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completed+work

  • 101 complete

    complete [kəmˈpli:t]
       a. [change, surprise, disaster, failure, list, set] complet (- ète f) ; [lack] total ; [approval] entier
    • in complete contrast to sb/sth en contraste total avec qn/qch
       b. complete with sth ( = also having) avec qch
       c. ( = entire) tout inv entier
       d. ( = finished) [work] achevé
       a. [+ collection] compléter ; [+ piece of work] terminer
    • and to complete his happiness/misfortune... et pour comble de bonheur/d'infortune...
       b. [+ form, questionnaire] remplir
    * * *
    [kəm'pliːt] 1.
    1) (total, utter) (épith) [chaos, darkness] complet/-ète, total
    2) ( finished) achevé
    3) (entire, full) [collection, works, set] complet/-ète
    4) ( consummate) [artist, star] complet/-ète; [gentleman] parfait (before n)
    2.
    1) ( finish) terminer [building, course, exercise]; achever [task, journey]
    2) ( make whole) compléter [collection, group, phrase]
    3) ( fill in) remplir [form]

    English-French dictionary > complete

  • 102 go

    [gəʊ, Am goʊ] vi <goes, went, gone>
    1)
    ( proceed) gehen; vehicle, train fahren; plane fliegen;
    don't \go any closer - that animal is dangerous geh' nicht näher ran - das Tier ist gefährlich;
    the bus \goes from Vaihingen to Sillenbuch der Bus verkehrt zwischen Vaihingen und Sillenbuch;
    a shiver went down my spine mir fuhr ein Schauer über den Rücken;
    you \go first! geh du zuerst!;
    you \go next du bist als Nächste(r) dran!;
    hey, I \go now he, jetzt bin ich dran! ( fam)
    the doll \goes everywhere with him die Puppe nimmt er überallhin mit;
    drive to the end of the road, \go left, and... fahren Sie die Straße bis zum Ende entlang, biegen Sie dann links ab und...;
    \go south till you get to the coast halte dich südlich, bis du zur Küste kommst;
    we have a long way to \go wir haben noch einen weiten Weg vor uns;
    we've completed all of our goals - where do we \go from here? wir haben all unsere Ziele erreicht - wie geht es jetzt weiter?;
    the train hooted as it went into the tunnel der Zug pfiff, als er in den Tunnel einfuhr;
    who \goes there? wer da?;
    \go fetch it! hol'!;
    to \go towards sb/ sth auf jdn/etw zugehen;
    to \go home nach Hause gehen;
    to \go to hospital/ a party/ prison/ the toilet ins Krankenhaus/auf eine Party/ins Gefängnis/auf die Toilette gehen;
    to \go across to the pub rüber in die Kneipe gehen ( fam)
    to \go to sea zur See gehen ( fam)
    to \go across the street über die Straße gehen;
    to \go aboard/ ashore an Bord/Land gehen;
    to \go below nach unten gehen;
    to \go below deck unter Deck gehen;
    to \go downhill (a. fig) bergab gehen;
    to have it far to \go es weit haben;
    to \go offstage [von der Bühne] abgehen;
    to \go round sich akk drehen
    2) (in order to [get])
    could you \go into the kitchen and get me something to drink, please? könntest du bitte in die Küche gehen und mir was zu trinken holen?;
    would you \go and get me some things from the supermarket? würdest du mir ein paar Sachen vom Supermarkt mitbringen?;
    I just want to \go and have a look at that antique shop over there ich möchte nur schnell einen Blick in das Antiquitätengeschäft da drüben werfen;
    would you wait for me while I \go and fetch my coat? wartest du kurz auf mich, während ich meinen Mantel hole?;
    I'll just \go and put my shoes on ich ziehe mir nur schnell die Schuhe an;
    \go and wash your hands geh und wasch deine Hände;
    she's gone to meet Brian at the station sie ist Brian vom Bahnhof abholen gegangen;
    to \go and get some fresh air frische Luft schnappen gehen;
    to \go to see sb jdn aufsuchen
    3) ( travel) reisen;
    have you ever gone to Africa before? warst du schon einmal in Afrika?;
    to \go by bike/ car/ coach/ train mit dem Fahrrad/Auto/Bus/Zug fahren;
    to \go on a cruise eine Kreuzfahrt machen;
    to \go on [a] holiday in Urlaub gehen;
    to \go to Italy nach Italien fahren;
    last year I went to Spain letztes Jahr war ich in Spanien;
    to \go on a journey verreisen, eine Reise machen;
    to \go by plane fliegen;
    to \go on a trip eine Reise machen;
    to \go abroad ins Ausland gehen
    4) ( disappear) stain, keys verschwinden;
    where have my keys gone? wo sind meine Schlüssel hin?;
    ah, my tummy ache is gone! ah, meine Bauchschmerzen sind weg!;
    I really don't know where all my money \goes ich weiß auch nicht, wo mein ganzes Geld hinverschwindet!;
    half of my salary \goes on rent die Hälfte meines Gehaltes geht für die Miete drauf;
    gone are the days when... vorbei sind die Zeiten, wo...;
    here \goes my free weekend... das war's dann mit meinem freien Wochenende...;
    all his money \goes on his car er steckt sein ganzes Geld in sein Auto;
    there \goes another one! und wieder eine/einer weniger!;
    hundreds of jobs will \go das wird Hunderte von Arbeitsplätzen kosten;
    the president will have to \go der Präsident wird seinen Hut nehmen müssen;
    that cat will have to \go die Katze muss verschwinden!;
    all hope has gone jegliche Hoffnung ist geschwunden;
    to \go adrift naut abtreiben, wegtreiben; ( fig) gestohlen werden;
    one of my books has gone adrift from my desk eines meiner Bücher ist von meinem Schreibtisch verschwunden;
    to \go missing (Brit, Aus) verschwinden
    5) ( leave) gehen;
    we have to \go now [or it's time to \go] wir müssen jetzt gehen;
    I must be \going ich muss jetzt allmählich gehen;
    has she gone yet? ist sie noch da?;
    the bus has gone der Bus ist schon weg (old);
    be gone! hinweg mit dir veraltet;
    to let sth/sb \go, to let \go of sth/sb etw/jdn loslassen
    6) (do)
    to \go biking/ jogging/ shopping/swimming etc. Rad fahren/joggen/einkaufen/schwimmen etc. gehen;
    to \go looking for sb/ sth jdn/etw suchen gehen;
    if you \go telling all my secrets,... wenn du hergehst und alle meine Geheimnisse ausplauderst,...;
    don't you dare \go crying to your mum about this untersteh dich, deswegen heulend zu deiner Mama zu laufen
    7) ( attend)
    to \go to church/ a concert in die Kirche/ins Konzert gehen;
    to \go to the cinema [or (Am) a movie] [or ( Brit) ( fam) the pictures] ins Kino gehen;
    to \go to the doctor zum Arzt gehen;
    to \go to kindergarten/ school/ university in den Kindergarten/in die Schule/auf die Universität gehen;
    to \go on a pilgrimage auf Pilgerfahrt gehen
    8) ( answer)
    I'll \go ( phone) ich geh' ran;
    ( door) ich mach' auf
    9) (dress [up])
    to \go as sth witch, pirate als etw gehen;
    what shall I \go in? als was soll ich gehen?
    10) + adj ( become) werden;
    the line has gone dead die Leitung ist tot;
    the milk's gone sour die Milch ist sauer;
    the tyre has gone flat der Reifen ist platt;
    my mind suddenly went blank ich hatte plötzlich wie ein Brett vorm Kopf (sl)
    I always \go red when I'm embarrassed ich werde immer rot, wenn mir etwas peinlich ist;
    he described the new regulations as bureaucracy gone mad er bezeichnete die neuen Bestimmungen als Ausgeburt einer wild gewordenen Bürokratie;
    I went cold mir wurde kalt;
    she's gone Communist sie ist jetzt Kommunistin;
    he's gone all environmental er macht jetzt voll auf Öko ( fam)
    to \go bad food schlecht werden;
    to \go bald/ grey kahl/grau werden;
    to \go bankrupt bankrottgehen;
    to \go haywire ( out of control) außer Kontrolle geraten;
    ( malfunction) verrückt spielen ( fam)
    to \go public an die Öffentlichkeit treten; stockex an die Börse gehen;
    to \go to sleep einschlafen
    11) + adj (be) sein;
    to \go hungry hungern;
    to \go thirsty dursten;
    to \go unmentioned/ unnoticed/ unsolved unerwähnt/unbemerkt/ungelöst bleiben
    12) ( turn out) gehen;
    how did your party \go? und, wie war deine Party?;
    how's your thesis \going? was macht deine Doktorarbeit?;
    how are things \going? und, wie läuft's? ( fam)
    if everything \goes well... wenn alles gut geht...;
    things have gone well es ist gut gelaufen;
    the way things \go wie das halt so geht;
    the way things are \going at the moment... so wie es im Moment aussieht...;
    to \go like a bomb ein Bombenerfolg sein ( fam)
    to \go according to plan nach Plan laufen;
    to \go from bad to worse vom Regen in die Traufe kommen;
    to \go against/ for sb election zu jds Ungunsten pl /Gunsten pl ausgehen;
    to \go wrong schiefgehen ( fam), schieflaufen ( fam)
    13) ( pass) vergehen, verstreichen;
    time seems to \go faster as you get older die Zeit scheint schneller zu vergehen, wenn man älter wird;
    only two days to \go... nur noch zwei Tage...;
    one week to \go till Christmas noch eine Woche bis Weihnachten;
    in days gone by in längst vergangenen Zeiten;
    two exams down, one to \go zwei Prüfungen sind schon geschafft, jetzt noch eine, dann ist es geschafft!;
    I've three years to \go before I can retire mir fehlen noch drei Jahre bis zur Rente!
    14) ( begin) anfangen;
    ready to \go? bist du bereit?;
    one, two, three, \go! eins, zwei, drei, los!;
    we really must get \going with these proposals wir müssen uns jetzt echt an diese Konzepte setzen;
    let's \go! los!;
    here \goes! jetzt geht's los!
    15) ( fail) kaputtgehen; hearing, health, memory nachlassen; rope reißen;
    our computer is \going unser Computer gibt seinen Geist auf ( hum) ( fam)
    my jeans is gone at the knees meine Jeans ist an den Knien durchgescheuert;
    her mind is \going sie baut geistig ganz schön ab! ( fam)
    16) ( die) sterben;
    she went peacefully in her sleep sie starb friedlich im Schlaf
    17) ( belong) hingehören;
    I'll put it away if you tell me where it \goes ich räum's weg, wenn du mir sagst, wo es hingehört;
    the silverware \goes in the drawer over there das Silber kommt in die Schublade da drüben;
    those tools \go in the garage diese Werkzeuge gehören in die Garage;
    that is to \go into my account das kommt auf mein Konto;
    where do you want that to \go? wo soll das hin?;
    that \goes under a different chapter das gehört in ein anderes Kapitel
    to \go to sb prize, house an jdn gehen; property auf jdn übergehen ( geh)
    Manchester went to Labour Manchester ging an Labour
    19) ( lead) road führen;
    where does this trail \go? wohin führt dieser Pfad?
    20) ( extend) gehen;
    the meadow \goes all the way down to the road die Weide erstreckt sich bis hinunter zur Straße;
    your idea is good enough, as far as it \goes... deine Idee ist so weit ganz gut,...;
    the numbers on the paper \go from 1 to 10 die Nummern auf dem Blatt gehen von 1 bis 10
    21) ( in auction) gehen;
    I'll \go as high as £200 ich gehe bis zu 200 Pfund
    22) ( function) watch gehen; machine laufen;
    our business has been \going for twenty years unser Geschäft läuft seit zwanzig Jahren;
    I'm not saying anything as long as the tape recorder is \going ich sage gar nichts, solange das Tonbandgerät läuft;
    to \go slow econ einen Bummelstreik machen; watch nachgehen;
    to get sth \going [or to \go] [or to make sth \go] etw in Gang bringen;
    to get a party \going eine Party in Fahrt bringen;
    to get [or set] sb \going jdn in Fahrt bringen;
    to keep \going person weitermachen; car weiterfahren;
    come on! keep \going! ja, weiter! ( fam)
    to keep sth \going etw in Gang halten; factory in Betrieb halten;
    to keep a conversation \going eine Unterhaltung am Laufen halten;
    to keep a fire \going ein Feuer am Brennen halten;
    that thought kept me \going dieser Gedanke ließ mich durchhalten;
    here's some food to keep you \going hier hast du erst mal was zu essen
    23) ( have recourse) gehen;
    to \go to court over sth wegen einer S. gen vor Gericht gehen;
    to \go to the police zur Polizei gehen;
    to \go to war in den Krieg ziehen
    24) (match, be in accordance)
    to \go [with sth] [zu etw dat] passen;
    these two colours don't \go diese beiden Farben beißen sich;
    to \go against logic unlogisch sein;
    to \go against one's principles gegen jds Prinzipien pl verstoßen
    25) ( fit)
    five \goes into ten two times [or five into ten \goes twice] fünf geht zweimal in zehn;
    do you think all these things will \go into our little suitcase? glaubst du, das ganze Zeug wird in unseren kleinen Koffer passen? ( fam)
    26) ( be sold) weggehen ( fam)
    \going, \going, gone! zum Ersten, zum Zweiten, [und] zum Dritten!;
    pocketbooks are \going for $10 for the next two days in den nächsten zwei Tagen sind die Taschenbücher für 10 Dollar zu haben;
    to \go to sb an jdn gehen;
    to \go like hot cakes weggehen wie warme Semmeln ( fam)
    to be \going cheap billig zu haben sein
    27) (serve, contribute)
    to \go [to sth] [zu etw dat] beitragen;
    the money will \go to the victims of the earthquake das Geld ist für die Erdbebenopfer bestimmt;
    this will \go towards your holiday das [Geld] ist für deinen Urlaub bestimmt;
    your daughter's attitude only \goes to prove how much... die Einstellung deiner Tochter zeigt einmal mehr, wie sehr...
    28) ( move) machen;
    when I \go like this, my hand hurts wenn ich so mache, tut meine Hand weh;
    \go like this with your hand to show that... mach so mit deiner Hand, um zu zeigen, dass...
    29) ( sound) machen;
    I think I heard the doorbell \go just now ich glaube, es hat gerade geklingelt;
    there \goes the bell es klingelt;
    ducks \go ‘quack’ Enten machen „quack“;
    with sirens \going ambulance mit heulender Sirene
    anything \goes alles ist erlaubt;
    that \goes for all of you das gilt für euch alle!
    31) (be told, sung) gehen; title, theory lauten;
    I can never remember how that song \goes ich weiß nie, wie dieses Lied geht;
    the story \goes that... es heißt, dass...;
    the rumour \goes that... es geht das Gerücht, dass...
    as hospitals/things \go verglichen mit anderen Krankenhäusern/Dingen;
    as things \go today it wasn't that expensive für heutige Verhältnisse war es gar nicht so teuer
    I really have to \go ich muss ganz dringend mal! ( fam)
    I've gone and lost my earring ich habe meinen Ohrring verloren;
    you've really gone and done it now! jetzt hast du aber was Schönes angerichtet! ( iron) (pej!)
    \go to hell! geh [o scher dich] zum Teufel! ( fam)
    do you want that pizza here or to \go? möchten Sie die Pizza hier essen oder mitnehmen?;
    (Am)
    I'd like a cheeseburger to \go, please ich hätte gerne einen Cheeseburger zum Mitnehmen
    is there any beer \going? gibt es Bier?;
    I'll have whatever is \going ich nehme das, was gerade da ist
    37) (fam: treat)
    to \go easy on sb jdn schonend behandeln, jdn glimpflich davonkommen lassen
    PHRASES:
    to \go halves on sth sich dat etw je zur Hälfte teilen;
    \go [and] take a running jump! mach bloß, dass du abhaust! ( fam)
    to \go all out to do sth alles daransetzen, etw zu tun;
    to \go Dutch getrennt zahlen;
    easy come, easy \go (\go) wie gewonnen, so zerronnen ( prov)
    \go [and] get stuffed! ( fam) du kannst mich mal! ( fam)
    here we \go again ( fam) jetzt geht das wieder los! ( fam)
    there you \go bitte schön!;
    ( told you so) sag ich's doch! ( fam)
    there he \goes again ( fam) jetzt fängt er schon wieder damit an! ( fam)
    don't \go there ( fam) lass dich nicht darauf ein;
    that \goes without saying das versteht sich von selbst aux vb future tense
    to be \going to do sth etw tun werden;
    we are \going to have a party tomorrow wir geben morgen eine Party;
    he was \going to phone me this morning er wollte mich heute Morgen anrufen;
    isn't she \going to accept the job after all? nimmt sie den Job nun doch nicht an? vt <goes, went, gone>
    1) ( esp Am) ( travel)
    to \go sth a route, a highway etw nehmen
    2) (fam: say)
    to \go sth;
    she \goes to me: I never want to see you again! sie sagt zu mir: ich will dich nie wieder sehen!
    to \go sth etw reizen;
    to \go nap die höchste Zahl von Stichen ansagen
    4) ( Brit) ( like)
    to not \go much on sth sich dat nicht viel aus etw dat machen
    5) ( become)
    to \go sth;
    my mind went a complete blank ich hatte voll ein Brett vorm Kopf! ( fam)
    PHRASES:
    to \go nap alles auf eine Karte setzen;
    to \go a long way lange [vor]halten;
    sb will \go a long way jd wird es weit bringen;
    to \go it alone etw im Alleingang tun;
    to \go it some es laufen lassen ( fam)
    to \go it ( fam) es toll treiben ( fam) ( move quickly) ein tolles Tempo drauf haben;
    ( work hard) sich akk reinknien n
    pl - es>
    1) ( turn)
    I'll have a \go at driving if you're tired ich kann dich mit dem Fahren ablösen, wenn du müde bist ( fam)
    you've had your \go already! du warst schon dran!;
    hey, it's Ken's \go now he, jetzt ist Ken dran;
    can I have a \go? darf ich mal?;
    to miss one \go einmal aussetzen;
    ( not voluntarily) einmal übersprungen werden
    2) ( attempt) Versuch m;
    have a \go! versuch' es doch einfach mal! ( fam)
    at one \go auf einen Schlag;
    ( drink) in einem Zug ( fam)
    all in one \go alle[s] auf einmal;
    at the first \go auf Anhieb;
    to give sth a \go etw versuchen;
    to have a \go at sb ( criticize) jdn runtermachen ( fam) ( attack) über jdn herfallen;
    his boss had a \go at him about his appearance sein Chef hat sich ihn wegen seines Äußeren vorgeknöpft ( fam)
    members of the public are strongly advised not to have a \go at this man die Öffentlichkeit wird eindringlich davor gewarnt, etwas gegen diesen Mann zu unternehmen;
    to have a \go at doing sth versuchen, etw zu tun;
    to have several \goes at sth für etw akk mehrere Anläufe nehmen
    3) no pl ( energy) Antrieb m, Elan m;
    to be full of \go voller Elan sein
    4) ( esp Brit) (fam: dose) Anfall m;
    she had such a bad \go of the flu that she took a week off from work sie hatte so eine schlimme Grippe, dass sie sich eine Woche freinahm
    it's all \go here hier ist immer was los ( fam)
    it's all \go and no relaxing on those bus tours auf diesen Busfahrten wird nur gehetzt und man kommt nie zum Ausruhen ( fam)
    I've got two projects on the \go at the moment ich habe momentan zwei Projekte gleichzeitig laufen;
    to be on the \go [ständig] auf Trab sein;
    I've been on the \go all day long ich war den ganzen Tag auf Achse ( fam)
    to keep sb on the \go jdn auf Trab halten ( fam)
    PHRASES:
    from the word \go von Anfang an;
    to be all the \go ( Brit) (dated) ( fam) der letzte Schrei sein;
    that was a near \go das war knapp;
    to make a \go of sth mit etw dat Erfolg haben;
    she's making a \go of her new antique shop ihr neues Antiquitätengeschäft ist ein voller Erfolg ( fam)
    to be touch and \go auf der Kippe stehen ( fam)
    it's no \go da ist nichts zu machen adj
    pred, inv [start]klar, in Ordnung;
    all systems [are] \go alles klar;
    all systems \go, take-off in t minus 10 alle Systeme zeigen grün, Start in t minus 10

    English-German students dictionary > go

  • 103 program

    план, проект; программа
    - program of works
    - program of work
    - building construction program
    - building program
    - completed program
    - experimental program
    - housing renewal program
    - in-grade program
    - modernization program
    - object-oriented development program
    - packaged building program
    - package building program
    - public works program
    - repair program
    - research program
    - safety program
    - three-phase work program
    - training programs for builders

    Англо-русский строительный словарь > program

  • 104 amount

    1. n количество; величина

    in amount — по количеству, количественно

    gross amount — валовая сумма; сумма-брутто; общее количество

    2. n всё, весь объём, вся масса

    a great amount of negligence — большая степень халатности; непростительная небрежность

    3. n общая сумма, итог

    amount due to us — причитающаяся нам сумма; сумма к выплате

    amount owed by transferor — сумма, задолженная индоссантом

    4. n бухг. основная сумма и проценты с неё

    amount due — сумма к получению, причитающаяся сумма

    5. v составлять; доходить до; достигать; равняться

    amount to — составлять; достигать; доходить до

    to amount to — достигать, равняться

    6. v быть равным, равносильным, равнозначным; означать

    to amount to very little, not to amount to much — не иметь большого значения, очень мало значить

    7. v становиться, добиваться
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. price (noun) expenditure; figure; outlay; output; price
    2. significance (noun) effect; import; result; significance; value
    3. substance (noun) burden; core; crux; drift; gist; kernel; matter; meat; nub; nubbin; pith; purport; sense; short; strength; substance; sum and substance; sum total; thrust; upshot
    4. sum (noun) aggregate; body; budget; bulk; corpus; mass; measure; number; product; quantity; quantum; sum; summation; total; totality; whole
    5. add up (verb) add up; aggregate; come; number; reach; run; run into; run to; sum into; sum to; total
    6. approach (verb) approach; correspond to; match; partake of; rival; touch
    7. equal (verb) constitute; correspond; equal

    English-Russian base dictionary > amount

  • 105 Herculano, Alexandre

    (1810-1877)
       One of Portugal's greatest historians and one of its giants in 19th-century writing and literature. Born in Lisbon to a middle-class family, Herculano studied commerce and diplomacy. At age 21, he enlisted in the liberal armed forces of King Pedro IV but was forced to flee to exile in Great Britain and then France. Later, he was part of the victorious liberal expeditionary force that landed near Oporto. He began his serious studies in Oporto, but soon relocated to Lisbon, where he worked as a journalist. In 1839, he was named to the post of director of the Royal Library at Ajudá Palace and at Necessidades Palace, and thus began to prepare to write his classic work, História de Portugal, a major study that when completed took the history of the country only up to the end of the 13th century. The first volume of this work, with which his fame as a historian is most closely associated, was published in 1846, but Herculano was a versatile writer who wrote novels, essays, and poetry as well as history.
       In addition to being a man of words, he was a man of action who was active in exchanges with other literati and who did government service. Herculano, for example, was on the commission that revised the civil code of Portugal. His histori cal writings influenced future generations of writers because of his literary style, because he broke through the legend and myth that had surrounded ancient and medieval Portuguese history, and above all because of his objective, scientific approach to research and conclusions. Dissatisfied with politics and public life, Herculano retired to a farm in the country (at Vale de Lobos) in 1859 and worked as a farmer until 1866.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Herculano, Alexandre

  • 106 equivalent units

    Fin
    notional whole units representing uncompleted work. Used to apportion costs between work in progress and completed output, and in performance assessment.

    The ultimate business dictionary > equivalent units

  • 107 Behrens, Peter

    [br]
    b. 14 April 1868 Hamburg, Germany
    d. 27 February 1940 Berlin, Germany
    [br]
    German pioneer of modern architecture, developer of the combined use of steel, glass and concrete in industrial work.
    [br]
    During the 1890s Behrens, as an artist, was a member of the German branch of Sezessionismus and then moved towards Jugendstil (Art Nouveau) types of design in different media. His interest in architecture was aroused during the first years of the twentieth century, and a turning-point in his career was his appointment in 1907 as Artistic Supervisor and Consultant to AEG, the great Berlin electrical firm. His Turbine Factory (1909) in the city was a breakthrough in design and is still standing: in steel and glass, with visible girder construction, this is a truly functional modern building far ahead of its time. In 1910 two more of Behrens's factories were completed in Berlin, followed in 1913 by the great AEG plant at Riga, Latvia.
    After the First World War Behrens was in great demand for industrial construction. He designed office schemes such as those at the Mannesmann Steel Works in Dusseldorf (1911–12; now destroyed) and, in a departure from his earlier work, was responsible for a more Expressionist form of design, mainly in brick, in his extensive complex for I.G.Farben at Höchst (1920–4).
    In the years before the First World War, some of those who were later amongst the most famous names in modern architecture were among his pupils: Gropius, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret).
    [br]
    Further Reading
    T.Buddenseig, 1979, Industrielkultur: Peter Behrens und die AEG 1907–14, Berlin: Mann.
    W.Weber (ed.), 1966, Peter Behrens (1868–1940), Kaiserslautern, Germany: Pfalzgalerie.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Behrens, Peter

  • 108 By, Lieutenant-Colonel John

    SUBJECT AREA: Canals
    [br]
    b. 7 (?) August 1779 Lambeth, London, England
    d. 1 February 1836 Frant, Sussex, England
    [br]
    English Engineer-in-Charge of the construction of the Rideau Canal, linking the St Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers in Canada.
    [br]
    Admitted in 1797 as a Gentleman Cadet in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, By was commissioned on 1 August 1799 as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery, but was soon transferred to the Royal Engineers. Posted to Plymouth upon the development of the fortifications, he was further posted to Canada, arriving there in August 1802.
    In 1803 By was engaged in canal work, assisting Captain Bruyères in the construction of a short canal (1,500 ft (460 m) long) at the Cascades on the Grand, now the Ottawa, River. In 1805 he was back at the Cascades repairing ice damage caused during the previous winter. He was promoted Captain in 1809. Meanwhile he worked on the fortifications of Quebec and in 1806–7 he built a scale model of the Citadel, which is now in the National War Museum of Canada. He returned to England in 1810 and served in Portugal in 1811. Back in England at the end of the year, he was appointed Royal Engineer Officer in charge at the Waltham Abbey Gunpowder Works on 1 January 1812 and later planned the new Small Arms Factory at Enfield; both works were on the navigable River Lee.
    In the post-Napoleonic period Major By, as he then was, retired on half-pay but was promoted to Lieu tenant-Colonel on 2 December 1824. Eighteen months later, in March 1826, he returned to Canada on active duty to build the Rideau Canal. This was John By's greatest work. It was conceived after the American war of 1812–14 as a connection for vessels to reach Kingston and the Great Lakes from Montreal while avoiding possible attack from the United States forces. Ships would pass up the Ottawa River using the already-constructed locks and bypass channels and then travel via a new canal cut through virgin forest southwards to the St Lawrence at Kingston. By based his operational headquarters at the Ottawa River end of the new works and in a forest clearing he established a small settlement. Because of the regard in which By was held, this settlement became known as By town. In 1855, long after By's death, the settlement was designated by Queen Victoria as capital of United Canada (which was to become a self-governing Dominion in 1867) and renamed Ottawa; as a result of the presence of the national government, the growth of the town accelerated greatly.
    Between 1826–7 and 1832 the Rideau Canal was constructed. It included the massive engineering works of Jones Falls Dam (62 ft 6 in. (19 m) high) and 47 locks. By exercised an almost paternal care over those employed under his direction. The canal was completed in June 1832 at a cost of £800,000. By was summoned back to London to face virulent and unjust criticism from the Treasury. He was honoured in Canada but vilified by the British Government.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.F.Leggett, 1982, John By, Historical Society of Canada.
    —1976, Canals of Canada, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles.
    —1972, Rideau Waterway, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
    Bernard Pothier, 1978, "The Quebec Model", Canadian War Museum Paper 9, Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > By, Lieutenant-Colonel John

  • 109 Cosnier, Hugues

    SUBJECT AREA: Canals, Textiles
    [br]
    b. Angers (?) or Tours (?), France
    d. between July 1629 and March 1630
    [br]
    French engineer.
    [br]
    Cosnier was probably an Angevin as he had property in Tours although he lived in Paris; his father was valet de chambre to King Henri IV. Although he qualified as an engineer, he was primarily a man of ideas. On 23 December 1603 he obtained a grant to establish silkworm breeding, or sericulture, in Poitou by introducing 100,000 mulberry plants, together with 200 oz (5.7 kg) of mulberry seed. He had 2,000 instruction leaflets on silkworm breeding printed, but his project collapsed when the Poitevins refused to co-operate. Cosnier then distributed the plants and seeds to other parts of France. The same year he approached Henri IV with the proposal to build a canal from the Loire to the Seine, partly via the Loing, from Briare to Montargis. On the king's acceptance of his proposal, Cosnier on 11 March 1604 undertook to complete the canal, which necessitated crossing the ridge between the two rivers, over a three-year period for 505,000 livres. The Canal de Briare, as it became known, with thirty-six locks including the flight of seven at Rogny, was almost complete in 1610; however, the death of Henri IV led to its abandonment. Cosnier offered to complete it at his own expense, but his offer was refused. Instead, his accounts were examined and it was found that he had already exceeded his authorized credits by 35,000 livres. In settlement, after some quibbling, he was awarded the two seigneuries of Trousse near Briare. Cosnier then suggested encircling the Paris suburbs with a canal which would not only be navigable but would also provide a water supply for fountains and drains. His proposal was accepted in 1618, but the works were never started. In the 1620s the marquis d'Effiet proposed the completion of the Canal de Briare and Cosnier was invited to resume work. Before anything more could be done Cosnier died, some time between July 1629 and March 1630, and the work was again abandoned. The canal was ultimately completed by Boutheroue in 1642, but the seven locks at Rogny remain a dramatic monument to Cosnier's ability.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > Cosnier, Hugues

  • 110 Davis, Robert Henry

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 6 June 1870 London, England
    d. 29 March 1965 Epsom, Surrey, England
    [br]
    English inventor of breathing, diving and escape apparatus.
    [br]
    Davis was the son of a detective with the City of London police. At the age of 11 he entered the employment of Siebe, Gorman \& Co., manufacturers of diving and other safety equipment since 1819, at their Lambeth works. By good fortune, his neat handwriting attracted the notice of Mr Gorman and he was transferred to work in the office. He studied hard after working hours and rose steadily in the firm. In his twenties he was promoted to Assistant Manager, then General Manager, Managing Director and finally Governing Director. He retired in 1960, having been made Life President the previous year, and continued to attend the office regularly until May 1964.
    Davis's entire career was devoted to research and development in the firm's special field. In 1906 he perfected the first practicable oxygen-breathing apparatus for use in mine rescue; it was widely adopted and with modifications was still in use in the 1990s. With Professor Leonard Hill he designed a deep-sea diving-bell incorporating a decompression chamber. He also invented an oxygen-breathing apparatus and heated apparel for airmen flying at high altitudes.
    Immediately after the first German gas attacks on the Western Front in April 1915, Davis devised a respirator, known as the stocking skene or veil mask. He quickly organized the mass manufacture of this device, roping in members of his family and placing the work in the homes of Lambeth: within 48 hours the first consignment was being sent off to France.
    He was a member of the Admiralty Deep Sea Diving Committee, which in 1933 completed tables for the safe ascent of divers with oxygen from a depth of 300 ft (91 m). They were compiled by Davis in conjunction with Professors J.B.S.Haldane and Leonard Hill and Captain G.C.Damant, the Royal Navy's leading diving expert. With revisions these tables have been used by the Navy ever since. Davis's best-known invention was first used in 1929: the Davis Submarine Escape Apparatus. It became standard equipment on submarines until it was replaced by the Built-in Breathing System, which the firm began manufacturing in 1951.
    The firm's works were bombed during the Second World War and were re-established at Chessington, Surrey. The extensive research facilities there were placed at the disposal of the Royal Navy and the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit. Davis worked with Haldane and Hill on problems of the underwater physiology of working divers. A number of inventions issued from Chessington, such as the human torpedo, midget submarine and human minesweeper. In the early 1950s the firm helped to pioneer the use of underwater television to investigate the sinking of the submarine Affray and the crashed Comet jet airliners.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1932.
    Bibliography
    Davis was the author of several manuals on diving including Deep Sea Diving and Submarine Operations and Breathing in Irrespirable Atmospheres. He also wrote Resuscitation: A Brief Personal History of Siebe, Gorman \& Co. 1819–1957.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1965, The Times, 31 March, p. 16.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Davis, Robert Henry

  • 111 Fairbairn, William

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 19 February 1789 Kelso, Roxburghshire, Scotland
    d. 18 August 1874 Farnham, Surrey, England
    [br]
    Scottish engineer and shipbuilder, pioneer in the use of iron in structures.
    [br]
    Born in modest circumstances, Fairbairn nevertheless enjoyed a broad and liberal education until around the age of 14. Thereafter he served an apprenticeship as a millwright in a Northumberland colliery. This seven-year period marked him out as a man of determination and intellectual ability; he planned his life around the practical work of pit-machinery maintenance and devoted his limited free time to the study of mathematics, science and history as well as "Church, Milton and Recreation". Like many before and countless thousands after, he worked in London for some difficult and profitless years, and then moved to Manchester, the city he was to regard as home for the rest of his life. In 1816 he was married. Along with a workmate, James Lillie, he set up a general engineering business, which steadily enlarged and ultimately involved both shipbuilding and boiler-making. The partnership was dissolved in 1832 and Fairbairn continued on his own. Consultancy work commissioned by the Forth and Clyde Canal led to the construction of iron steamships by Fairbairn for the canal; one of these, the PS Manchester was lost in the Irish Sea (through the little-understood phenomenon of compass deviation) on her delivery voyage from Manchester to the Clyde. This brought Fairbairn to the forefront of research in this field and confirmed him as a shipbuilder in the novel construction of iron vessels. In 1835 he operated the Millwall Shipyard on the Isle of Dogs on the Thames; this is regarded as one of the first two shipyards dedicated to iron production from the outset (the other being Tod and MacGregor of Glasgow). Losses at the London yard forced Fairbairn to sell off, and the yard passed into the hands of John Scott Russell, who built the I.K. Brunel -designed Great Eastern on the site. However, his business in Manchester went from strength to strength: he produced an improved Cornish boiler with two firetubes, known as the Lancashire boiler; he invented a riveting machine; and designed the beautiful swan-necked box-structured crane that is known as the Fairbairn crane to this day.
    Throughout his life he advocated the widest use of iron; he served on the Admiralty Committee of 1861 investigating the use of this material in the Royal Navy. In his later years he travelled widely in Europe as an engineering consultant and published many papers on engineering. His contribution to worldwide engineering was recognized during his lifetime by the conferment of a baronetcy by Queen Victoria.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Created Baronet 1869. FRS 1850. Elected to the Academy of Science of France 1852. President, Institution of Mechnical Engineers 1854. Royal Society Gold Medal 1860. President, British Association 1861.
    Bibliography
    Fairbairn wrote many papers on a wide range of engineering subjects from water-wheels to iron metallurgy and from railway brakes to the strength of iron ships. In 1856 he contributed the article on iron to the 8th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica.
    Further Reading
    W.Pole (ed.), 1877, The Life of Sir William Fairbairn Bart, London: Longmans Green; reprinted 1970, David and Charles Reprints (written in part by Fairbairn, but completed and edited by Pole).
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Fairbairn, William

  • 112 Ford, Henry

    [br]
    b. 30 July 1863 Dearborn, Michigan, USA
    d. 7 April 1947 Dearborn, Michigan, USA
    [br]
    American pioneer motor-car maker and developer of mass-production methods.
    [br]
    He was the son of an Irish immigrant farmer, William Ford, and the oldest son to survive of Mary Litogot; his mother died in 1876 with the birth of her sixth child. He went to the village school, and at the age of 16 he was apprenticed to Flower brothers' machine shop and then at the Drydock \& Engineering Works in Detroit. In 1882 he left to return to the family farm and spent some time working with a 1 1/2 hp steam engine doing odd jobs for the farming community at $3 per day. He was then employed as a demonstrator for Westinghouse steam engines. He met Clara Jane Bryant at New Year 1885 and they were married on 11 April 1888. Their only child, Edsel Bryant Ford, was born on 6 November 1893.
    At that time Henry worked on steam engine repairs for the Edison Illuminating Company, where he became Chief Engineer. He became one of a group working to develop a "horseless carriage" in 1896 and in June completed his first vehicle, a "quadri cycle" with a two-cylinder engine. It was built in a brick shed, which had to be partially demolished to get the carriage out.
    Ford became involved in motor racing, at which he was more successful than he was in starting a car-manufacturing company. Several early ventures failed, until the Ford Motor Company of 1903. By October 1908 they had started with production of the Model T. The first, of which over 15 million were built up to the end of its production in May 1927, came out with bought-out steel stampings and a planetary gearbox, and had a one-piece four-cylinder block with a bolt-on head. This was one of the most successful models built by Ford or any other motor manufacturer in the life of the motor car.
    Interchangeability of components was an important element in Ford's philosophy. Ford was a pioneer in the use of vanadium steel for engine components. He adopted the principles of Frederick Taylor, the pioneer of time-and-motion study, and installed the world's first moving assembly line for the production of magnetos, started in 1913. He installed blast furnaces at the factory to make his own steel, and he also promoted research and the cultivation of the soya bean, from which a plastic was derived.
    In October 1913 he introduced the "Five Dollar Day", almost doubling the normal rate of pay. This was a profit-sharing scheme for his employees and contained an element of a reward for good behaviour. About this time he initiated work on an agricultural tractor, the "Fordson" made by a separate company, the directors of which were Henry and his son Edsel.
    In 1915 he chartered the Oscar II, a "peace ship", and with fifty-five delegates sailed for Europe a week before Christmas, docking at Oslo. Their objective was to appeal to all European Heads of State to stop the war. He had hoped to persuade manufacturers to replace armaments with tractors in their production programmes. In the event, Ford took to his bed in the hotel with a chill, stayed there for five days and then sailed for New York and home. He did, however, continue to finance the peace activists who remained in Europe. Back in America, he stood for election to the US Senate but was defeated. He was probably the father of John Dahlinger, illegitimate son of Evangeline Dahlinger, a stenographer employed by the firm and on whom he lavished gifts of cars, clothes and properties. He became the owner of a weekly newspaper, the Dearborn Independent, which became the medium for the expression of many of his more unorthodox ideas. He was involved in a lawsuit with the Chicago Tribune in 1919, during which he was cross-examined on his knowledge of American history: he is reputed to have said "History is bunk". What he actually said was, "History is bunk as it is taught in schools", a very different comment. The lawyers who thus made a fool of him would have been surprised if they could have foreseen the force and energy that their actions were to release. For years Ford employed a team of specialists to scour America and Europe for furniture, artefacts and relics of all kinds, illustrating various aspects of history. Starting with the Wayside Inn from South Sudbury, Massachusetts, buildings were bought, dismantled and moved, to be reconstructed in Greenfield Village, near Dearborn. The courthouse where Abraham Lincoln had practised law and the Ohio bicycle shop where the Wright brothers built their first primitive aeroplane were added to the farmhouse where the proprietor, Henry Ford, had been born. Replicas were made of Independence Hall, Congress Hall and the old City Hall in Philadelphia, and even a reconstruction of Edison's Menlo Park laboratory was installed. The Henry Ford museum was officially opened on 21 October 1929, on the fiftieth anniversary of Edison's invention of the incandescent bulb, but it continued to be a primary preoccupation of the great American car maker until his death.
    Henry Ford was also responsible for a number of aeronautical developments at the Ford Airport at Dearborn. He introduced the first use of radio to guide a commercial aircraft, the first regular airmail service in the United States. He also manufactured the country's first all-metal multi-engined plane, the Ford Tri-Motor.
    Edsel became President of the Ford Motor Company on his father's resignation from that position on 30 December 1918. Following the end of production in May 1927 of the Model T, the replacement Model A was not in production for another six months. During this period Henry Ford, though officially retired from the presidency of the company, repeatedly interfered and countermanded the orders of his son, ostensibly the man in charge. Edsel, who died of stomach cancer at his home at Grosse Point, Detroit, on 26 May 1943, was the father of Henry Ford II. Henry Ford died at his home, "Fair Lane", four years after his son's death.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1922, with S.Crowther, My Life and Work, London: Heinemann.
    Further Reading
    R.Lacey, 1986, Ford, the Men and the Machine, London: Heinemann. W.C.Richards, 1948, The Last Billionaire, Henry Ford, New York: Charles Scribner.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Ford, Henry

  • 113 Galilei, Galileo

    [br]
    b. 15 February 1564 Pisa, Italy
    d. 8 January 1642 Arcetri, near Florence, Italy
    [br]
    Italian mathematician, astronomer and physicist who established the principle of the pendulum and was first to exploit the telescope.
    [br]
    Galileo began studying medicine at the University of Pisa but soon turned to his real interests, mathematics, mechanics and astronomy. He became Professor of Mathematics at Pisa at the age of 25 and three years later moved to Padua. In 1610 he transferred to Florence. While still a student he discovered the isochronous property of the pendulum, probably by timing with his pulse the swings of a hanging lamp during a religious ceremony in Pisa Cathedral. He later designed a pendulum-controlled clock, but it was not constructed until after his death, and then not successfully; the first successful pendulum clock was made by the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens in 1656. Around 1590 Galileo established the laws of motion of falling bodies, by timing rolling balls down inclined planes and not, as was once widely believed, by dropping different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. These and other observations received definitive treatment in his Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienzi attenenti alla, meccanica (Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences…) which was completed in 1634 and first printed in 1638. This work also included Galileo's proof that the path of a projectile was a parabola and, most importantly, the development of the concept of inertia.
    In astronomy Galileo adopted the Copernican heliocentric theory of the universe while still in his twenties, but he lacked the evidence to promote it publicly. That evidence came with the invention of the telescope by the Dutch brothers Lippershey. Galileo heard of its invention in 1609 and had his own instrument constructed, with a convex object lens and concave eyepiece, a form which came to be known as the Galilean telescope. Galileo was the first to exploit the telescope successfully with a series of striking astronomical discoveries. He was also the first to publish the results of observations with the telescope, in his Sidereus nuncius (Starry Messenger) of 1610. All the discoveries told against the traditional view of the universe inherited from the ancient Greeks, and one in particular, that of the four satellites in orbit around Jupiter, supported the Copernican theory in that it showed that there could be another centre of motion in the universe besides the Earth: if Jupiter, why not the Sun? Galileo now felt confident enough to advocate the theory, but the advance of new ideas was opposed, not for the first or last time, by established opinion, personified in Galileo's time by the ecclesiastical authorities in Rome. Eventually he was forced to renounce the Copernican theory, at least in public, and turn to less contentious subjects such as the "two new sciences" of his last and most important work.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1610, Sidereus nuncius (Starry Messenger); translation by A.Van Helden, 1989, Sidereus Nuncius, or the Sidereal Messenger; Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
    1623, Il Saggiatore (The Assayer).
    1632, Dialogo sopre i due massimi sistemi del mondo, tolemaico e copernicano (Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican); translation, 1967, Berkeley: University of California Press.
    1638, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienzi attenenti alla
    meccanica (Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences…); translation, 1991, Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books (reprint).
    Further Reading
    G.de Santillana, 1955, The Crime of Galileo, Chicago: University of Chicago Press; also 1958, London: Heinemann.
    H.Stillman Drake, 1980, Galileo, Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks. M.Sharratt, 1994, Galileo: Decisive Innovator, Oxford: Blackwell.
    J.Reston, 1994, Galileo: A Life, New York: HarperCollins; also 1994, London: Cassell.
    A.Fantoli, 1994, Galileo: For Copemicanism and for the Church, trans. G.V.Coyne, South Bend, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Galilei, Galileo

  • 114 Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 1863 Thury-Harcourt, Caen, France
    d. 9 May 1914 Antibes, France
    [br]
    French metallurigst, inventor of the process of aluminium reduction by electrolysis.
    [br]
    Paul Héroult, the son of a tanner, at the age of 16, while still at school in Caen, read Deville's book on aluminium and became obsessed with the idea of developing a cheap way of producing this metal. After his family moved to Gentillysur-Bièvre he studied at the Ecole Sainte-Barbe in Paris and then returned to Caen to work in the laboratory of his father's tannery. His first patent, filed in February and granted on 23 April 1886, described an invention almost identical to that of C.M. Hall: "the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in molten cryolite into which the current is introduced through suitable electrodes. The cryolite is not consumed." Early in 1887 Héroult attempted to obtain the support of Alfred Rangod Pechiney, the proprietor of the works at Salindres where Deville's process for making sodium-reduced aluminium was still being operated. Pechiney persuaded Héroult to modify his electrolytic process by using a cathode of molten copper, thus making it possible produce aluminium bronze rather than pure aluminium. Héroult then approached the Swiss firm J.G.Nehe Söhne, ironmasters, whose works at the Falls of Schaffhausen obtained power from the Rhine. They were looking for a new metallurgical process requiring large quantities of cheap hydroelectric power and Héroult's process seemed suitable. In 1887 they established the Société Metallurgique Suisse to test Héroult's process. Héroult became Technical Director and went to the USA to defend his patents against those of Hall. During his absence the Schaffhausen trials were successfully completed, and on 18 November 1888 the Société Metallurgique combined with the German AEG group, Oerlikon and Escher Wyss, to establish the Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen. In the early electrolytic baths it was occasionally found that arcs between the bath surface and electrode could develop if the electrodes were inadvertently raised. From this observation, Héroult and M.Killiani developed the electric arc furnace. In this, arcs were intentionally formed between the surface of the charge and several electrodes, each connected to a different pole of the AC supply. This furnace, the prototype of the modern electric steel furnace, was first used for the direct reduction of iron ore at La Praz in 1903. This work was undertaken for the Canadian Government, for whom Héroult subsequently designed a 5,000-amp single-phase furnace which was installed and tested at Sault-Sainte-Marie in Ontario and successfully used for smelting magnetite ore.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Aluminium Industrie Aktiengesellschaft Neuhausen, 1938, The History of the Aluminium-Industrie-Aktien-Gesellschaft Neuhausen 1888–1938, 2 vols, Neuhausen.
    C.J.Gignoux, Histoire d'une entreprise française. "The Hall-Héroult affair", 1961, Metal Bulletin (14 April):1–4.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Héroult, Paul Louis Toussaint

  • 115 Holtzapffel, Charles

    [br]
    b. 1806 London, England
    d. 11 April 1847 London, England
    [br]
    English mechanical engineer and author of Turning and Mechanical Manipulation.
    [br]
    Charles Holtzapffel was the son of John Holtzapffel, a native of Germany who settled in London c.1787 and set up as a manufacturer of lathes and tools for amateur mechanics. Charles Holtzapffel received a good English education and training in his father's workshop, and subsequently became a partner and ultimately succeeded to the business. He was engaged in the construction of machinery for printing banknotes, of lathes for cutting rosettes and for ornamental and plain turning. Holtzapffel is chiefly remembered for his monumental work entitled Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, intended as a work of general reference and practical instruction on the lathe. Publication began in 1843 and only the first two volumes were published in his lifetime. A third volume was edited by his widow from his notes and published shortly after his death. The fourth and fifth volumes were completed by his son, John Jacob Holtzapffel, more than thirty years later. Holtzapffel was an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers and served on its Council: he was also a member of the Society of Arts and Chairman of its Committee on Mechanics.
    RTS

    Biographical history of technology > Holtzapffel, Charles

  • 116 Howden, James

    [br]
    b. 29 February 1832 Prestonpans, East Lothian, Scotland
    d. 21 November 1913 Glasgow, Scotland
    [br]
    Scottish engineer and boilermaker, inventor of the forced-draught system for the boiler combustion chamber.
    [br]
    Howden was educated in Prestonpans. While aged only 14 or 15, he travelled across Scotland by canal to Glasgow, where he served an engineering apprenticeship with James Gray \& Co. In 1853 he completed his time and for some months served with the civil engineers Bell and Miller, and then with Robert Griffiths, a designer of screw propellers for ships. In 1854, at the age of 22, Howden set up as a consulting engineer and designer. He designed a rivet-making machine from which he realized a fair sum by the sale of patent rights, this assisting him in converting the design business into a manufacturing one. His first contract for a marine engine came in 1859 for the compound steam engine and the watertube boilers of the Anchor Liner Ailsa Craig. This ship operated at 100 psi (approximately 7 kg/cm2), well above the norm for those days. James Howden \& Co. was formed in 1862. Despite operating in the world's most competitive market, the new company remained prosperous through the flow of inventions in marine propulsion. Shipbuilding was added to the company's list of services, but such work was subcontracted. Work was obtained from all the great shipping companies building in the Glasgow region, and with such throughput Howden's could afford research and experimentation. This led to the Howden hot-air forced-draught system, whereby furnace waste gases were used to heat the air being drawn into the combustion chambers. The first installation was on the New York City, built in 1885 for West Indian service. Howden's fertile mind brought about a fully enclosed high-speed marine steam engine in the 1900s and, shortly after, the Howden-Zoelly impulse steam turbine for land operation. Until his death, Howden worked on many technical and business problems: he was involved in the St Helena Whaling Company, marble quarrying in Greece and in the design of a recoilless gun for the Admiralty.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Howden was the last surviving member of the group who founded the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1857.
    Bibliography
    Howden contributed several papers to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.
    Further Reading
    C.W.Munn, 1986, "James Howden", Dictionary of Scottish Business Biography, Vol. I, Aberdeen.
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Howden, James

  • 117 Huygens, Christiaan

    SUBJECT AREA: Horology
    [br]
    b. 14 April 1629 The Hague, the Netherlands
    d. 8 June 1695 The Hague, the Netherlands
    [br]
    Dutch scientist who was responsible for two of the greatest advances in horology: the successful application of both the pendulum to the clock and the balance spring to the watch.
    [br]
    Huygens was born into a cultured and privileged class. His father, Constantijn, was a poet and statesman who had wide interests. Constantijn exerted a strong influence on his son, who was educated at home until he reached the age of 16. Christiaan studied law and mathematics at Ley den University from 1645 to 1647, and continued his studies at the Collegium Arausiacum in Breda until 1649. He then lived at The Hague, where he had the means to devote his time entirely to study. In 1666 he became a Member of the Académie des Sciences in Paris and settled there until his return to The Hague in 1681. He also had a close relationship with the Royal Society and visited London on three occasions, meeting Newton on his last visit in 1689. Huygens had a wide range of interests and made significant contributions in mathematics, astronomy, optics and mechanics. He also made technical advances in optical instruments and horology.
    Despite the efforts of Burgi there had been no significant improvement in the performance of ordinary clocks and watches from their inception to Huygens's time, as they were controlled by foliots or balances which had no natural period of oscillation. The pendulum appeared to offer a means of improvement as it had a natural period of oscillation that was almost independent of amplitude. Galileo Galilei had already pioneered the use of a freely suspended pendulum for timing events, but it was by no means obvious how it could be kept swinging and used to control a clock. Towards the end of his life Galileo described such a. mechanism to his son Vincenzio, who constructed a model after his father's death, although it was not completed when he himself died in 1642. This model appears to have been copied in Italy, but it had little influence on horology, partly because of the circumstances in which it was produced and possibly also because it differed radically from clocks of that period. The crucial event occurred on Christmas Day 1656 when Huygens, quite independently, succeeded in adapting an existing spring-driven table clock so that it was not only controlled by a pendulum but also kept it swinging. In the following year he was granted a privilege or patent for this clock, and several were made by the clockmaker Salomon Coster of The Hague. The use of the pendulum produced a dramatic improvement in timekeeping, reducing the daily error from minutes to seconds, but Huygens was aware that the pendulum was not truly isochronous. This error was magnified by the use of the existing verge escapement, which made the pendulum swing through a large arc. He overcame this defect very elegantly by fitting cheeks at the pendulum suspension point, progressively reducing the effective length of the pendulum as the amplitude increased. Initially the cheeks were shaped empirically, but he was later able to show that they should have a cycloidal shape. The cheeks were not adopted universally because they introduced other defects, and the problem was eventually solved more prosaically by way of new escapements which reduced the swing of the pendulum. Huygens's clocks had another innovatory feature: maintaining power, which kept the clock going while it was being wound.
    Pendulums could not be used for portable timepieces, which continued to use balances despite their deficiencies. Robert Hooke was probably the first to apply a spring to the balance, but his efforts were not successful. From his work on the pendulum Huygens was well aware of the conditions necessary for isochronism in a vibrating system, and in January 1675, with a flash of inspiration, he realized that this could be achieved by controlling the oscillations of the balance with a spiral spring, an arrangement that is still used in mechanical watches. The first model was made for Huygens in Paris by the clockmaker Isaac Thuret, who attempted to appropriate the invention and patent it himself. Huygens had for many years been trying unsuccessfully to adapt the pendulum clock for use at sea (in order to determine longitude), and he hoped that a balance-spring timekeeper might be better suited for this purpose. However, he was disillusioned as its timekeeping proved to be much more susceptible to changes in temperature than that of the pendulum clock.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1663. Member of the Académie Royale des Sciences 1666.
    Bibliography
    For his complete works, see Oeuvres complètes de Christian Huygens, 1888–1950, 22 vols, The Hague.
    1658, Horologium, The Hague; repub., 1970, trans. E.L.Edwardes, Antiquarian
    Horology 7:35–55 (describes the pendulum clock).
    1673, Horologium Oscillatorium, Paris; repub., 1986, The Pendulum Clock or Demonstrations Concerning the Motion ofPendula as Applied to Clocks, trans.
    R.J.Blackwell, Ames.
    Further Reading
    H.J.M.Bos, 1972, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C.C.Gillispie, Vol. 6, New York, pp. 597–613 (for a fuller account of his life and scientific work, but note the incorrect date of his death).
    R.Plomp, 1979, Spring-Driven Dutch Pendulum Clocks, 1657–1710, Schiedam (describes Huygens's application of the pendulum to the clock).
    S.A.Bedini, 1991, The Pulse of Time, Florence (describes Galileo's contribution of the pendulum to the clock).
    J.H.Leopold, 1982, "L"Invention par Christiaan Huygens du ressort spiral réglant pour les montres', Huygens et la France, Paris, pp. 154–7 (describes the application of the balance spring to the watch).
    A.R.Hall, 1978, "Horology and criticism", Studia Copernica 16:261–81 (discusses Hooke's contribution).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Huygens, Christiaan

  • 118 Lartigue, Charles François Marie-Thérèse

    [br]
    b. 1834 Toulouse, France d. 1907
    [br]
    French engineer and businessman, inventor of the Lartigue monorail.
    [br]
    Lartigue worked as a civil engineer in Algeria and while there invented a simple monorail for industrial or agricultural use. It comprised a single rail carried on trestles; vehicles comprised a single wheel with two tubs suspended either side, like panniers. These were pushed or pulled by hand or, occasionally, hauled by mule. Such lines were used in Algerian esparto-grass plantations.
    In 1882 he patented a monorail system based on this arrangement, with important improvements: traction was to be mechanical; vehicles were to have two or four wheels and to be able to be coupled together; and the trestles were to have, on each side, a light guide rail upon which horizontal rollers beneath the vehicles would bear. Early in 1883 the Lartigue Railway Construction Company was formed in London and two experimental prototype monorails were subsequently demonstrated in public. One, at the Paris Agricultural Exhibition, had an electric locomotive that was built in two parts, one either side of the rail to maintain balance, hauling small wagons. The other prototype, in London, had a small, steam locomotive with two vertical boilers and was designed by Anatole Mallet. By now Lartigue had become associated with F.B. Behr. Behr was Managing Director of the construction company and of the Listowel \& Ballybunion Railway Company, which obtained an Act of Parliament in 1886 to built a Lartigue monorail railway in the South West of Ireland between those two places. Its further development and successful operation are described in the article on Behr in this volume.
    A much less successful attempt to establish a Lartigue monorail railway took place in France, in the départment of Loire. In 1888 the council of the département agreed to a proposal put forward by Lartigue for a 10 1/2 mile (17 km) long monorail between the towns of Feurs and Panissières: the agreement was reached on the casting vote of the Chairman, a contact of Lartigue. A concession was granted to successive companies with which Lartigue was closely involved, but construction of the line was attended by muddle, delay and perhaps fraud, although it was completed sufficiently for trial trains to operate. The locomotive had two horizontal boilers, one either side of the track. But the inspectors of the department found deficiencies in the completeness and probable safety of the railway; when they did eventually agree to opening on a limited scale, the company claimed to have insufficient funds to do so unless monies owed by the department were paid. In the end the concession was forfeited and the line dismantled. More successful was an electrically operated Lartigue mineral line built at mines in the eastern Pyrenees.
    It appears to have reused equipment from the electric demonstration line, with modifications, and included gradients as steep as 1 in 12. There was no generating station: descending trains generated the electricity to power ascending ones. This line is said to have operated for at least two years.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1882, French patent no. 149,301 (monorail system). 1882, British patent no. 2,764 (monorail system).
    Further Reading
    D.G.Tucker, 1984, "F.B.Behr's development of the Lartigue monorail", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 55 (describes Lartigue and his work).
    P.H.Chauffort and J.-L.Largier, 1981, "Le monorail de Feurs à Panissières", Chemin defer régionaux et urbains (magazine of the Fédération des Amis des Chemins de Fer
    Secondaires) 164 (in French; describes Lartigue and his work).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Lartigue, Charles François Marie-Thérèse

  • 119 Leonardo da Vinci

    [br]
    b. 15 April 1452 Vinci, near Florence, Italy,
    d. 2 May 1519 St Cloux, near Amboise, France.
    [br]
    Italian scientist, engineer, inventor and artist.
    [br]
    Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a Florentine lawyer. His first sixteen years were spent with the lawyer's family in the rural surroundings of Vinci, which aroused in him a lifelong love of nature and an insatiable curiosity in it. He received little formal education but extended his knowledge through private reading. That gave him only a smattering of Latin, a deficiency that was to be a hindrance throughout his active life. At sixteen he was apprenticed in the studio of Andrea del Verrochio in Florence, where he received a training not only in art but in a wide variety of crafts and technical arts.
    In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan, where he sought and obtained employment with Ludovico Sforza, later Duke of Milan, partly to sculpt a massive equestrian statue of Ludovico but the work never progressed beyond the full-scale model stage. He did, however, complete the painting which became known as the Virgin of the Rocks and in 1497 his greatest artistic achievement, The Last Supper, commissioned jointly by Ludovico and the friars of Santa Maria della Grazie and painted on the wall of the monastery's refectory. Leonardo was responsible for the court pageants and also devised a system of irrigation to supply water to the plains of Lombardy. In 1499 the French army entered Milan and deposed Leonardo's employer. Leonardo departed and, after a brief visit to Mantua, returned to Florence, where for a time he was employed as architect and engineer to Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna. Around 1504 he completed another celebrated work, the Mona Lisa.
    In 1506 Leonardo began his second sojourn in Milan, this time in the service of King Louis XII of France, who appointed him "painter and engineer". In 1513 Leonardo left for Rome in the company of his pupil Francesco Melzi, but his time there was unproductive and he found himself out of touch with the younger artists active there, Michelangelo above all. In 1516 he accepted with relief an invitation from King François I of France to reside at the small château of St Cloux in the royal domain of Amboise. With the pension granted by François, Leonardo lived out his remaining years in tranquility at St Cloux.
    Leonardo's career can hardly be regarded as a success or worthy of such a towering genius. For centuries he was known only for the handful of artistic works that he managed to complete and have survived more or less intact. His main activity remained hidden until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, during which the contents of his notebooks were gradually revealed. It became evident that Leonardo was one of the greatest scientific investigators and inventors in the history of civilization. Throughout his working life he extended a searching curiosity over an extraordinarily wide range of subjects. The notes show careful investigation of questions of mechanical and civil engineering, such as power transmission by means of pulleys and also a form of chain belting. The notebooks record many devices, such as machines for grinding and polishing lenses, a lathe operated by treadle-crank, a rolling mill with conical rollers and a spinning machine with pinion and yard divider. Leonardo made an exhaustive study of the flight of birds, with a view to designing a flying machine, which obsessed him for many years.
    Leonardo recorded his observations and conclusions, together with many ingenious inventions, on thousands of pages of manuscript notes, sketches and drawings. There are occasional indications that he had in mind the publication of portions of the notes in a coherent form, but he never diverted his energy into putting them in order; instead, he went on making notes. As a result, Leonardo's impact on the development of science and technology was virtually nil. Even if his notebooks had been copied and circulated, there were daunting impediments to their understanding. Leonardo was left-handed and wrote in mirror-writing: that is, in reverse from right to left. He also used his own abbreviations and no punctuation.
    At his death Leonardo bequeathed his entire output of notes to his friend and companion Francesco Melzi, who kept them safe until his own death in 1570. Melzi left the collection in turn to his son Orazio, whose lack of interest in the arts and sciences resulted in a sad period of dispersal which endangered their survival, but in 1636 the bulk of them, in thirteen volumes, were assembled and donated to the Ambrosian Library in Milan. These include a large volume of notes and drawings compiled from the various portions of the notebooks and is now known as the Codex Atlanticus. There they stayed, forgotten and ignored, until 1796, when Napoleon's marauding army overran Italy and art and literary works, including the thirteen volumes of Leonardo's notebooks, were pillaged and taken to Paris. After the war in 1815, the French government agreed to return them but only the Codex Atlanticus found its way back to Milan; the rest remained in Paris. The appendix to one notebook, dealing with the flight of birds, was later regarded as of sufficient importance to stand on its own. Four small collections reached Britain at various times during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; of these, the volume in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle is notable for its magnificent series of anatomical drawings. Other collections include the Codex Leicester and Codex Arundel in the British Museum in London, and the Madrid Codices in Spain.
    Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Leonardo's true stature as scientist, engineer and inventor began to emerge, particularly with the publication of transcriptions and translations of his notebooks. The volumes in Paris appeared in 1881–97 and the Codex Atlanticus was published in Milan between 1894 and 1904.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    "Premier peintre, architecte et mécanicien du Roi" to King François I of France, 1516.
    Further Reading
    E.MacCurdy, 1939, The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, 2 vols, London; 2nd edn, 1956, London (the most extensive selection of the notes, with an English translation).
    G.Vasari (trans. G.Bull), 1965, Lives of the Artists, London: Penguin, pp. 255–271.
    C.Gibbs-Smith, 1978, The Inventions of Leonardo da Vinci, Oxford: Phaidon. L.H.Heydenreich, Dibner and L. Reti, 1981, Leonardo the Inventor, London: Hutchinson.
    I.B.Hart, 1961, The World of Leonardo da Vinci, London: Macdonald.
    LRD / IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Leonardo da Vinci

  • 120 Levers (Leavers), John

    SUBJECT AREA: Textiles
    [br]
    fl. 1812–21 England
    d. after 1821 Rouen, France
    [br]
    English improver of lace-making machines that formed the basis for many later developments.
    [br]
    John Heathcote had shown that it was possible to make lace by machine with his patents of 1808 and 1809. His machines were developed and improved by John Levers. Levers was originally a hosiery frame-smith and setter-up at Sutton-in-Ashfield but moved to Nottingham, where he extended his operations to the construction of point-net and warp-lace machinery. In the years 1812 and 1813 he more or less isolated himself in the garret of a house in Derby Road, where he assembled his lacemaking machine by himself. He was helped by two brothers and a nephew who made parts, but they saw it only when it was completed. Financial help for making production machines came from the firm of John Stevenson \& Skipwith, lace manufacturers in Nottingham. Levers never sought a patent, as he was under the mistaken impression that additions or improvements to an existing patented machine could not be protected. An early example of the machine survives at the Castle Museum in Nottingham. Although his prospects must have seemed good, for some reason Levers dissolved his partnership with Stevenson \& Co. and continued to work on improving his machine. In 1817 he altered it from the horizontal to the upright position, building many of the machines each year. He was a friendly, kind-hearted man, but he seems to have been unable to apply himself to his business, preferring the company of musicians—he was a bandmaster of the local militia—and was soon frequently without money, even to buy food for his family. He emigrated in 1821 to Rouen, France, where he set up his lace machines and where he subsequently died; when or in what circumstances is unknown. His machine continued to be improved and was adapted to work with the Jacquard mechanism to select the pattern.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    W.Felkin, 1967, History of the Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures, reprint, Newton Abbot (orig. pub. 1867) (the main account of the Levers machine).
    W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (a brief account of the Levers lace machine).
    D.M.Smith, 1965, Industrial Archaeology of the East Midlands, Dawlish (includes an illustration of Levers's machine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Levers (Leavers), John

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