; par. Mk 1:13 [service rendered by divine messengers]). Of Jesus carrying out his mission [ἀ]νῆλθε[ν δια]κονῶν AcPl BMM verso 13f.— Phlm 13 suggests that Onesimus can be used by Paul on assignment in behalf of the gospel. πορεύομαι … διακονῶν τοῖς ἁγίοις on an errand to God’s people (REB) Ro 15:25 (s. 3).—Of delivery of an object: χάρις διακονουμένη ὑφʼ ἡμῶν gift that we are transmitting (a ref. to the collection for whose delivery they have accepted responsibility) 2 Cor 8:19; cp. vs. 20. In imagery, ἐπιστολὴ Χριστοῦ διακονηθεῖσα ὑφʼ ἡμῶν a letter of Christ, delivered by us 2 Cor 3:3 (WBaird, Letters of Recommendation: JBL 80, ’61, 190).

② to perform obligations, without focus on intermediary function

ⓐ of unspecified services perform duties, render assistance, serve τινί someone (Demosth. 9, 43; UPZ 18, 23 [163 B.C.]; δαίμοσι δ. Orig., C. Cels. 2, 51, 38) Mt 8:15; Mk 1:31; Lk 4:39; GJs 6:3; διακονοῦσαι αὐτῷ being at his service Mt 27:55; cp. Mk 15:41. διακόνει μοι serve me Hs 8, 4, 1, cp. 2; J 12:26; Ac 19:22. Also εἰς ἑαυτοὺς αὐτὸ δ. serve one another w. it 1 Pt 4:10. W. acc. of thing ὅσα διηκόνησεν what services he rendered 2 Ti 1:18; cp. Hs 2:10. Abs. (POxy 275, 10 [I A.D.]) 1 Pt 4:11. Pass. (Jos., Ant. 10, 242); ἁπλῶς δ. complete a service in simplicity of heart Hm 2:6.

ⓑ of attention at meals wait on someone (τινί) at table (Menand., Fgm. 272; Pyrgion [Hellenistic times]: 467 Fgm. 1 Jac. [a communal meal in Crete]; Diod S 4, 36, 2; 5, 28, 4; Philo, Vi. Cont. 70; TestJob 12:1 al.; Jos., Ant. 11, 163; 166) Lk 12:37; 17:8. Abs. 10:40; J 12:2; GJs 6:3. In imagery ὡς ὁ διακονῶν waiter Lk 22:26f.

③ to meet an immediate need, help w. dat. (Iren. 1, pr. 3 [Harv. I 7, 1]) πότε οὐ διηκονήσαμέν σοι; when did we not help you? Mt 25:44 (but s. 4, Collins). ἐκ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων helped to support them w. their means Lk 8:3 (KTorjesen, When Women Were Priests ’93, 53ff); the saints Ro 15:25 (JO’Rourke, CBQ 29, ’67, 116–18; but s. 1); Hb 6:10.

④ to carry out official duties, minister, in cultic context (of holy service at the altar Jos., Ant. 3, 155; cp. PGM 36, 304 and 335 παρὰ θεοῖς δ.) of διάκονοι 1 Ti 3:10; καλῶς δ. vs. 13. ἀγνῶς καὶ σεμνῶς Hv 3, 5, 1. Opp. κακῶς Hs 9, 26, 2. Collins (s. below) p. 65 argues for placement of Mt 25:44 in this classification: those consigned to perdition plead their total dedication to the Lord’s interests.

⑤ Ac 6:2 poses a special problem: care for, take care of w. dat. of thing τραπέζαις look after tables can be understood of serving food at tables (cp. βούλομαι … διακονῆσαι τοῖς πτωχοῖς σήμερον ἐν τῇ σῇ τραπέζῃ TestJob 12:1), but it is improbable that some widows would be deprived of food at a communal meal. The term διακονία vs. 1 more probably refers to administrative responsibility (s. διακονία 5), one of whose aspects is concern for widows without specifying the kind of assistance that is allotted. Vs. 2 may contain wordplay involving the phrase τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ, w. λόγος designating a ledger entry, in which case τράπεζα, which is also a banker’s term (s. L-S-J-M s.v. II), may here denote accounts (s. τράπεζα 1c).—WBrandt, Dienst u. Dienen im NT ’31; ESchweizer, D. Leben des Herrn in d. Gemeinde u. ihren Diensten ’46; PBoulton, Διακονέω and Its Cognates in the 4 Gospels: TU 73, ’59, 415–22. JCollins, Diakonia ’90.—DELG s.v. διάκονος. M-M. TW.

ζητέω impf. ἐζήτουν; fut. ζητήσω; 1 aor. ἐζήτησα. Pass.: impf. sg. ἐζητεῖτο Hb 8:7; 1 fut. ζητηθήσομαι; aor. ἐζητήθην (LXX; AcPlCor 2:8; 1) (s. two next entries; Hom.+).

① try to find someth., seek, look for in order to find (s. εὑρίσκω 1a)

ⓐ what one possessed and has lost, w. acc. τινά Mt 28:5; Mk 1:37; Lk 2:48f; J 6:24, 26; 7:34, 36. τί Mt 18:12; Lk 19:10; AcPlCor 2:8 (ParJer 5:12). Abs. Lk 15:8.

ⓑ what one desires somehow to bring into relation w. oneself or to obtain without knowing where it is to be found τινά 2 Ti 1:17; J 18:4, 7f; Ac 10:19, 21. ζητεῖν τ. θεόν, εἰ ἄρα γε αὐτὸν εὕροιεν search for God, in the hope that they may find him 17:27 (cp. Wsd 1:1; 13:6; Philo, Spec. Leg. 1, 36; Tat. 13, 2); Ro 10:20 (Is 65:1). τί Mt 2:13; 12:43; 13:45 (in the special sense seek to buy as X., Cyr. 2, 2, 26; Theophr., Char. 23, 8 ἱματισμὸν ζητῆσαι εἰς δύο τάλαντα); Lk 11:24. τὶ ἔν τινι someth. on someth. fruit on a tree 13:6f. Abs. Mt 7:7f; Lk 11:9f (ζήτει καὶ εὑρήσεις Epict. 4, 1, 51).

ⓒ be on the search for look for, search out τινά someone Mk 3:32; Ac 9:11; IPol 4:2. For the purpose of arrest, pass. GPt 7:26; MPol 3:2.

② to seek information, investigate, examine, consider, deliberate (X., Cyr. 8, 5, 13; Lucian, Hermot. 66; Aelian, VH 2, 13; 4 Macc 1:13; Just., D. 28, 1 τὸ ζητούμενον ‘question, problem’; cp. דרשׁ in post-bibl. Hebr. and Aram.: Dalman, Aram.-neuhebr. Handwörterbuch² 1922; HStrack, Einleitg. in Talmud u. Midraš⁵ 1921, 4) παραλόγως ζ. engage in irrational investigations Dg 11:1. ἐν ἑαυτῷ ζ. περί τινος ponder someth. Hs 2:1. περὶ τούτου ζητεῖτε μετʼ ἀλλήλων ὅτι; are you deliberating with each other on the fact that? J 16:19 (Just., D. 19, 1 al.). W. indir. discourse foll. consider (Diod S 1, 51, 6 πόσαι …; Tat. 26, 1 τίς ὁ θεός; 29, 1 ὅτῳ τρόπῳ) πῶς Mk 11:18; 14:1, 11. τί Lk 12:29. τὸ πῶς 22:2. εἰ B 11:1.—As legal t.t. investigate (Dinarchus 1, 8; POxy 237 VI, 41; 726, 16; O. Theb 134, 4; EBickermann, RHR 112, ’35, 214f) ἔστιν ὁ ζητῶν κ. κρίνων there is one who investigates and judges J 8:50b (cp. Philo, De Jos. 174). J 11:56 may also have this technical sense.

③ to devote serious effort to realize one’s desire or objective, strive for, aim (at), try to obtain, desire, wish (for)

ⓐ desire to possess τὶ someth. (Lucian, Hermot. 66 τ. εὐδαιμονίαν; Just., D. 102, 6 σωτηρίαν καὶ βοήθειαν) τ. βασιλείαν Mt 6:33; Lk 12:31. εὐκαιρίαν Mt 26:16; Lk 22:6. ψευδομαρτυρίαν Mt 26:59; cp. Mk 14:55. τὴν δόξαν J 5:44; 7:18; 8:50a. τιμὴν κ. ἀφθαρσίαν Ro 2:7; cp. 1 Cor 7:27b; 2 Cor 12:14; Col 3:1; 1 Pt 3:11 (Ps 33:15).

ⓑ wish for, aim at τὶ someth. τὸν θάνατον Rv 9:6. λύσιν 1 Cor 7:27a. τὸ θέλημά τινος be intent on someone’s will=aim to satisfy it J 5:30. τὸ σύμφορόν τινος someone’s benefit (Hermogenes 283 p. 301, 11 R. v.l. ἐμοῦ … οὐ τὸ Φιλίππου συμφέρον ζητοῦντος [a citation of Dem. 18, 30, which reads Φιλίππῳ]) 1 Cor 10:33; τὰ (τὸ) ἑαυτοῦ ζητεῖν strive for one’s own advantage 10:24; 13:5; Phil 2:21.

ⓒ w. interrog. pron. τί ζητεῖτε; (cp. Gen 37:15) what do you want? J 1:38; cp. 4:27 (JFoster, ET 52, ’40/41, 37f).

ⓓ w. inf. foll. (Hdt. 3, 137) mostly aor. (Plut., Thes. 35, 6; SIG 372, 7; Wsd 8:2; Sir 7:6; 27:1; Tob 5:14 BA; TestSol 15:7; Jos., Ant. 11, 174; 13, 7) Mt 12:46; 21:46; Mk 12:12; Lk 5:18; 9:9; 11:54 v.l.; 17:33; J 5:18; 7:1; Ac 13:7 D, 8; 16:10 (cp. 3 Km 11:22); Ro 10:3; Gal 2:17. Rarely the pres. inf. (X., An. 5, 4, 33; Esth 8:12c) Lk 6:19; Gal 1:10 (ζ. ἀρέσκειν as Ael. Aristid. 34, 39 K.=50 p. 560 D.)—ἵνα for the inf. 1 Cor 14:12.

ⓔ OT lang. apparently is reflected in ζ. τὴν ψυχήν τινος seek the life of someone Mt 2:20 (cp. Ex 4:19); Ro 11:3 (3 Km 19:10); cp. also 3 Km 19:14; Sir 51:3; Ps 34:4; 37:13; 39:15; 53:5; 62:10; 85:14.

④ ask for, request, demand τὶ someth. σημεῖον Mk 8:12. σοφίαν 1 Cor 1:22. δοκιμήν 2 Cor 13:3. τινά J 4:23. τὶ παρά τινος demand someth. fr. someone (Demosth. 4, 33; Sir 7:4; 28:3; 1 Esdr 8:50; Tob 4:18) Mk 8:11; Lk 11:16; 12:48. Also τὶ ἀπό τινος B 21:6. ζητεῖται ἐν τ. οἰκονόμοις ἵνα it is required of managers that 1 Cor 4:2 (AFridrichsen, ConNeot 7, ’42, 5).—B. 655; 764. DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

προγινώσκω (Eur., X., Pla. et al.; BGU 1141, 39 [14 B.C.]; Wsd) 2 aor. προέγνων, ptc. προγνούς. Pass.: aor. 3 sg. προεγνώσθη Wsd 18:6; pf. ptc. προεγνωσμένος; plpf. 3 sg. προέγνωστο (Just., D. 70, 5)

① to know beforehand or in advance, have foreknowledge (of) τί someth. (Philo, Somn. 1, 2; Jos., Vi. 106; Tat. 8, 4) affliction Hs 7:5. Abs. (Jos., Ant. 2, 86) προγινώσκοντες since you know this (i.e. what the context makes clear) in advance 2 Pt 3:17. Of God (Alex. Aphr., An. p. 1, 7 Br. τὰ μέλλοντα, Fat. 30 p. 200, 29; Just.) πάντα Hm 4, 3, 4.—Closely connected is the idea of choice that suggests foreknowledge

② choose beforehand τινά someone Ro 8:29. τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ 11:2 (EWeber, D. Problem der Heilsgesch. nach Ro 9–11, 1911; THoppe, D. Idee d. Heilsgesch. b. Pls 1926; FMaier, Israel in d. Heilsgesch. nach Ro 9–11, 1929; EvDobschütz, Prädestination: StKr 106, ’35, 9–19; JMunck, Christus u. Israel: Ro 9–11, ’56; EDinkler, Prädestination bei Paulus, GDehn Festschr., ’57, 61–102; s. also on προορίζω). Pass. of Christ προεγνωσμένος πρὸ καταβολῆς κόσμου 1 Pt 1:20.— Know from time past (Jos., Bell. 6, 8) προγινώσκοντές με ἄνωθεν Ac 26:5.—DELG s.v. γιγνώσκω. M-M. TW.

σπείρω fut. σπερῶ LXX; 1 aor. ἔσπειρα; pf. 2 sg. ἔσπαρκας. Pass.: fut. 3 sg. σπαρήσεται LXX; 2 aor. ἐσπάρην; pf. ptc. ἐσπαρμένος (Hes., Hdt.+).

① sow seed

ⓐ lit.

α. abs., opp. θερίζω Mt 6:26; Lk 12:24.—Mt 13:3b, 4; Mk 4:3b, 4; Lk 8:5c. ὁ σπείρων a sower Mt 13:3a (cp. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. 2, 5 [13]); Mk 4:3a; Lk 8:5a; 2 Cor 9:10 (Is 55:10); 1 Cl 24:5. Also ὁ σπείρας Mt 13:18. On the sower in the parable: UHolzmeister, Verb. Dom. 22, ’42, 8–12; KGrayston, ET 55, ’44, 138f; SFinlayson, ibid. 306f; DHaugg, TQ 127, ’47, 60–81; 166–204.

β. w. acc. of what is sown (X., Oec. 14, 5) 1 Cor 15:36, 37ab; (τὸ) καλὸν σπέρμα Mt 13:24, 27, 37. τὸν σπόρον Lk 8:5b. ζιζάνια Mt 13:39. Pass. Mk 4:32.

γ. w. indication of the place in which or on which someth. is sown (Pla., Leg. 8, 7, 838e εἰς πέτρας κ. λίθους σπ.) εἰς τὰς ἀκάνθας Mt 13:22; Mk 4:18. Also ἐπὶ τὰς ἀκ. 4:18 v.l. ἐν τῷ ἀγρῷ sow in the field Mt 13:24, 31. ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς Mk 4:31 (ApcSed 3:4). ἐπὶ τὰ πετρώδη 4:16; Mt 13:20. ἐπὶ τὴν καλὴν γῆν vs. 23; cp. Mk 4:20 (opp. w. acc. Did., Gen. 218, 4; on the problem of identity s. PPayne, NTS 26, 564–68). παρὰ τὴν ὁδόν Mt 13:19b (GDalman, Viererlei Acker: PJ 22, 1926, 120–32; gener. Dalman, Arbeit II: D. Ackerbau ’32). But in these passages the lit. usage is already passing over into the metaphorical yet w. the idea of sowing at the forefront.

ⓑ in imagery and metaph.

α. in proverbial expressions based on the contrast θερίζειν … σπείρειν (cp. θερίζω 2a and ἐπί 5) of appropriating the fruits of another’s labor, without doing any work θερίζων ὅπου οὐκ ἔσπειρας Mt 25:24, 26. Cp. Lk 19:21f. ἄλλος ἐστὶν ὁ σπείρων καὶ ἄλλος ὁ θερίζων J 4:37. The harvest corresponds to what is sown (Hes., Fgm. 174 Rz.; εἰ κακὰ σπείραις, κακὰ κέρδεά κʼ ἀμήσαιο; TestLevi 13:6; Gr Bar 15:2 οἱ γὰρ καλῶς σπείραντες καὶ καλῶ ἐπισυνάγουσιν) ὸ̔ ἐὰν σπείρῃ ἄνθρωπος, τοῦτο καὶ θερίσει Gal 6:7; cp. vs. 8ab (here the ‘field’ is given w. εἰς τὴν σάρκα or τὸ πνεῦμα); 2 Cor 9:6ab.

β. The word of God, the gospel et al. are sown (Herm. Wr. 1, 29 ἔσπειρα αὐτοῖς τοὺς τῆς σοφίας λόγους) ὁ σπείρων τὸν λόγον σπείρει Mk 4:14; cp. (Orig., C. Cels. 4, 9, 6) vs. 15ab; Mt 13:19a; J 4:36. τὰ πνευματικά 1 Cor 9:11. The κακὴ διδαχή of the false teachers IEph 9:1ab (cp. AscIs 2:4 τῇ ἀνομίᾳ ἥτις ἐσπάρη ἐν Ἱερουσαλήμ).

γ. μὴ σπείρητε ἐπʼ ἀκάνθαις B 9:5 (Jer 4:3). καρπὸς δικαιοσύνης ἐν εἰρήνῃ σπείρεται τοῖς ποιοῦσιν εἰρήνην Js 3:18 (σπ. καρπόν as Antiphanes 228, 4; Paus. 1, 14, 2).

δ. The body after burial is compared to a seed-grain, for in the resurrection it comes forth fr. the earth. This is the background of the contrast σπείρειν … ἐγείρειν 1 Cor 15:42–44.

② scatter, disperse (Hdt. et al.; also AscIs 2:4 [s. 1bβ]) ἔσπαρται κατὰ πάντων τῶν τοῦ σώματος μελῶν ἡ ψυχή the soul is spread throughout all the members of the body Dg 6:2.—B. 505.—DELG. M-M. TW.

τηρέω impf. ἐτήρουν, 3 pl. ἐτήρουν and ἐτήρουσαν AcPl Ha 8, 11 and 13; fut. τηρήσω; 1 aor. ἐτήρησα; pf. τετήρηκα, 3 pl. τετήρηκαν J 17:6 (B-D-F §83, 1; W-S. §13, 15; Mlt. 52f; Mlt-H. 221). Pass.: impf. ἐτηρούμην; 1 aor. ἐτηρήθην; pf. τετήρημαι (Pind., Thu.+)

① to retain in custody, keep watch over, guard τινά, τὶ someone, someth. a prisoner (Thu. 4, 30, 4) Mt 27:36, 54; Ac 16:23; a building (s. PPetr II, 37, 1, 19 [III B.C.] τηρεῖν τὸ χῶμα; PFlor 388, 32; 1 Macc 4:61; 6:50) Hs 9, 6, 2; 9, 7, 3. Pass. (Jos., Ant. 14, 366) Πέτρος ἐτηρεῖτο ἐν τῇ φυλακῇ Ac 12:5. Cp. 24:23; 25:4, 21b. τηρεῖν τὴν φυλακὴν guard the jail 12:6. ὅπου οἰ κεκλεισμένοι τηροῦνται AcPl Ha 3, 20. Abs. (keep) watch (PSI 165, 4; 168, 9; 1 Esdr 4:11; 2 Esdr 8:29) MPol 17:2. οἱ τηροῦντες the guards (SSol 3:3) Mt 28:4.

② to cause a state, condition, or activity to continue, keep, hold, reserve, preserve someone or someth. (Aristoph., Pax 201; τὴν ἁρμονίαν τ. τοῦ πατρός Iren. 2, 33, 5 [Harv. I 380, 13])

ⓐ for a definite purpose or a suitable time (Jos., Ant. 1, 97) τετήρηκας τὸν καλὸν οἶνον ἕως ἄρτι J 2:10 (POxy 1757, 23 τήρησόν μοι αὐτά, ἕως ἀναβῶ). Cp. 12:7 (WKühne, StKr 98/99, 1926, 476f; s. CBarrett, The Gospel According to St. John ’60, 346 on the problem of interp.). τηρηθῆναι αὐτὸν εἰς τὴν τοῦ Σεβαστοῦ διάγνωσιν Ac 25:21a. κληρονομίαν τετηρημένην ἐν οὐρανοῖς εἰς ὑμᾶς (εἰς 4g) 1 Pt 1:4.—2 Pt 2:4 (cp. TestReub 5:5 εἰς κόλασιν αἰώνιον τετήρηται), 9, 17; 3:7 (cp. Jos., Ant. 1, 97 τηρεῖσθαι κατακλυσμῷ); Jd 6b, 13; MPol 2:3; 11:2; 15:1.

ⓑ keep, etc., unharmed or undisturbed (Polyb. 6, 56, 13 one’s word; Herodian 7, 9, 3) ὁ δὲ ἀγαπῶν με τηρηθήσεται ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρός μου J 14:21 P⁷⁵. τὴν σφραγῖδα 2 Cl 7:6. τὴν ἐκκλησίαν 14:3a (opp. φθείρειν). τὴν σάρκα 14:3b. τηρεῖ ἑαυτόν 1J 5:18 v.l. τηρεῖν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ παρθένον keep his virgin inviolate as such 1 Cor 7:37 (Heraclit. Sto. 19 p. 30, 3; Achilles Tat. 8, 18, 2 παρθένον τὴν κόρην τετήρηκα. SBelkin, JBL 54, ’35, 52 takes τηρ. here to mean support one’s fiancıe, without having marital relations.—On this subj. s. the lit. s.v. γαμίζω 1).—W. a second acc. (of the predicate, to denote the condition that is to remain unharmed; cp. M. Ant. 6, 30 τήρησαι σεαυτὸν ἁπλοῦν; BGU 1141, 25 [13 B.C.] ἄμεμπτον ἐμαυτὸν ἐτήρησα; Wsd 10:5; Just., D. 88, 5 ἀτιμωρήτους αὐτοὺς τηρῆσαι) τὴν ἐντολὴν ἄσπιλον 1 Ti 6:14. τὸ βάπτισμα ἁγνόν 2 Cl 6:9. τὴν σφραγῖδα ὑγιῆ Hs 8, 6, 3. τὴν σάρκα ἁγνήν 2 Cl 8:4, 6. τὴν σάρκα ὡς ναὸν θεοῦ IPhld 7:2. σεαυτὸν ἁγνόν 1 Ti 5:22.—2 Cor 11:9; Js 1:27. Pass. ὁλόκληρον ὑμῶν τὸ πνεῦμα τηρηθείη 1 Th 5:23. τηρεῖν τινα ἔν τινι keep someone (unharmed) by or through someth. J 17:11f. ἑαυτοὺς ἐν ἀγάπῃ θεοῦ τηρήσατε keep yourselves from harm by making it possible for God to show his love for you in the future also Jd 21. τοῖς Χριστῷ τετηρημένοις κλητοῖς to those who have been called and who have been kept unharmed for Christ, or, in case the ἐν before θεῷ is to be repeated, through Christ Jd 1.

ⓒ of holding on to someth. so as not to give it up or lose it (Diod S 17, 43, 9 τὰ ὅπλα, the shields; τὴν ἀρετήν Did., Gen. 87, 4. Cp. τ. τὰ μυστήρια … καὶ ἐξειπεῖν μηδενί Hippol., Ref. 5, 27, 2) τὴν ἁγνείαν Hm 4, 4, 3. τὴν ἑνότητα τοῦ πνεύματος Eph 4:3. τὴν πίστιν 2 Ti 4:7 (cp. Diod S 19, 42, 5 τηρεῖν τὴν πίστιν; IBM III, 587b, 5 ὅτι τὴν πίστιν ἐτήρησα; Jos., Bell. 2, 121, Ant. 15, 134). τὰ ἱμάτια αὐτοῦ Rv 16:15 (or else he will have to go naked). αὐτόν (=τὸν θεόν) 1J 5:18. W. a neg.: fail to hold fast = lose through carelessness or give up through frivolity or a deficient understanding of the value of what one has τὶ someth. τὸ μικρόν 2 Cl 8:5 (a dominical saying whose literary source is unknown). τὴν ἑαυτῶν ἀρχήν (s. ἀρχή 7) Jd 6a.

ⓓ of being protective (Pind. et al.; En 100:5) keep τινὰ ἔκ τινος someone from someone or someth. J 17:15; Rv 3:10b (cp. Pr 7:5 τηρεῖν τινα ἀπό τινος).

③ to persist in obedience, keep, observe, fulfill, pay attention to, esp. of law and teaching (LXX) τὶ someth. (Polyb. 1, 83, 5 legal customs; Herodian 6, 6, 1; Just., A I, 49, 3 τὰ παλαιὰ ἔθη) Mt 23:3; Ac 21:25 v.l.; Hs 5, 3, 9. τὸν νόμον (Achilles Tat. 8, 13, 4; Tob 14:9; TestDan 5:1.—τ. νόμους Jos., C. Ap. 2, 273; Orig., C. Cels. 8, 10, 11; Theoph. Ant. 2, 16 [p. 140, 15]) 15:5; Js 2:10; Hs 8, 3, 3–5. τὰ νόμιμα τοῦ θεοῦ Hv 1, 3, 4 (τηρ. τὰ νόμιμα as Jos., Ant. 8, 395; 9, 222). δικαιώματα κυρίου B 10:11. τὰ πρὸς τὸν κύριον AcPl Ha 8, 11; 13. πάντα ὅσα ἐνετειλάμην ὑμῖν Mt 28:20. τὰς ἐντολάς (CB I/2, 566f, nos. 467–69, side A of an altar [313/14 A.D.] τηρῶν ἐντολὰς ἀθανάτων, i.e. θεῶν; Sir 29:1; Jos., Ant. 8, 120; Just., D. 10, 3; Iren. 1, 10, 1 [Harv. I 91, 14]) 19:17; J 14:15, 21; 15:10ab; 1J 2:3f; 3:22, 24; 5:3; Rv 12:17; 14:12; Hm 7:5; 12, 3, 4; 12, 6, 3; Hs 5, 1, 5; 5, 3, 2; 6, 1, 4; 8, 7, 6; 10, 3, 4 (Oxy 404, 17 restoration on basis of Lat. and Ethiopic versions); cp. 5, 3, 3. Pass. 5, 3, 5a. τὸ σάββατον observe the Sabbath J 9:16. τὴν νηστείαν keep the fast Hs 5, 3, 5b v.l.; cp. 5, 3, 9. τὴν παράδοσιν (Jos., Vi. 361b) Mk 7:9 v.l. τὸν λόγον J 8:51f, 55; 14:23; 15:20ab; 17:6; 1J 2:5; Rv 3:8. τὸν λόγον τῆς ὑπομονῆς μου vs. 10a. τοὺς λόγους (1 Km 15:11) J 14:24. ἃ παρελάβαμεν AcPlCor 1:5. τοὺς λόγους τῆς προφητείας Rv 22:7, τοῦ βιβλίου τούτου vs. 9. τὰ ἐν τῇ προφητείᾳ γεγραμμένα 1:3. ὁ τηρῶν τὰ ἔργα μου the one who takes my deeds to heart Rv 2:26. Abs., but w. the obj. easily supplied fr. the context τήρει pay attention to it 3:3 (cp. Philo, Leg. All. 3, 184).—DELG. M-M. TW. Sv.

χράομαι (χρή) mid. dep. pres. 2 sg. χρᾶσαι (B-D-F §87), ind. and subj. 3 sg. χρῆται IRo 9:1; 1 Ti 1:8 (B-D-F §88); impf. ἐχρώμην; fut. χρήσομαι LXX; 1 aor. ἐχρησάμην; pf. κέχρημαι (Mlt-H. 200) (Hom.+) ‘use’, a common multivalent term.

① make use of, employ

ⓐ w. dat. τινί someth. (Appian, Bell. Civ. 4, 102 §427f θαλάσσῃ; Wsd 2:6; 13:18; 4 Macc 9:2; GrBar 6:12; Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 5 Jac.; Philo, Aet. M. 70; 71; Jos., Bell. 3, 341; Just., A I, 14, 2, D. 57, 2; Tat. 12, 5.—B-D-F §193, 5; Rob. 532f) βοηθείαις ἐχρῶντο Ac 27:17 (s. βοήθεια 2).—1 Cor 7:31 v.l.; 9:12, 15; 1 Ti 5:23 (οἶνος 1); 2 Cl 6:5; Dg 6:5; 12:3 (ᾗ μὴ καθαρῶς χρησάμενοι not using it in purity); ITr 6:1; IPhld 4; Hs 9, 16, 4 (of the use of a seal as PHib 72, 16 [III B.C.]). διαλέκτῳ use a language Dg 5:2. Of law (Trag., Hdt. et al.; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 125) τοῖς νόμοις live in accordance with the laws (Jos., Ant. 16, 27; Ath. 1, 1) Hs 1:3f; cp. 6. ἐάν τις αὐτῷ (=τῷ νόμῳ) νομίμως χρῆται 1 Ti 1:8. προφήταις χρῆσθαι appeal to the prophets AcPlCor 1:10. A dat. is to be supplied w. μᾶλλον χρῆσαι make the most of, take advantage of 1 Cor 7:21, either τῇ δουλείᾳ (so the Peshitta, Chrysostom, Theodoret, and many modern interpreters and translators, among the latter, 20th Century, Goodsp., NRSV; s. also HBellen, Ac 6, ’63, 177–80) or τῇ ἐλευθερίᾳ (so Erasmus, Luther, Calvin, FGodet, Lghtf., Zahn, Moffatt, RSV, NRSV mg., REB); s. μᾶλλον 2a.—If μ. χ. is construed without an implied dat., the phrase can be understood in the sense be all the more useful, work all the harder (cp. Vi. Aesopi G 17 P. on the theme of dedication to a task) i.e. as a freedperson be as industrious as a slave. (On this subj.: TZahn, Sklaverei u. Christentum in d. alten Welt [1879]: Skizzen aus dem Leben d. alten Kirche² 1898, 116–59; EvDobschütz, Sklaverei u. Christent.: RE³ XVIII 423–33; XXIV 521; JvWalter, Die Sklaverei im NT 1914; FKiefl, Die Theorien des modernen Sozialismus über den Ursprung d. Christentums, Zugleich ein Komm. zu 1 Cor 7:21, 1915, esp. p. 56–109; JWeiss, Das Urchristentum 1917, 456–60; ASteinmann, Zur Geschichte der Auslegung v. 1 Cor 7:21: ThRev 16, 1918, 341–48; AJuncker, D. Ethik des Ap. Pls II 1919, 175–81; JKoopmans, De Servitute Antiqua et Rel. Christ., diss. Amsterdam 1920, 119ff; ELohmeyer, Soz. Fragen im Urchrist. 1921; FGrosheide, Exegetica [1 Cor 7:21]: GereformTT 24, 1924, 298–302; HGreeven [s.v. πλοῦτος 1]; MEnslin, The Ethics of Paul 1930, 205–10; WWestermann, Enslaved Persons Who Are Free, AJP 59, ’38, 1–30; HGülzow, Christent. u. Sklaverei [to 300 A.D.], ’69, 177–81; SBartchy, MALLON CHRESAI, ’73=SBLDS 11, ’85; TWiedmann, Greek and Roman Slavery ’81; COsiek, Slavery in the Second Testament World: BTB 22, ’92, 174–79 [lit.]; JHarril, The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity ’95, esp. 68–128. On slavery in antiquity gener.: WWestermann, Pauly-W. Suppl. VI ’35, 894–1068, The Slave Systems of Gk. and Rom. Antiquity, ’55; WKristensen, De antieke opvatting van dienstbaarheid ’34; MPohlenz, D. hellen. Mensch ’47, 387–96; Kl. Pauly V 230–34; BHHW III 1814f; MFinley, Slavery in Classical Antiquity ’60; KBradley, The Problem of Slavery in Classical Culture: ClPh 92, ’97, 273–82 [lit.]; PGarnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine ’96.) τινὶ εἴς τι use someth. for someth. (Oenomaus in Eus., PE 5, 33, 14; Simplicius In Epict. p. 27, 52 Düb.; cp. Tat. 17, 4 πρὸς τὸ κακοποιεῖν) Hv 3, 2, 8. σὺ αὐτὸς χρᾶσαι ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν λίθων you yourself function as one from these same stones 3, 6, 7 (s. app. in Whittaker and Joly; for lit. s. Leutzsch, Hermas 418 n. 355).—W. a double dat. (Trag. et al.) σχοινίῳ χρώμενοι τῷ πνεύματι using as a rope the Holy Spirit IEph 9:1. W. double dat. of pers. (Jos., C. Ap. 1, 227; Just., D. 7, 1; Tat. 36, 1; Ath. 32, 1) of the Syrian ἐκκλησία, which ποιμένι τῷ θεῷ χρῆται resorts to God as shepherd IRo 9:1.

ⓑ w. acc. (X., Ages. 11, 11; Ps.-Aristot., Oecon. 2, 22, 1350a, 7 χρ. τὰ τέλη εἰς διοίκησιν τῆς πόλεως; Ael. Aristid. 13 p. 162 D.; SIG 1170, 27 ἄνηθον μετʼ ἐλαίου χρ.; PTebt 273, 28 ὕδωρ χρ.; Wsd 7:14 v.l.; 2 Macc 4:19.—B-D-F §152, 4; Rob. 476) τὸν κόσμον 1 Cor 7:31 (cp. Simplicius In Epict. p. 29, 30 Düb. τὸ τοῖς μὴ ἐφʼ ἡμῖν ὡς ἐφʼ ἡμῖν οὖσι κεχρῆσθαι=to use that which is not in our power as if it were in our power; s. also MDibelius, Urchristentum u. Kultur 1928).

② act, proceed (Hdt. et al.; POxy 474, 38 et al.) w. dat. of characteristic shown (Aelian, VH 2, 15; Jos., Ant. 10, 25; Just., D. 79, 2; Tat. 40, 1; Mel., HE 4, 26, 13) τῇ ἐλαφρίᾳ 2 Cor 1:17. πολλῇ παρρησίᾳ 3:12. ὑποταγῇ 1 Cl 37:5.—W. adv. (PMagd 6, 12 [III B.C.] et al.) ἀποτόμως 2 Cor 13:10.

③ treat a person in a certain way, w. dat. of pers. and an adv. (X., Mem. 1, 2, 48 φίλοις καλῶς χρ.; OGI 51, 8 [III B.C.] τοῖς τεχνίταις φιλανθρώπως χρῆται; PPetr III, 115, 8 [III B.C.] πικρῶς σοι ἐχρήσατο; POxy 745, 6; Esth 2:9; TestJob 20:3 ὡς ἐβούλετο; Jos., Ant. 2, 315, C. Ap. 1, 153 φιλανθρώπως; Just., A I, 27, 1 αἰσχρῶς) φιλανθρώπως ὁ Ἱούλιος τῷ Παύλῳ χρησάμενος; cp. Hs 5, 2, 10.—DELG s.v. χράομαι p. 1274. M-M. EDNT.

ἀπορέω impf. ἠπόρουν; fut. 3 sg. ἀπορήσει Pr 31:11 (πόρος ‘way’, ‘means’ of achieving someth.; Pre-Socr., Hdt.+) orig. ‘be without resources’ (so also esp. ins, pap) to be in a confused state of mind, be at a loss, be in doubt, be uncertain act. (Thu. 5, 40, 3; X., Hell. 6, 1, 4; Alex. Ep. XIII 1; POxy 472, 8; 939, 23f; Wsd 11:17; Philo, Leg. All. 1, 70; Jos., Ant. 2, 271 and 304, Vi. 161) πολλὰ ἠπόρει he was at a loss Mk 6:20 (so Goodsp., Probs. 58f: ‘he was very much disturbed’; but s. FZorell, Lex. s.v. and CBonner, HTR 37, ’44, 41–44, 336 ‘he was wont to raise many questions’; s. also L-S-J-M s.v. I 2; but the καί foll. is prob. adversative: ‘he was much perplexed when he listened to John, yet readily continued to give him an audience’. On the textual problem s. KRomaniuk, ἠπόρει ou ἐποίει en Mc 6:20?: ETL 69, ’93, 140f).—Elsewh., in our lit. mid. (X., An. 6, 1, 21; 7, 3, 29 et al.; SIG 226, 35; 1 Macc 3:31; Jos., Bell. 4, 226; Just., D. 72, 3; s. Renehan ’82, 34) τί ἐν σεαυτῷ διαλογίζῃ καὶ ἀπορῇ; why this inward debate and perplexity? Hs 9, 2, 6. περὶ τινος about someth. Lk 24:4 (v.l. διαπορέω q.v.); Hs 8, 3, 1. W. indir. question foll. ἀπορούμενοι περί τίνος λέγει uncertain as to which one he meant J 13:22. πρός τι PEg², 63. W. acc. foll. ἀπορούμενος τὴν (v.l. εἰς τὴν) περὶ τούτων ζήτησιν since I was at a loss how to investigate these matters Ac 25:20 (B-D-F §148, 2; Rob. 472). ἔν τινι because of someone Gal 4:20. Abs. ἀπορούμενοι ἀλλʼ οὐκ ἐξαπορούμενοι (sometimes) at a loss, but not losers (an attempt to reproduce the wordplay; REB: bewildered, but never at our wits’ end) 2 Cor 4:8. ἠπορούμην ἐπὶ ταῖς παρθέναις Hs 9, 2, 5.—M-M.

ἀρέσκω impf. ἤρεσκον; fut. ἀρέσω; 1 aor. ἤρεσα. Mid. impf. ἠρέσκετο (Tat. 2, 1) (s. ἀρεσκεία; Hom.+). In Gk. lit. ἀ. is used in a variety of senses ranging from conciliatory action (s. Od. 22, 55, of satisfaction pledged to Odysseus) to undertaking of civic responsibility that meets with public approval (s. 2 below). Most oft. w. dat. of pers.

① to act in a fawning manner, win favor, please, flatter, w. focus on the winning of approval (Aristot., EN 2, 7, 13; 4, 6, 1; Theophr., Char. 5 [e.g. in a dispute the flatterer endeavors to please friend and foe alike; and he will tell foreigners that they speak with greater sense of justice than do his fellow citizens]. That the original sense of basic civility in human relations [s. 2a below] suffered debasement is affirmed by Anaxandrides Com., cited Athen. 6, 255b: τὸ γαρ κολακεύειν νῦν ἀρέσκειν ὄνομʼ ἔχει ‘flattery’ is now called ‘being accommodating’; s. ἀνθρωπαρεσκέω, ἀνθρωπάρεσκος) ἀνθρώποις (Pla., Ep. 4, 321b; Simplicius in Epict. p. 118, 30 ἀρέσκειν ἀνθρώποις βουλόμενος) Gal 1:10ab (conative impf.); 1 Th 2:4 here in both a neg. and a positive sense: ‘flattering’ humans, but ‘pleasing’ God (in the sense of 2 below), who tests (δοκιμάζω) for motivation.

② to give pleasure/satisfaction, please, accommodate.

ⓐ a favored term in the reciprocity-conscious Mediterranean world, and frequently used in honorary documents to express interest in accommodating others by meeting their needs or carrying out important obligations. Oft. almost serve Nägeli 40. The use of the term in a good sense in our lit. contributes a tone of special worth and diginity to some of the relationships that are depicted. τινί someone τῷ πλησίον Ro 15:2 (w. τὸ ἀγαθόν and οἰκοδομή as decisive semantic components); cp. Hs 5, 2, 7 a servant doing good work. Lord/God ἀ. τ. κυρίῳ 1 Cor 7:32; 1 Th 4:1; inability to do so Ro 8:8; cp. 1 Th 2:15; rather than humans 1 Th 2:4 (s. 1 above); IRo 2:1 (note the semantic problem cited 1 above). God/Lord as commander (military imagery) IPol 6:2; cp. 2 Ti 2:4.—Concern for a broad public is a common theme in honorary documents (e.g. OGI 339, 29f; s. Danker, Benefactor 336f) and other lit. (cp. Demosth., Ep. 3, 27 πᾶσιν ἀ.; Ath. 26:1 τοῖς πολλοῖς ἀρέσκοντες θεοί) πάντα πᾶσιν ἀ. in everything I endeavor to please all, i.e. without deference to one at the expense of another, 1 Cor 10:33 (w. σύμφορον, q.v., along w. συμφέρω, for cultural significance); sim. κατὰ πάντα τρόπον πᾶσιν ἀ. ITr 2:3. (Cp. the negative appraisal 1 Th 2:15.)—Sacrifice of self-interest is a major component of the foregoing theme, hence the caution μὴ ἑαυτῷ ἀ. Ro 15:1, and the exhibition of Jesus as role model vs. 3; cp. 2 Cl 13:1 (w. ἀνθρωπάρεσκος s. 1 above); Hs 9, 22, 1; in a marriage relationship, wife or husband ἀ. τ. γυναικί 1 Cor 7:33; ἀ. τ. ἄνδρι vs. 34.

ⓑ of pleasure (without any suggestion of mere amusement) as a condition generated by an action (cp. POxy 1153, 25 ἐὰν αὐτῷ ἀρέσκῃ; PGiss 20, 15). A fine line cannot always be drawn between a focus on endeavor to please and focus on the impact of pleasure produced by the activity. Some of the pass. cited in 2a may equally belong here and some of those included here could be cited above. But the gener. sense in those that follow is satisfaction produced by the behavior of another please God ἀ. θεῷ (Theopomp. [IV B.C.]: 115 Fgm. 344 Jac. τ. θεοῖς ἀ. here the concern is to meet divine expectations; Num 23:27; Ps 68:32; Mal 3:4; Jos., Ant. 6, 164; 13, 289) Ro 8:8; 1 Th 2:15; cp. Hs 5, 2, 7; ἀ. τ. κυρίῳ 1 Cor 7:32 (on these four last pass. s. also a above); 1 Cl 52, 2 (Ps 68, 32); wife/husband 1 Cor 7:33f (s. a above); 2 Ti 2:4; Herod Mt 14:6; Mk 6:22. W. focus on someth. that provides pleasure (Ael. Aristid. 46, 380 D.: θεοῖς ἀρέσκοντα) Hv 1, 4, 2; Hs 5, 6, 6. ἤρεσεν ὁ λόγος ἐνώπιον (for בְּעֵינֵי or לִפְנֵי) τοῦ πλήθους (= τῷ πλήθει) the saying pleased the whole group (cp. 2 Ch 30:4; 1 Macc 6:60; 8:21; Jos., Vi. 238) Ac 6:5 (B-D-F §4, p. 4, 5; 187, 2; 214, 6).—Salome, daughter of Herodias, pleases Herod and his company, and in keeping w. Mediterranean reciprocity system receives her award, in this instance a grisly one Mt 14:6; Mk 6:22.—Implied, i.e. impers. (Philo, Aet. M. 87; Jos., Ant. 14, 205; 207) ἀρέσκει μοι it pleases me (=mihi placet) w. inf. foll. (Hdt. 8, 19; Josh 24:15; 1 Macc 14:23; 15:19; Jos., Ant. 14, 352) Hm 6, 1, 5.—B. 1099. DELG. M-M. TW. Sv.

ἐκκλησία, ας, ἡ (ἐκ + καλέω; Eur., Hdt.+)

① a regularly summoned legislative body, assembly, as gener. understood in the Gr-Rom. world (Jos., Ant. 12, 164; 19, 332, Vi. 268) Ac 19:39 (on ‘[regular] statutory assembly’, s. ἔννομος and IBM III/2, p. 141. The term ἐννόμη ἐ. here contrasts w. the usage vss. 32 and 40, in which ἐ. denotes simply ‘a gathering’; s. 2 below. On the ἐ. in Ephesus cp. CIG III, 325; IBM III/1, 481, 340; on the ἐ. in the theater there s. the last-named ins ln. 395; OGI 480, 9).—Pauly-W. V/2, 1905, 2163–2200; RAC IV 905–21 (lit.).

② a casual gathering of people, an assemblage, gathering (cp. 1 Km 19:20; 1 Macc 3:13; Sir 26:5) Ac 19:32, 40.

③ people with shared belief, community, congregation (for common identity, cp. the community of Pythagoras [Hermippus in Diog. L. 8, 41]. Remarkably, in Himerius, Or. 39 [Or. 5], 5 Orpheus forms for himself τὴν ἐκκλησίαν, a group of wild animals, who listen to him, in the Thracian mountains where there are no people), in our lit. of common interest in the God of Israel.

ⓐ of OT Israelites assembly, congregation (Dt 31:30; Judg 20:2; 1 Km 17:47; 3 Km 8:14; PsSol 10:6; TestJob 32:8 τῆς εὐώδους ἐ.; Philo; Jos., Ant. 4, 309; Diod S 40, 3, 6) Hb 2:12 (Ps 21:23); e.g. to hear the law (Dt 4:10; 9:10; 18:16) Ac 7:38.

ⓑ of Christians in a specific place or area (the term ἐ. apparently became popular among Christians in Greek-speaking areas for chiefly two reasons: to affirm continuity with Israel through use of a term found in Gk. translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, and to allay any suspicion, esp. in political circles, that Christians were a disorderly group).

α. of a specific Christian group assembly, gathering ordinarily involving worship and discussion of matters of concern to the community: Mt 18:17; συνερχομένων ὑμῶν ἐν ἐ. when you come together as an assembly 1 Cor 11:18; cp. 14:4f, 12, 19, 28, 35; pl. vs. 34. ἐν ἐ. ἐξομολογεῖσθαι τὰ παραπτώματα confess one’s sins in assembly D 4:14; cp. 3J 6 (JCampbell, JTS 49, ’48, 130–42; for the Johannines s. ESchweizer below). In Ac 15:22 the ‘apostles and elders’ function in the manner of the βουλή or council, the committee of the whole that was responsible in a Gr-Rom. polis for proposing legislation to the assembly of citizens.—Of Christians gathering in the home of a patron house-assembly (‘house-church’) Πρίσκαν καὶ Ἀκύλαν … καὶ τὴν κατʼ οἶκον αὐτῶν ἐ. Ro 16:5; cp. 1 Cor 16:19. Νύμφαν καὶ τὴν κατʼ οἶκον αὐτῆς ἐ. Col 4:15; ἡ κατʼ οἶκόν σου ἐ. Phlm 2.—FFilson, JBL 58, ’39, 105–12; other reff. οἶκος 1aα.—Pl. ἐ. τῶν ἁγίων 1 Cor 14:33; ἐ. τῶν ἐθνῶν Ro 16:4.—1 Ti 5:16 prob. belongs here, s. βαρέω b.

β. congregation or church as the totality of Christians living and meeting in a particular locality or larger geographical area, but not necessarily limited to one meeting place: Ac 5:11; 8:3; 9:31 (so KGiles, NTS 31, ’85, 135–42; s. c below), 11:26; 12:5; 15:3; 18:22; 20:17; cp. 12:1; 1 Cor 4:17; Phil 4:15; 1 Ti 5:16 perh., s. α above; Js 5:14; 3 J 9f; 1 Cl 44:3; Hv 2, 4, 3. More definitely of the Christians in Jerusalem Ac 8:1; 11:22; cp. 2:47 v.l.; 15:4, 22; Cenchreae Ro 16:1; cp. vs. 23; Corinth 1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Cl ins; 47:6; AcPlCor 1:16; Laodicea Col 4:16; Rv 3:14; Thessalonica 1 Th 1:1; 2 Th 1:1; Colossae Phlm subscr. v.l. Likew. w. other names: Rv 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7; IEph ins; 8:1; IMg ins; ITr ins; 13:1; IRo 9:1; IPhld ins; 10:1; ISm 11:1; Pol ins. Plural: Ac 15:41; 16:5; Ro 16:16; 1 Cor 7:17; 2 Cor 8:18f, 23f; 11:8, 28; 12:13; Rv 2:7, 11, 17, 23, 29; 3:6, 13, 22; 22:16; the Christian community in Judea Gal 1:22; 1 Th 2:14; Galatia Gal 1:2; 1 Cor 16:1; Asia vs. 19; Rv 1:4, and cp. vss. 11 and 20; Macedonia 2 Cor 8:1. κατʼ ἐκκλησίαν in each individual congregation or assembly Ac 14:23 (on the syntax cp. OGI 480, 9 [s. 1 above]: ἵνα τιθῆνται κατʼ ἐκκλησίαν in order that they [the statues] might be set up at each [meeting of the] ἐ.). On κατὰ τ. οὖσαν ἐ. Ac 13:1 cp. εἰμί 1 end.

ⓒ the global community of Christians, (universal) church (s. AvHarnack, Mission I⁴ 420 n. 2 on Ac 12:1): Mt 16:18 (OBetz, ZNW 48, ’57, 49–77: Qumran parallels; s. HBraun, Qumran I, ’66, 30–37); Ac 9:31 (but s. 3bβ); 1 Cor 6:4; 12:28; Eph 1:22; 3:10, 21; 5:23ff, 27, 29, 32 (HSchlier, Christus u. d. Kirche im Eph 1930; also ThBl 6, 1927, 12–17); Col 1:18, 24; Phil 3:6; B 7:11; Hv 2, 2, 6; 2, 4, 1 (with the depiction of the church as an elderly lady cp. Ps.-Demetr. 265 where Hellas, the homeland, is represented as λαβοῦσα γυναικὸς σχῆμα); 3, 3, 3; IEph 5:1f and oft.—The local assembly or congregation as well as the universal church is more specif. called ἐ. τοῦ θεοῦ or ἐ. τ. Χριστοῦ. This is essentially Pauline usage, and it serves to give the current Gk. term its Christian coloring and thereby its special mng.:

α. ἐ. τοῦ θεοῦ (Orig., C. Cels. 1, 63, 22) 1 Cor 1:2; 10:32; 11:16, 22; 15:9; 2 Cor 1:1; Gal 1:13; 1 Th 2:14; 2 Th 1:4; 1 Ti 3:5, 15; Ac 20:28; ITr 2:3; 12:1; IPhld 10:1; ISm ins al.

β. ἐ. τοῦ Χριστοῦ (Orig., C. Cels. 5, 22, 14) Ro 16:16.

γ. both together ἐ. ἐν θεῷ πατρὶ καὶ κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ Χριστῷ 1 Th 1:1.

δ. ἡ ἐ. ἡ πρώτη ἡ πνευματική the first, spiritual church (conceived in a Platonic sense as preexistent) 2 Cl 14:1; ἐ. ζῶσα the living church the body of Christ vs. 2; ἡ ἁγία ἐ. Hv 1, 1, 6; 1, 3, 4; ἡ καθολικὴ ἐ. ISm 8:2; ἡ ἁγία καὶ καθολικὴ ἐ. MPol ins; ἡ κατὰ τὴν οἰκουμένην καθολικὴ ἐ. 8:1; 19:2; ἓν σῶμα τῆς ἐ. ISm 1:2.—The literature before ’32 is given in OLinton, D. Problem der Urkirche in d. neueren Forschung (s. esp. 138–46) ’32 and AMedebielle, Dict. de la Bible, Suppl. II ’34, 487–691; before ’60, s. RAC; also s. TW, Sieben, and JHainz, Ekklesia ’72. Esp. important: EBurton, Gal (ICC) 1921, 417–20; KHoll, D. Kirchenbegriff des Pls usw.: SBBerlAk 1921, 920–47=Ges. Aufs. II 1928, 44ff; FKattenbusch, D. Vorzugsstellung d. Petrus u. d. Charakter d. Urgemeinde zu Jerusalem: KMüller Festschr. 1922, 322–51; KLSchmidt, D. Kirche des Urchristentums: Dssm. Festschr. 1927, 259–319, TW III 502–39. S. also: EPeterson, D. Kirche aus Juden u. Heiden ’33; KLSchmidt, D. Polis in Kirche u. Welt ’39; WBieder, Ekkl. u. Polis im NT u. in d. alten Kirche ’41; OMichel, D. Zeugnis des NTs v. d. Gemeinde ’41; NDahl, D. Volk Gottes ’41; RFlew, Jesus and His Church², ’43; GJohnston, The Doctrine of the Church in the NT ’43; WKümmel, Kirchenbegriff u. Geschichtsbewusstsein in d. Urg. u. b. Jesus ’43; DFaulhaber, D. Johev. u. d. Kirche ’38; AFridrichsen, Kyrkan i 4. ev.: SvTK 16, ’40, 227–42; ESchweizer, NT Essays (Manson memorial vol.) ’59, 230–45; EWolf, Ecclesia Pressa—eccl. militans: TLZ 72, ’47, 223–32; SHanson, Unity of the Church in the NT ’46; HvCampenhausen, Kirchl. Amt u. geistl. Vollmacht in den ersten 3 Jahrh. ’53; EKäsemann, Sätze hlg. Rechtes im NT, NTS 1, ’55, 248–60; AGeorge, ET 58, ’46/47, 312–16; in ATR: JBernardin 21, ’39, 153–70; BEaston 22, ’40, 157–68; SWalke 32, ’50, 39–53 (Apost. Fath.); JMurphy, American Ecclesiastical Review 140, ’59, 250–59; 325–32; PMinear, Images of the Church in the NT, ’60; BMetzger, Theology Today 19, ’62, 369–80; ESchweizer, Church Order in the NT, tr. FClarke ’61; RSchnackenburg, The Church in the NT, tr. WO’Hara ’65; LCerfaux, JBL 85, ’66, 250–51; AHilhorst, Filología Neotestamentaria 1, ’88, 27–34. S. also ἐπίσκοπος 2 end; Πέτρος; πέτρα 1.—B. 1476f. DELG s.v. καλέω. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

ἐπιλαμβάνομαι (s. λαμβάνω) fut. ἐπιλήψομαι LXX; 2 aor. ἐπελαβόμην; pf. ptc. fem. ἐπειλημμένη Gen 25:26 (in our lit., as well as LXX and TestJos 8:2, only in the mid., which is used since Hdt.; also ins, pap; Philo, Somn. 2, 68; Jos., Bell. 6, 232; Just.).

① to make the motion of grasping or taking hold of someth., take hold of, grasp, catch, sometimes w. violence, w. gen. foll. (Hdt. 6, 114 al.; LXX) of pers. (Laud. Therap. 24 ἐπιλαμβάνονται τοῦ ἀνδρός; 2 Km 13:11; Is 3:6) Mt 14:31; Lk 23:26 v.l.; Ac 17:19; 21:30, 33 (s. 2 below); of thing (LXX) τῆς χειρός τινος (cp. Pla., Prot. 335c; Zech 14:13; Jos., Ant. 9, 180) Mk 8:23; Ac 23:19; fig. Hb 8:9 (Jer 38:32). Foll. by gen. of pers. and of thing by which the person is grasped (X., An. 4, 7, 12 ἐ. αὐτοῦ τῆς ἴτυος ‘his shield’; Diod S 17, 30, 4; Epict. 1, 29, 23; Bel 36 LXX; TestJos 8:2) μου τῆς χειρός me by the hand Hv 3, 2, 4 (Plut., Mor. 207c ἐπιλαβόμενος αὐτοῦ τῆς χειρός). αὐτοῦ τῆς πήρας him by the knapsack Hs 9, 10, 5. W. acc. of pers. (cp. Pla., Leg. 6, 779c) Lk 9:47; press into service 23:26 (for the loanw. ἀγγαρεύω, q.v.). Freq., where ἐ. seems to govern the acc., that case is actually the object of the finite verb upon which ἐ. depends: Lk 14:4; Ac 9:27; 16:19; 18:17.

② to take into custody, arrest (cp. Demosth. 33, 9) Ac 21:33.

③ to pounce on someth. compromising, catch, fig. ext. of 1, w. double gen. (cp. 1 above) someone in someth. αὐτοῦ λόγου him in someth. he said Lk 20:20; also αὐτοῦ ῥήματος vs. 26

④ take hold of in order to make one’s own, take hold of, fig. ext. of 1 (Hdt. 1, 127; 5, 23; Polyb. 6, 50, 6; 15, 8, 12; Pr 4:13) τῆς αἰωνίου ζωῆς 1 Ti 6:12; cp. vs. 19.

⑤ be concerned with/about. The context of ἀγγέλων, σπέρματος Ἀβραάμ Hb 2:16 suggests the rendering take an interest in, prob. in the sense help (schol. on Aeschyl., Pers. 742 [but s. KDolfe, ZNW 84, ’93, on the textual problem]; Sir 4:11). This may be the place for the variant reading ἐπιλαβών (but the act. is otherw. never used in LXX or NT) Mk 14:72.—M-M. TW.

Ἡρῳδιάς, άδος, ἡ (for the sp. s. Ἡρῴδης) Herodias, granddaughter of Herod the Great (Ἡρῴδης 1), daughter of his son Aristobulus, mother-in-law of Philip the tetrarch who married her daughter Salome (q.v.), and, before her marriage to Herod Antipas, the wife of another Herod, the son of Herod the Great and Mariamne II (Jos., Ant. 17, 14; Schürer I 321) and half-brother of Herod Antipas (Jos., Ant. 18, 109f). In Mk 6:17 and Mt 14:3 (except D) this first husband of Herodias is called (some hold erroneously) Philip; cp. Mt 14:6; Mk 6:19; Lk 3:19. In Mk 6:22 ῾Η. is a daughter of Herod; on the problem of the rdg. in N. s. RBorger, TRu 52, ’87, 25–27. S. also HHoehner, Herod Antipas ’72, 110–71.—Schürer I 344–50; WLillie, Salome or Herodias?: ET 65, ’53f, 251; MStern, The Jewish People in the First Century ’74, 284ff; HHoehner, ISBE II, ’82, 695.

Ἰούδας, α, ὁ (יְהוּדָה Judah, etym. unknown; LXX; TestSol 1:12 D; Test12Patr; JosAs 27:6; AscIs, EpArist, Philo, Joseph., Just., Mel., P. 93, 703.—The indecl. form Ἰουδά, which occasionally occurs in the LXX [e.g. Gen 29:35; 2 Macc 14:13 Swete; Thackeray 163] is not to be postulated for our lit., not even Mt 2:6; Lk 1:39) Judas, Judah (Hebr., the Engl. sp. conventionally used for 1 and 2), Judas (Gk., conventional sp. for nos. 3–7), Jude (s. 8 below); cp. B-D-F §53, 1; 55, 1a; Mlt-H, 143f.

① Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob

ⓐ in pers.: in the genealogy of Jesus Mt 1:2f; Lk 3:33. κατὰ τὸν Ἰούδαν through Judah 1 Cl 32:2.

ⓑ the tribe of Judah (Judg 1:2) ἐξ Ἰούδα ἀνατέταλκεν ὁ κύριος Hb 7:14. Also φυλὴ Ἰούδα Rv 5:5; 7:5 (Just., D. 43, 1).

ⓒ the country belonging to the tribe of Judah (Josh 11:21; 2 Ch 28:18) Βηθλέεμ γῆ Ἰούδα Mt 2:6a; cp. Lk 2:4 D; ἡγεμόνες Ἰ. Mt 2:6b; πόλις Ἰ. (2 Ch 23:2) Lk 1:39 (cp. CTorrey, HTR 17, 1924, 83–91). ὁ οἶκος Ἰ. (w. ὁ οἶκος Ἰσραήλ) the inhabitants of the land Hb 8:8 (Jer 38:31).

② Judah, a pers. in the genealogy of Jesus

ⓐ Ἰ. son of Ἰωσήφ 2: Lk 3:30.

ⓑ Ἰ. son of Ἰωανάν: Lk 3:26 v.l.

③ Judas, called ὁ Γαλιλαῖος, a revolutionary in the time of Quirinius ‘in the days of the census’ (cp. Jos., Ant. 18, 4–10, 23–25; 20, 102, Bell. 2, 118; 433; 7, 253.—Schürer I 381f; 414; 417f; 425; II 599–606) Ac 5:37.—WLodder, J. de Galileër: NTS 9, 1926, 3–15.

④ Judas of Damascus, Paul’s host Ac 9:11.

⑤ Judas, an apostle, called Ἰ. Ἰακώβου son of Jacob or James (linguistically speaking, ἀδελφός might also be supplied: Alciphron 4, 17, 10 Τιμοκράτης ὁ Μητροδώρου, i.e. his brother), to differentiate him fr. the informer. He is mentioned in lists of apostles only in the writings of Luke, where two men named Judas are specifically referred to Lk 6:16 and presupposed Ac 1:13; cp. J 14:22.

⑥ Judas, several times called Ἰσκαριώθ or (ὁ) Ἰσκαριώτης (q.v.), the one who turned in Jesus Mt 10:4; 26:14, 25, 47; 27:3; Mk 3:19; 14:10, 43; Lk 6:16 (προδότης ‘traitor’); 22:3, 47f; J 12:4; 13:29; 18:2f, 5; Ac 1:16, 25; GEb 34, 61; Agr 23b; MPol 6:2 (also Mel., P. 93, 703). His father was Simon J 13:2, and this Simon is also called Ἰσκαριώτης 6:71; 13:26 (v.l. described him as Ἰσκαρ.). On Judas himself and the tradition concerning him, incl. the manner of his death, s. Papias (1:5 Lat. [cp. Hippolytus in Da 60 p. 338, 3 Bonwetsch]; 3:1, 2).—Cp. EPreuschen, Antileg.² 1905, 98. Lit. in Hennecke-Schneemelcher (Wils.) II 62–64 (s. also I 313f) as well as GMarquardt, D. Verrat des J. Isch.—eine Sage 1900; WWrede, Vorträge u. Studien 1907, 127–46; FFeigel, D. Einfluss d. Weissagungsbeweises 1910, 48ff; 95; 114; WSmith, Ecce Deus 1911, 295–309; KWeidel, StKr 85, 1912, 167–286; GSchläger, Die Ungeschichtlichkeit des Verräters J.: ZNW 15, 1914, 50–59; MPlath, ibid. 17, 1916, 178–88; WCadman, The Last Journey of Jesus to Jerus. 1923, 129–36; JRobertson, Jesus and J. 1927; DHaugg, J. Isk. in den ntl. Berichten 1930 (lit.); JFinegan, D. Überl. d. Leidens-u. Auferstehungsgesch. Jesu ’34; FDanker, The Literary Unity of Mk 14:1–25: JBL 85, ’66, 467–72. Esp. on the death of J.: RHarris, AJT 4, 1900, 490–513; JBernard, Exp. 6th ser., 9, 1904, 422–30; KLake, Beginn. V ’33, note 4, 22–30; PBenoit, La mort de Judas, AWikenhauser Festschr. ’53, 1–19; KLüthi, Judas Iskarioth in d. Geschichte d. Auslegung von d. Reformation bis zur Gegenwart ’55; idem, D. Problem d. Judas Iskarioth neu untersucht: EvTh 16, ’56, 98–114; MEnslin, How the Story Grew: Judas in Fact and Fiction: FGingrich Festschr., ed. Barth and Cocroft, ’72, 123–41; and s. παραδίδωμι and πρηνής.—JBrownson, Neutralizing the Intimate Enemy—The Portrayal of Judas in the Fourth Gospel: SPSBL ’92, 49–60; WKlassen, Judas—Betrayer or Friend of Jesus? ’96; s. also WVogler, Judas Iskarioth ’83.

⑦ Judas, called Βαρσαββᾶς (s. the entry), a Christian prophet in a leading position in the Jerusalem congregation Ac 15:22, 27, 32. His name also appears in the interpolated vs. 34.

⑧ Judas, a brother of Jesus Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3. Prob. the same man is meant by the Jude of Jd 1.—M-M. EDNT.

Ἰουδαῖος, αία, αῖον (Clearchus, the pupil of Aristotle, Fgm. 6 [in Jos., C. Ap. 1, 179]; Theophr., Fgm. 151 W. [WJaeger, Diokles v. Karystos ’38, 134–53: Theophrastus and the earliest Gk. report concerning the Judeans or Jews]; Hecataeus of Abdera [300 B.C.]: 264 Fgm. 25, 28, 2a Jac. [in Diod S 1, 28, 2] al.; Polyb.; Diod S; Strabo; Plut.; Epict. 1, 11, 12f, al.; Appian, Syr. 50 §252f, Mithrid. 106 §498, Bell. Civ. 2, 90 §380; Artem. 4, 24 p. 217, 13; Diog. L. 1, 9; OGI 73, 4; 74, 3; 726, 8; CIG 3418; CB I/2, 538 no. 399b τ. νόμον τῶν Εἰουδέων [on Ἰ. in ins s. RKraemer, HTR 82, ’89, 35–53]; Mitt-Wilck. I/2, 55; 56 [both III B.C.]; 57 [II B.C.]; BGU 1079, 25 [41 A.D.]; PFay 123, 16 [100 A.D.]; POxy 1189, 9; LXX; TestSol; AscIs 2:7; EpArist; SibOr; Philo, Joseph., Ar., Just., Tat. For a variety of synonyms s. Schürer III 87–91.). Gener. as description of ‘one who identifies with beliefs, rites, and customs of adherents of Israel’s Mosaic and prophetic tradition’ (the standard term in the Mishnah is ‘Israelite’). (Since the term ‘Judaism’ suggests a monolithic entity that fails to take account of the many varieties of thought and social expression associated with such adherents, the calque or loanword ‘Judean’ is used in this and other entries where Ἰ. is treated. Complicating the semantic problem is the existence side by side of persons who had genealogy on their side and those who became proselytes [on the latter cp. Cass. Dio 37, 17, 1; 67, 14, 2; 68, 1, 2]; also of adherents of Moses who recognized Jesus as Messiah [s. Gal 2:13 in 2d below; s. also 2eα] and those who did not do so. Incalculable harm has been caused by simply glossing Ἰ. with ‘Jew’, for many readers or auditors of Bible translations do not practice the historical judgment necessary to distinguish between circumstances and events of an ancient time and contemporary ethnic-religious-social realities, with the result that anti-Judaism in the modern sense of the term is needlessly fostered through biblical texts.)

① pert. to being Judean (Jewish), with focus on adherence to Mosaic tradition, Judean, as a real adj. (Philo, In Flacc. 29; Jos., Ant. 10, 265) ἀνὴρ Ἰ. (1 Macc 2:23; 14:33) Judean Ac 10:28; 22:3. ἄνθρωπος 21:39. ἀρχιερεύς 19:14. ψευδοπροφήτης 13:6. ἐξορκισταί 19:13. γυνή (Jos., Ant. 11, 185) 16:1. χώρα Mk 1:5.—But γῆ J 3:22 is to be taken of Judea in the narrower sense (s. Ἰουδαία 1), and means the Judean countryside in contrast to the capital city. Of Drusilla, described as οὔσα Ἰουδαία being Judean or Jewish, but for the view that Ἰ. is here a noun s. 2b.

② one who is Judean (Jewish), with focus on adherence to Mosaic tradition, a Judean, Ἰουδαῖος as noun (so predom.). Since Jerusalem sets the standard for fidelity to Israel’s tradition, and since Jerusalem is located in Judea, Ἰ. frequently suggests conformity to Israel’s ancestral belief and practice. In turn, the geographical name provided outsiders with a term that applied to all, including followers of Jesus, who practiced customs variously associated with Judea (note the Roman perception Ac 18:15 [‘Judeans’ at Corinth]; 23:28).

ⓐ (ὁ) Ἰ. Judean (w. respect to birth, nationality, or cult) J 3:25; (Mitt-Wilck. I/2, 57, 5 [II B.C.] παρʼ Ἰουδαίου=from a Judean) 4:9; 18:35; Ac 18:2, 24; 19:34; Ro 1:16; 2:9f, 17, 28f (on the ‘genuine’ Judean cp. Epict. 2, 9, 20f τῷ ὄντι Ἰουδαῖος … λόγῳ μὲν Ἰουδαῖοι, ἔργῳ δʼ ἄλλο τι); 10:12; Gal 2:14; 3:28; Col 3:11.—Collective sing. (Thu. 6, 78, 1 ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, ὁ Συρακόσιος; EpArist 13 ὁ Πέρσης; B-D-F §139; Rob. 408) Ro 3:1.

ⓑ of Drusilla οὔσα Ἰουδαία being a Judean Ac 24:24, but for the simple adjectival sense s. 1 end.

ⓒ (οἱ) Ἰουδαῖοι (on the use of the art. B-D-F §262, 1; 3) the Judeans οἱ Φαρισαῖοι κ. πάντες οἱ Ἰ. Mk 7:3; τὸ πάσχα τῶν Ἰ. J 2:13; cp. 5:1; 6:4; 7:2; ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰ. (Appian, Mithrid. 117 §573 Ἰουδαίων βασιλεὺς Ἀριστόβουλος) Mt 2:2; 27:11, 29 (in these three last pass., Ἰ. is used by non-Israelites; Mt’s preferred term is Ἰσραήλ); Mk 15:2 and oft. πόλις τῶν Ἰ. Lk 23:51; ἔθνος τῶν Ἰ. Ac 10:22; λαὸς τῶν Ἰ. 12:11. χώρα τῶν Ἰ. 10:39 (Just., A I, 34, 2; cp. A I, 32, 4 ἡ γῆ Ἰουδαίων). ἄρχων τῶν Ἰ. J 3:1; συναγωγὴ τῶν Ἰ. Ac 14:1a. Cp. J 2:6; 4:22; 18:20. Ἰ. καὶ Ἕλληνες (on the combination of the two words s. B-D-F §444, 2: w. τε … καί) Judeans and Hellenes Ac 14:1b; 18:4; 19:10; 20:21; 1 Cor 1:24; 10:32; 12:13; PtK 2 p. 15, 7; ἔθνη τε καὶ Ἰ.= non-Judeans and Judeans Ac 14:5; cp. ISm 1:2. Ἰ. τε καὶ προσήλυτοι Judeans and proselytes Ac 2:11; cp. 13:43; οἱ κατὰ τὰ ἔθνη Ἰ. the Judeans who live among the nations (in the Diaspora) 21:21. Judeans and non-Judeans as persecutors of Christians MPol 12:2; cp. also 13:1; 17:2; 18:1; 1 Th 2:14 (Polytheists, Jews, and Christians Ar. 2, 1).—Dg 1.—Without the art. (cp. 19:3 φαρισαῖοι) Mt 28:15, suggesting that not all ‘Judeans’ are meant, and without ref. to Israel, or Jews, as an entity.

ⓓ a Mosaic adherent who identifies with Jesus Christ Judean Gal 2:13; cp. Ac 21:20 and eα below. On Rv 2:9; 3:9 s. Mussies 195.

ⓔ in J Ἰουδαῖοι or ‘Judeans’ for the most part (for exceptions s. a and c) constitute two groups

α. those who in various degrees identify with Jesus and his teaching J 8:52; 10:19–21; 11:45; 12:11 al.

β. those who are in opposition to Jesus, with special focus on hostility emanating from leaders in Jerusalem, center of Israelite belief and cult; there is no indication that John uses the term in the general ethnic sense suggested in modern use of the word ‘Jew’, which covers diversities of belief and practice that were not envisaged by biblical writers, who concern themselves with intra-Judean (intra-Israelite) differences and conflicts: 1:19; 2:18, 20; 5:10, 15f; 6:41, 52 (a debate); 7:1, 11, 13; 9:18, 22; 10:24, 31, 33 (in contrast to the πολλοί from ‘beyond the Jordan’, 10:40–42, who are certainly Israelites) 11:8; 13:33; 18:14. S. Hdb. exc. on J 1:19 and, fr. another viewpoint, JBelser, TQ 84, 1902, 265ff; WLütgert, Heinrici Festschr. 1914, 147ff, Schlatter Festschr. 1922, 137–48; GBoccaccini, Multiple Judaisms: BRev XI/1 ’95, 38–41, 46.—J 18:20 affirms that Jesus did not engage in sectarian activity. Further on anti-Judean feeling in J, s. EGraesser, NTS 11, ’64, 74–90; DHare, RSR, July, ’76, 15–22 (lit.); Hdb. exc. on J 1:19; BHHW II 906–11, 901f, 905.—LFeldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World ’93.—MLowe, Who Were the Ἰουδαῖοι?: NovT 18, ’76, 101–30; idem Ἰουδαῖοι of the Apocrypha [NT]: NovT 23, ’81, 56–90; UvonWahlde, The Johannine ‘Jews’—A Critical Survey: NTS 28, ’82, 33–60; JAshton, ibid. 27, ’85, 40–75 (J).—For impact of Ἰουδαῖοι on gentiles s. ESmallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule fr. Pompey to Diocletian ’81; SCohen, Crossing the Boundary and Becoming a Jew: HTR 82, ’89, 13–33; PvanderHorst, NedTTs 43, ’89, 106–21 (c. 200 A.D.); PSchäfer, Judeophobia, Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World ’97.—On the whole word s. Ἱσραήλ end. For Ἰουδαῖοι in ins s. SEG XXXIX, 1839. M-M. EDNT. TW.

Ἰσκαριώθ indecl. (Mk 3:19; 14:10; Lk 6:16; 22:47 D), and Ἰσκαριώτης, ου, ὁ (so all other passages and always t.r.; D mostly Σκαριώθ, Σκαριώτης, q.v. On the suffix YArbeitmann, JBL 99, ’80, 122–24) Iscariot, surname of Judas the informer, as well as of his father (s. Ἰούδας 6). The mng. of the word is obscure; s. Wlh. on Mk 3:19; Dalman, Jesus 26 (Eng. tr. 51f). It is usu. taken to refer to the place of his origin, from Kerioth (in southern Judea; Buhl 182) אִישׁ קְרִיּוֹת (agreeing w. this we have the v.l. ἀπὸ Καρυώτου J 6:71; 12:4 D; 13:2 D, 26 D; 14:22 D). Another interpr. connects it w. σικάριος (q.v.), ‘assassin, bandit’ (among others FSchulthess, D. Problem der Sprache Jesu 1917, 41; 55, ZNW 21, 1922, 250ff). S. also CTorrey, HTR 36, ’43, 51–62 (‘false one’). Mt 10:4; 26:14; Mk 14:43 v.l.; Lk 22:3; J 6:71; 12:4; 13:2, 26; 14:22; GEb 34, 61.—HIngholt, Iscariot: JPedersen Festschr. ’53; BGärtner, D. rätselhafte Termini Nazaräer u. Iskarioth ’57, 37–68; OCullmann, RHPR 42, ’62, 133–40; KLüthi, J. Isk. in d. Geschichte der Auslegung (Reformation to present) ’55.—M-M.

ὄχλος, ου, ὁ (Pind., Hdt.+; ins, pap, LXX; TestJob 24:10; TestJud 7:1; ApcrEzk [Epiph. 70, 8]; EpArist, Philo, Joseph.; Ath. 1, 4; on relation of ὄχλος to ὀχλέω s. MMeier-Brüjger, Glotta 71, ’93, 28 [basic idea: a ‘pile’ that requires a ‘heap’ of workers, but s. DELG and Frisk s.v. ὄχλος]; loanw. in rabb.—In the NT only in the gospels [in Mk most freq. in sg. in contrast to Mt and Lk, s. RBorger, TRu 52, ’87, 28], Ac, and Rv).

① a relatively large number of people gathered together, crowd

ⓐ a casual gathering of large numbers of people without reference to classification crowd, throng Mt 9:23, 25; 15:35; Mk 2:4 (s. DDaube, ET 50, ’38, 138f); 3:9; Lk 5:1; J 5:13; 6:22; Ac 14:14; 21:34f and oft.; AcPl Ha 5, 11. τὶς ἐκ τοῦ ὄχλου someone from the crowd Lk 12:13; cp. 11:27. ἀνὴρ ἀπὸ τοῦ ὄχ. 9:38. τινὲς τῶν Φαρισαίων ἀπὸ τοῦ ὄχλου some of the Pharisees in the crowd 19:39. ἀπὸ τοῦ ὄχλου away from the crowd Mk 7:17, 33. οὐκ ἠδύνατο ἀπὸ τοῦ ὄχλου he could not because of the crowd Lk 19:3 (s. ἀπό 5a). οὐ μετὰ ὄχλου without a crowd (present) Ac 24:18 (cp. vs. 12). This is equivalent in mng. to ἄτερ ὄχλου (s. ἄτερ) when there was no crowd present Lk 22:6 (s. WLarfeld, Die ntl. Evangelien nach ihrer Eigenart 1925, 190), unless ὄχ. means disturbance (Hdt.+) here (so Goodsp.). ἐν τῷ θεάτρῳ μετὰ τοῦ ὄχλου AcPl Ha 1, 24.—πᾶς ὁ ὄχλος (Aelian, VH 2, 6) the whole crowd, all the people Mt 13:2b; Mk 2:13; 4:1b; 9:15; Lk 13:17; Ac 21:27; MPol 9:2; 16:1. Also ὅλος ὁ ὄχλος AcPl Ha 4, 35.—πολὺς ὄχ. (Jos., Vi. 133; 277) Mt 14:14; Mk 6:34. ὄχ. πολύς (Cebes 1, 2; IG IV²/1, 123, 25; several times LXX) Mt 20:29; Mk 5:21, 24; 9:14; Lk 8:4; J 6:2. ὁ πολὺς ὄχ. Mk 12:37. ὁ ὄχ. πολύς J 12:9, 12.—ὄχ. ἱκανός a considerable throng Mk 10:46; Lk 7:12; Ac 11:24, 26; cp. 19:26. ὄχ. τοσοῦτος Mt 15:33. ὁ πλεῖστος ὄχ. the great throng or greater part of the crowd 21:8 (the verb in the pl. with a collective noun as Memnon [I B.C./I A.D.]: 434 Fgm. 1, 28, 6 Jac. εἷλον … ἡ Ῥωμαίων δύναμις. Cp. B-D-F §134, 1). Cp. Mk 4:1a. τὸ πλεῖον μέρος τοῦ ὄχ. the greater part of the throng Hs 8, 1, 16; τὸ πλῆθος τοῦ ὄχ. 9, 4, 4; αἱ μυριάδες τοῦ ὄχ. the crowd in myriads Lk 12:1.—The pl. is common in Mt, Lk, and Ac (acc. to later usage: X., Mem. 3, 7, 5; Dionys. Hal.; Ael. Aristid. 34, 47 K.=50 p. 564 D.; Jos., Ant. 6, 25 al. Schwyzer II 43; cp. Mussies 71 and 85) οἱ ὄχλοι the crowds, the people (the latter plainly Posidon.: 87 Fgm. 36, 51 Jac. συλλαλήσαντες αὑτοῖς οἱ ὄχ.; Diod S 1, 36, 10; 1, 83, 8 ἐν ταῖς τῶν ὄχλων ψυχαῖς; 1, 72, 5 μυριάδες τῶν ὄχλων; 4, 42, 3; 14, 7, 2 ὄχλων πλῆθος=a crowd of people; 36, 15, 2 οἱ κατὰ τὴν πόλιν ὄχλοι=the people in the city; Artem. 1, 51 p. 59, 13 Pack; Vi. Aesopi G 124 P; Ps.-Aeschines, Ep. 10, 4 ἡμεῖς ἅμα τ. ἄλλοις ὄχλοις; Ps.-Demetr., Form. Ep. p. 7, 11; OGI 383, 151 [I B.C.]; Jos., Ant. 9, 3) Mt 5:1; 7:28; 9:8, 33, 36 and oft. Lk 3:7, 10; 4:42; 5:3; 8:42, 45 and oft. Ac 8:6; 13:45; 14:11, 13, 18f; 17:13. Mk only 6:33 v.l. J only 7:12a (v.l. ἐν τῷ ὄχλῳ). MPol 13:1. Without art. Mk 10:1 (on the textual problem RBorger, TRu 52, ’87, 28); ὄχ. πολλοί (s. πολύς 2aαב) Mt 4:25; 8:1; 12:15; 13:2a; 15:30; 19:2; Lk 5:15; 14:25. πάντες οἱ ὄχ. Mt 12:23.—A linguistic parallel to the pl. ὄχλοι and a parallel to the type of political maneuvering in Mk 15:15 (ὁ Πιλᾶτος βουλόμενος τῷ ὄχλῳ τὸ ἱκανὸν ποιῆσαι ἀπέλυσεν αὐτοῖς τὸν Βαραββᾶν καὶ παρέδωκεν τὸν Ἰησοῦν φραγελλώσας ἵνα σταυρωθῇ) is offered by PFlor 61, 59ff [85 A.D.], where, according to the court record, G. Septimius Vegetus says to a certain Phibion: ἄξιος μὲν ἦς μαστιγωθῆναι … χαρίζομαι δέ σε τοῖς ὄχλοις (s. Dssm., LO 229 [LAE 266f], and on the favor of the ὄχλοι PGM 36, 275).

ⓑ a gathering of people that bears some distinguishing characteristic or status.

α. a large number of people of relatively low status the (common) people, populace (PJoüon, RSR 27, ’37, 618f) in contrast to the rulers: Mt 14:5; 15:10; 21:26; Mk 11:18, 32 (v.l. λαόν, q.v. 2); 12:12. Likew. the pl. οἱ ὄχ. (EpArist 271) Mt 21:46. The lower classes (X., Cyr. 2, 2, 21, Hier. 2, 3 al.) ἐπίστασις ὄχλου a disturbance among the people Ac 24:12. Contemptuously rabble J 7:49 (Bultmann ad loc. [w. lit.]).

β. a group or company of people with common interests or of distinctive status a large number (company, throng), w. gen. (Eur., Iph. A. 191 ἵππων al.; Jos., Ant. 3, 66; Ath, 1, 4 ὄχλον ἐγκλημάτων) ὄχ. τελωνῶν a crowd of tax-collectors Lk 5:29. ὄχ. μαθητῶν 6:17. ὄχ. ὀνομάτων Ac 1:15. ὄχ. τῶν ἱερέων 6:7

② a large mass of people, without ref. to status or circumstances leading to its composition, horde, mass pl. ὄχλοι as a synonym beside λαοί and ἔθνη Rv 17:15 (cp. Da 3:4).—VHunter, Thucydides and the Sociology of the Crowd: ClJ 84, ’88, 17–30, esp. 17 n. 5 (lit. on study of crowds); WCarter, CBQ 55, ’93, 56 n. 9 (lit. on sociological perspective).—B. 929. DELG. M-M. TW.