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101 발음기관
n. speech apparatus, vocal organs -
102 mál-gögn
n. pl. the speech organs, Bs. i. 372, Leiðarv. 2. -
103 mál-laki
a, m. a defect, of the speech organs; var mikill m. á ráði hennar, hón hafði ekki mál, ok var með því alin, Fb. i. 250. -
104 mállaki
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105 परिपूर्ण
pari-pūrṇamfn. quite full Kauṡ. ;
completely filled orﾠ covered with, occupied by (comp.) MBh. R. etc.;
accomplished, perfect, whole, complete ib. ;
fully satisfied, content R. ;
- candra-vimala-prabha m. N. of a Samādhi L. ;
- tā f. - tva n. completion, fulness, satiety, satisfaction L. ;
- bhāshin mfn. speaking perfectly i.e. very wisely R. ;
- mānasa mfn. satisfied in mind R. ;
- mukha mf (ī)n. having the face entirely covered orﾠ smeared orﾠ painted with (comp.) Caurap. ;
- sahasra-candra-vatī f. « possessing a thousand full moons»,
N. of Indra's wife L. ;
- vyañjanatā f. having the sexual organs complete (one of the 80 secondary marks of a Buddha) Dharmas. LXXXIV, 24 ;
-ṇâ̱rtha mfn. having attained one's aim R. ;
full of meaning, wise (as a speech) MBh. R. ;
- ṇêndu m. the full moon Mṛicch.
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106 विवृत
vi-vṛitamfn. uncovered, unconcealed, exposed, naked, bare MBh. Kāv. etc.;
unhurt, woundless MBh. IV, 2027 ;
unclosed, open ĀṡvGṛ. Up. Prāt. MBh. etc. ( alsoﾠ applied to the organs in speaking andﾠ to the articulation of partic. sounds, = vivṛita-prayatnôpêta Ṡaṃk. on ChUp. II, 22, 5 ;
superl. - tama, APrāt.);
extensive, large, wide W. ;
( alsoﾠ vī-vṛita) unfolded, exposed, revealed, explained, divulged, public, manifest, evident, known MBh. VarBṛS. etc.;
opened i.e. presented, offered (as an opportunity) BhP. ;
(am) ind. openly, publicly, in the sight of every one MBh. ;
(ā) f. a partic. disease, an ulcer attended with much pain andﾠ heat Suṡr. ;
a species of plant ib. ;
n. the bare ground MBh. Hariv. ;
publicity (loc. « in public» orﾠ « straight out») MBh. IV, 34, 4 ;
(in gram.) open articulation, approach of the tongue towards the organ of speech but without contact;
- tā f. the being known, publicity (acc. with gam, to become known orﾠ public) R. ;
- dvāra mfn. « open-gated», unchecked, unbounded (sorrow) Kum. ;
- paurusha mfn. one whose prowess is displayed, displaying valour Mn. VII, 102 ;
- bhāva mfn. open-hearted, candid, sincere, Mālatim. ;
- vat mfn. one who has opened Kathās. ;
- snāna n. bathing publicly PārGṛ. ;
- smayana n. an open smile (i.e. one in which the mouth is sufficiently open to show the teeth) ĀṡvṠr. ;
-tâ̱ksha m. openeyed, a cock L. (cf. vi-vṛittâ̱ksha);
-tâ̱nana mfn. open-mouthed (- tva n.) Ragh. ;
-tâ̱sya mfn. id. MW. ;
- tôkti f. open orﾠ explicit expression (opp. to gūḍhôkti) Kuval
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107 संयत
sáṉ-yatamfn. held together, held in, held fast etc.;
self-contained, self-controlled with regard to (loc. instr., orﾠ comp.) Gaut. MBh. etc.;
tied together, bound up, fettered, confined, imprisoned, captive Mn. MBh. etc.;
shut up, closed (opp. to vy-ātta) AV. ;
kept in order ( seeﾠ comp.);
suppressed, subdued MBh. ;
= udyata, prepared, ready to (inf.) Hariv. ;
m. « one who controls himself»
N. of Ṡiva MBh. ;
- cetas mfn. controlled in mind MW. ;
-prâ̱ṇa mfn. having the breath suppressed orﾠ having the organs restrained ib. ;
- mānasa mfn. (= - cetas) ib. ;
- mukha mf (ī)n. (= - vāc) Mṛicch. ;
- maithuna mfn. one who abstains from sexual intercourse MBh. ;
- vat mfn. self-controlled, self-possessed Hariv. ;
- vastra mfn. having the dress orﾠ clothes fastened orﾠ tied together Bhartṛ. ;
- vāc mfn. restrained in speech, taciturn, silent MW. ;
-tâ̱ksha mfn. having the eyes closed BhP. ;
-tâ̱ñjali mfn. having the hands joined together in entreaty (= baddhôñjali) MW. ;
-tâ̱tman mfn. (= - ta-cetas) Mn. XI, 236 ;
-tâ̱hāra mfn. temperate in eating MBh. ;
- têndriya mfn. having the senses orﾠ passions controlled ib. ;
- tôpaskara mfn. having the household utensils kept in order Yājñ.
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108 ♦ organ
♦ organ /ˈɔ:gən/n.1 organo ( anche fig.): speech organs, gli organi della fonazione; sense organ, organo sensorio; a vital organ, un organo vitale; (mus.) electric organ, organo elettrico; The Cabinet is an organ of government, il Gabinetto è un organo di governo3 organismo; ente● (mus.) organ bellows, mantici dell'organo □ organ blower, suonatore d'organo □ organ builder, fabbricante d'organi □ organ-grinder, suonatore ambulante d'organino; (fig.) chi comanda □ organ loft, galleria (o tribuna) dell'organo ( nelle chiese) □ organ pipe, canna d'organo □ organ stop, registro d'organo. -
109 part
1. noun1) (something which, together with other things, makes a whole; a piece: We spent part of the time at home and part at the seaside.) daļa2) (an equal division: He divided the cake into three parts.) daļa3) (a character in a play etc: She played the part of the queen.) loma4) (the words, actions etc of a character in a play etc: He learned his part quickly.) loma5) (in music, the notes to be played or sung by a particular instrument or voice: the violin part.) partija6) (a person's share, responsibility etc in doing something: He played a great part in the government's decision.) loma2. verb(to separate; to divide: They parted (from each other) at the gate.) šķirt; dalīt; atvadīties- parting- partly
- part-time
- in part
- part company
- part of speech
- part with
- take in good part
- take someone's part
- take part in* * *daļa; orgāns, daļa; līdzdalība; puse; loma; apvidus, puse; dotības, spējas; celiņš; matu celiņš; detaļa; balss, partija; atdalīt, sadalīt; sadalīties, atdalīties; izšķirt; atvadīties, šķirties; šķirt celiņu; pa daļai, daļēji -
110 survive
1) преодолевать (испытания, трагедию), сохраниться, остаться в живых ( перевод зависит от контекста)1. She survived five skin-replacement surgeries, but was unable to overcome the assault to her vital organs and immune system, doctors said (International Herald Tribune). — Ей было сделано пять операций по пересадке кожи. По словам врачей, смерть наступила в результате поражения жизненно важных органов и иммунной системы.
2. Не/she is survived by… — Выражаем соболезнование родным и близким покойного… (далее следует список родных и близких, указывается в некрологах)
3. Few enough letters between the two men survive - Сохранилось не так уж много писем, написанных ими друг другу. (Simon Winchester. The Professor and the Madman.)
4. In 1897, for instance, his notes survive for a speech he was to give … at the Philological Society. (Simon Winchester. The Professor and the Madman.)
2) сохранять актуальность (часто употребляется в юриспруденции.)This confidentiality clause shall survive for two years after the expiry or termination of this Agreement -– Настоящее условии о конфиденциальности сохраняет силу в течение двух лет после истечения срока или расторжения настоящего Договора.
The English annotation is below. (English-Russian) > survive
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111 survive
•• survive, survivor
•• Survive 1. to continue to live or exist. 2. to live or exist longer than, to remain alive or in existence after (Oxford American Dictionary).
•• Частое употребление этого слова в английских текстах наводит на следующую мысль. Язык подобен огромному складу, где на стеллажах разложены слова, обороты, фразеологические сочетания, идиомы, поговорки, цитаты и т.д. Одни стеллажи стоят ближе к входу, к ним достаточно протянуть руку. Другие – подальше, третьи – в темных углах. Особенно часто употребляемые слова можно сравнить с предметами, лежащими на ближних полках. Если надо описать какую-нибудь ситуацию, обращаются скорее всего к ним. В другом языке ту же ситуацию опишут без этих слов. Впрочем, менее образно, но, может быть, лучше и короче выразил ту же, в сущности, мысль В.Г.Гак в замечательной книге «Сопоставительная лексикология»: «Некоторые понятия либо аспекты действительности оказываются первоочередными, ближайшими для говорящих на данном языке. Слова, обозначающие эти аспекты и понятия, составляют наиболее многочисленную и детализированную группу. Они наиболее употребительны, становятся базой для обозначения других понятий, поскольку при наименовании мысль идет от более привычного и знакомого к незнакомому».
•• Возьмем слова survive и выжить, уцелеть. Русские слова явно не с ближайшей полки, и если по-английски естественно сказать: The President spoke to the survivors of the crash, то по-русски мы скажем, скорее всего, с пострадавшими. Вот предложение из International Herald Tribune: She survived five skin-replacement surgeries, but was unable to overcome the assault to her vital organs and immune system, doctors said. Дословный перевод ( Она пережила пять операций и т.д.) выглядит нелепо. По-русски журналист, видимо, описал бы эту ситуацию так: Ей было сделано пять операций по пересадке кожи. По словам врачей, смерть наступила в результате поражения жизненно важных органов и иммунной системы. (Кстати, русское пережить далеко не всегда равно to survive: разговорное Я этого не переживу по-английски будет This will kill me.) Конечно, не будет большой беды, если из-за недостатка времени устный переводчик не найдет наиболее естественного русского варианта. И все же стоит иметь наготове такие, например, слова, как преодолевать (испытания, трагедию и т.п.), сохраниться, остаться в живых. А когда о человеке говорят He is a survivor, то имеют в виду ему ничего не страшно, он непотопляем.
•• И еще одна особенность. В некрологах в английской и американской печати всегда указывается: He/she is survived by... (и дальше идет перечень членов семьи покойного). У нас давать эти сведения не принято. В переводе можно воспользоваться термином из сфер страхования и статистики пережившие родственники. Можно прибегнуть и к такому варианту: Выражаем соболезнование родным и близким покойного... (и далее перечень).
•• * Соответствие to survive – сохраниться представляется довольно устойчивым (и это полезно учитывать в переводе как с английского, так и с русского) и нередко более точным, чем сохраниться – to be preserved. Последнее – не столько сохраниться, сколько быть сохраненным – обычно в результате целенаправленных усилий.
•• Вот два интересных примера из книги Саймона Уинчестера The Professor and the Madman:
•• Few enough letters between the two men survive. – Сохранилось не так уж много писем, написанных ими друг другу. In 1897, for instance, his notes survive for a speech he was to give <...> at the Philological Society. (Синтаксис этого предложения кажется несколько странным, но так в тексте.) - Например, сохранились подготовленные им в 1897 году тезисы к выступлению в Филологическом обществе.
•• В юридических текстах (договорах, контрактах) встречается такое употребление:
•• This confidentiality clause shall survive for two years after the expiry or termination of this Agreement. – Настоящее условие о конфиденциальности сохраняет силу в течение двух лет после истечения срока или расторжения настоящего Договора.
•• Что касается причастия сохранившийся, то в переводе некоторых текстов может подойти редкое, но вполне живое прилагательное extant:
•• The oldest extant editions of the letters of St. Paul. The extant portraits of this great man. This building is no longer extant.
•• Cогласно American Heritage Dictionary, extant – still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct. Другие значения этого слова устарели.
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112 survivor
•• survive, survivor
•• Survive 1. to continue to live or exist. 2. to live or exist longer than, to remain alive or in existence after (Oxford American Dictionary).
•• Частое употребление этого слова в английских текстах наводит на следующую мысль. Язык подобен огромному складу, где на стеллажах разложены слова, обороты, фразеологические сочетания, идиомы, поговорки, цитаты и т.д. Одни стеллажи стоят ближе к входу, к ним достаточно протянуть руку. Другие – подальше, третьи – в темных углах. Особенно часто употребляемые слова можно сравнить с предметами, лежащими на ближних полках. Если надо описать какую-нибудь ситуацию, обращаются скорее всего к ним. В другом языке ту же ситуацию опишут без этих слов. Впрочем, менее образно, но, может быть, лучше и короче выразил ту же, в сущности, мысль В.Г.Гак в замечательной книге «Сопоставительная лексикология»: «Некоторые понятия либо аспекты действительности оказываются первоочередными, ближайшими для говорящих на данном языке. Слова, обозначающие эти аспекты и понятия, составляют наиболее многочисленную и детализированную группу. Они наиболее употребительны, становятся базой для обозначения других понятий, поскольку при наименовании мысль идет от более привычного и знакомого к незнакомому».
•• Возьмем слова survive и выжить, уцелеть. Русские слова явно не с ближайшей полки, и если по-английски естественно сказать: The President spoke to the survivors of the crash, то по-русски мы скажем, скорее всего, с пострадавшими. Вот предложение из International Herald Tribune: She survived five skin-replacement surgeries, but was unable to overcome the assault to her vital organs and immune system, doctors said. Дословный перевод ( Она пережила пять операций и т.д.) выглядит нелепо. По-русски журналист, видимо, описал бы эту ситуацию так: Ей было сделано пять операций по пересадке кожи. По словам врачей, смерть наступила в результате поражения жизненно важных органов и иммунной системы. (Кстати, русское пережить далеко не всегда равно to survive: разговорное Я этого не переживу по-английски будет This will kill me.) Конечно, не будет большой беды, если из-за недостатка времени устный переводчик не найдет наиболее естественного русского варианта. И все же стоит иметь наготове такие, например, слова, как преодолевать (испытания, трагедию и т.п.), сохраниться, остаться в живых. А когда о человеке говорят He is a survivor, то имеют в виду ему ничего не страшно, он непотопляем.
•• И еще одна особенность. В некрологах в английской и американской печати всегда указывается: He/she is survived by... (и дальше идет перечень членов семьи покойного). У нас давать эти сведения не принято. В переводе можно воспользоваться термином из сфер страхования и статистики пережившие родственники. Можно прибегнуть и к такому варианту: Выражаем соболезнование родным и близким покойного... (и далее перечень).
•• * Соответствие to survive – сохраниться представляется довольно устойчивым (и это полезно учитывать в переводе как с английского, так и с русского) и нередко более точным, чем сохраниться – to be preserved. Последнее – не столько сохраниться, сколько быть сохраненным – обычно в результате целенаправленных усилий.
•• Вот два интересных примера из книги Саймона Уинчестера The Professor and the Madman:
•• Few enough letters between the two men survive. – Сохранилось не так уж много писем, написанных ими друг другу. In 1897, for instance, his notes survive for a speech he was to give <...> at the Philological Society. (Синтаксис этого предложения кажется несколько странным, но так в тексте.) - Например, сохранились подготовленные им в 1897 году тезисы к выступлению в Филологическом обществе.
•• В юридических текстах (договорах, контрактах) встречается такое употребление:
•• This confidentiality clause shall survive for two years after the expiry or termination of this Agreement. – Настоящее условие о конфиденциальности сохраняет силу в течение двух лет после истечения срока или расторжения настоящего Договора.
•• Что касается причастия сохранившийся, то в переводе некоторых текстов может подойти редкое, но вполне живое прилагательное extant:
•• The oldest extant editions of the letters of St. Paul. The extant portraits of this great man. This building is no longer extant.
•• Cогласно American Heritage Dictionary, extant – still in existence; not destroyed, lost, or extinct. Другие значения этого слова устарели.
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113 διαλεκτικός
2 δ. ὄργανα organs of articulate speech, opp. φωνητικά, Gal.16.204.II skilled in dialectic, ;ἦ καὶ δ. καλεῖς τὸν λόγον ἑκάστου λαμβάνοντα τῆς οὐσίας; Id.R. 534b
; dialectical, Arist. Metaph. 995b23;δ. συλλογισμός Id.Top. 100a22
; πρὸς τοὺς δ., title of work by Metrodorus, D.L.10.24, cf. Phld.Rh.1.279 S., al.III ἡ διαλεκτική (sc. τέχνη) dialectic, discussion by question and answer, invented by Zeno of Elea, Arist.Fr.65; philosophical method,ὥσπερ θριγκὸς τοῖς μαθήμασιν ἡ δ. ἐπάνω κεῖται Pl.R. 534e
: ; περὶ -κῆς, title of work by Cleanthes, D.L.7.174.Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > διαλεκτικός
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114 ὀργανικός
A serving as organs or instruments, instrumental, esp. of the several parts of the body, Arist.PA 646b26: distd. from τὰ κινητικά, Id.GA 742b10 ;τὰ ὀ. μέρη Id.EN 1110a16
, cf. PA 661b29, GA 739b14, al. ; αἱ ὀ. [ἀρεταί], of a slave, Id.Pol. 1259b23 ;ὀ. καὶ μηχανικαὶ κατασκευαί Plu.2.718f
; esp. of war-engines,ἡ ὀ. βία D.S.17.43
;ὀ. κατασκευαί Onos.42.3
: metaph., ὁ ὀ. εἰς πλήθη λόγος speech which is brought to bear on the mob, Plu.Cat.Mi.4 ; of musicians, practical, opp. λογικοί (theoretical), Id.2.657e ;ἐποιεῖτο ἀκροάσεις λογικάς τε καὶ ὀ. Supp.Epigr.2.184.6
(Tanagra, ii B.C.) ; so of surgeons,τῶν ὀ. οἱ διασημότεροι PMed.Lond.155.2.13
; ἡ ὀ. (sc. τέχνη) Plu.Marc.14 ; but ὀργανικός, = λογικός, logical, Elias in Porph.115.17. Adv.- κῶς
by way of instruments,Arist.
EN 1099b28;- κώτερον
making more use of instruments,Simp.
in Cael.504.33 ;τὸ κινοῦν ὀ. Arist.de An. 433b21
.Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > ὀργανικός
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115 Knowledge
It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)"Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge
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