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1 CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2002.■ Cunhal, Alvaro. A Revolução Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Dias, Eduardo Mayone. Portugal's Secret Jews: The End of an Era. Rumford, R.I.: Peregrinação Publications, 1999.■ Downs, Charles. "Comissões de Moradores and Urban Struggles in Revolutionary Portugal." International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 4 (1986): 267-94.■. Revolution at the Grassroots: Community Organizations in the Portuguese Revolution. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.■ Dufour, Jean-Marc. Prague sur Tage. Paris, 1975.■ Durão Barroso, José. Le systémepolitiqueportugais face à l'intégration euro-péenne. Lisbon, 1983.■ Eisfeid, Rainer. "Portugal: What Role/What Future?" In K. Maxwell, ed., Portugal Ten Years after the Revolution. New York: RIIC, Columbia University, 1984.■. Sozialistischer Pluralismus in Europa: Ansãtze und Scheitern am Beispiel Portugal. Cologne: Verlag Wissenchaft ünd Politik, 1985.■. "Portugal and Western Europe." In K. Maxwell, ed., Portugal in the 1980s, 29-62. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■ Farinha, Luis. "Regresso a Europa. Uma opcao feliz." Historia. XXIX; 95, III series (March 2007), 23-33.■ Faye, Jean-Pierre, ed. Portugal: The Revolution in the Labyrinth. Nottingham, U.K.: Spokesman, 1976. Ferreira, Hugo Gil, and Michael W. Marshall. Portugal's Revolution: Ten Years On. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Figueira, João Costa. Cavaco Silva: Homem de Estado. Lisbon, 1987. Filoche, Gérard. Printemps Portugais. Paris: Editions Action, 1984. Frémontier, Jacques. Os Pontos nos ii. Lisbon, 1976. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. 25 de Abril-10 anos depois. Lisbon, 1984. Futscher Pereira, Bernardo. "Portugal and Spain." In K. Maxwell, ed. Portugal in the 1980s, 63-87. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■ Gama, Jaime. Política Externa Portuguesa 1983-85: Ministério dos Negôcios Estrangeiros. Lisbon, 1986.■. "Preface." In J. Calvet de Magalhães, A. de Vasconcelos, and J. Ramos Silva, eds., Portugal: An Atlantic Paradox, 9-11. Lisbon, 1990. Gaspar, Jorge, and Nuno Vitorino. As Eleições De 25 De Abril: Geografia E Imagem Dos Partidos. Lisbon, 1976.■. "10 Anos de Democracia: Reflexos na geografia política." In E. de Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opelio, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal 1974-1984/ Conflitos e Mudanças em Portugal, 1974-1984, 135-55. Lisbon, 1985.■, et al. As Eleições para assembleia da república, 1979-1983: Estudos de geografia eleitoral. Lisbon, 1984. Gaspar, Jorge, and Nuno Vitorino, eds. Portugal em mapas e em números. Lisbon, 1981.■ Giaccone, Fausto. Una Storia Portoghese/ Uma História Portuguesa. Palermo: Randazzo Focus, 1987.■ Gladdish, Ken. "Portugal: An Open Verdict." In Geoffrey Pridham, ed. Securing Democracy: Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe, 104-25. London and New York: Routledge, 1990.■ Graham, Lawrence S. The Decline and Collapse of an Authoritarian Order. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1975.■, and Harry M. Makler, eds. Contemporary Portugal: The Revolution and Its Antecedents. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.■, and Douglas L. Wheeler, eds. In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Grayson, George W. "Portugal and the Armed Forces Movement." Orbis XIX, 2 (Summer 1975): 335-78.■ Green, Gil. Portugal's Revolution. New York: International, 1976.■ Hammond, John L. Building Popular Power: Workers' and Neighborhood Movements in the Portuguese Revolution. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988.■ Harsgor, Michael. Naissance d'un Nouveau Portugal. Paris: Ed. du Seuil, 1975.■. Portugal in Revolution. Washington, D.C.: CSIS and Sage, 1976.■ Harvey, Robert. Portugal, Birth of a Democracy. London: Macmillan, 1978.■ Herr, Richard, ed. Portugal: The Long Road to Democracy and Europe. Berkeley, Calif.: International and Area Studies, 1992.■ Insight Team of the Sunday [London] Times. Insight on Portugal: The Year of the Captains. London: Deutsch, 1975.■ Janitschek, Hans. Mario Soares: Portrait of a Hero. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985.■ Keefe, Eugene K., et al. Area Handbook for Portugal, 1st ed. Washington, D.C.: Foreign Area Studies of American University, 1977. Kramer, Jane. "A Reporter at Large: The Portuguese Revolution." The New Yorker (Dec. 15, 1975): 92-131.■ Lauré, Jason, and Ettagal Lauré. Jovem Portugal: After the Revolution. New York: Straus, Farrar and Giroux, 1977.■ Livermore, H. V. A New History of Portugal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.■ Lourenço, Eduardo. Os Militares e O Poder. Lisbon, 1975.■. O Fascismo Nunca Existiu. Lisbon, 1976.■. "Identidade e Memôria: o caso português." In E. de Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opello, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal, 1974-l 984, 17-22. Lisbon, 1985.■ Lucena, Manuel. Evolução e Instituições: A Extinção dos Grémios da Lavoura Alentejanos. Mem Martins, 1984.■. "A herança de duas revoluções." In M. Baptista Coelho, ed., Portugal: O Sistema Político e Constitucional, 1974-87, 505-55. Lisbon, 1989.■ Macedo, Jorge Braga de, and S. Serfaty. Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives. New York: Praeger, 1981.■ Magone, José M. European Portugal: The Difficult Road to Sustainable Democracy. New York: St. Martin's, 1997. Mailer, Phil. Portugal: The Impossible Revolution. London: Solidarity, 1977. Manta, João Abel. Cartoons/ 1969-1975. Lisbon, 1975.■ Manuel, Paul C. Uncertain Outcome: The Politics of Portugal's Transition to Democracy. Lanham, Md. and London: University Press of America, 1994.■ Mateus, Rui. Contos Proibidos. Memorias de Um PS Desconhecido, 3rd ed. Lisbon: Dom Quixote, 1996.■ Maxwell, Kenneth. "Portugal under Pressure." The New York Review of Books (May 2, 1974).■. "The Hidden Revolution in Portugal." The New York Review of Books (April 17, 1975).■. "The Thorns of the Portuguese Revolution." Foreign Affairs 54, 2 (Jan. 1976): 250-70.■. "The Communists and the Portuguese Revolution." Dissent 27, 2 (Spring 1980): 194-206.■. Portugal in the 1980s: Dilemmas of Democratic Consolidation. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■. The Making of Portuguese Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.■, ed. "Portugal: Toward the Twenty-First Century." Camoes Center Quarterly 5, 3-4 (Fall 1995): 6-55.■, ed. The Press and the Rebirth of Iberian Democracy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1983.■. Portugal Ten Years after the Revolution: Reports of Three Columbia University-Gulbenkian Workshops. New York: Research Institute on International Change, Columbia University, 1984.■ Maxwell, Kenneth, and Michael H. Haltzel, eds. Portugal: Ancient Country, Young Democracy. Washington, D.C.: Wilson Center Press, 1990.■ Medeiros Ferreira, José. Ensaio Histórico sobre a revolução do 25 de Abril. Lisbon, 1983.■ Medina, João, ed. Portugal De Abril: Do 25 Aos Nossos Dias. In Medina, ed., História Contemporãnea De Portugal. Lisbon, 1985. Merten, Peter. Anarchismus ünd Arbeiterkãmpf in Portugal. Hamburg: Libertare, 1981.■ Miranda, Jorge. Constituição e Democracia. Lisbon, 1976.■. A Constituição de 1976. Lisbon, 1978.■ Morrison, Rodney J. Portugal: Revolutionary Change in an Open Economy. Boston: Auburn House, 1981.■ Mujal-Leôn, Eusebio. "The PCP [Portuguese Communist Party] and the Portuguese Revolution." Problems of Communism 26 (Jan.- Feb. 1977): 21-41.■ Neves, Mário. Missão em Moscovo. Lisbon, 1986.■ Oliveira, César. M. F. A. e Revolução Socialista. Lisbon, 1975.■. Os Anos Decisivos: Portugal 1962-1985. Um testemunho. Lisbon: Presença, 1993.■ Opello, Waiter C., Jr. Portugal's Political Development: A Comparative Approach. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1985.■. Portugal: From Monarchy to Pluralist Democracy. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991.■ Pell, Senator Claiborne H. Portugal ( Including the Azores and Spain) in Search of New Directions: Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976.■ Pereira, J. Pacheco. "A Case of Orthodoxy: The Communist Party of Portugal." In Waller and Fenema, eds., Communist Parties in Western Europe: Adaptation or Decline? Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.■ Pilmott, Ben. "Socialism in Portugal: Was It a Revolution?" Government and Opposition 7 (Summer 1977).■. "Were the Soldiers Revolutionary? The Armed Forces Movement in Portugal, 1973-1976." Iberian Studies 7, 1 (1978): 13-21.■, and Jean Seaton. "Political Power and the Portuguese Media." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 43-57. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Porch, Douglas. The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution. London: Croom Helm and Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1977.■ Pouchin, Dominique. Portugal, quelle révolution? Paris, 1976.■ Pulido Valente, Vasco. "E Viva Otelo." In Pulido Valente, V., ed., O País das Maravilhas, 451-54. Lisbon, 1979 [anthology of articles from weekly Lisbon paper, Expresso].■. Estudos Sobre a Crise Nacional. Lisbon, 1980.■ Rebelo de Sousa, Marcelo. O Sistema de Governo Português antes e depois da Revisão Constitucional, 3rd ed. Lisbon, 1981. Rêgo, Raúl. Militares, Clérigos e Paisanos. Lisbon, 1981. Robinson, Richard A. H. Contemporary Portugal: A History. London: Allen & Unwin, 1979.■ Rodrigues, Avelino, Cesário Borga, and Mário Cardoso. O Movemento dos Capitães e o 25 de Abril. Lisbon, 1974.■. Portugal Depois De Abril. Lisbon, 1976.■ Ruas, H. B., ed. A Revolução das Flores. Lisbon, 1975.■ Rudel, Christian. La Liberte couleur d'oeillet. Paris: Fayard, 1980.■ Sa, Tiago Moreira de. Os Americanos na Revolucao Portuguesa ( 1974-1976). Lisbon: Edit. Noticias, 2004.■ Sá Carneiro, Francisco. Por Uma Social-Democracia Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Sanches Osôrio, Helena. Um Só Rosto. Uma Só Fé. Conversas Com Adelino Da Palma Carlos. Lisbon, 1988. Sanches Osôrio, J. The Betrayal of the 25th of April in Portugal. Madrid: Sedmay, 1975.■ Schmitter, Philippe C. "Liberation by Golpe: Retrospective Thoughts on the Demise of Authoritarian Rule in Portugal." Armed Forces and Society 2 (1974): 5-33.■. "An Introduction to Southern European Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Italy, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Turkey." In G. O'Donnell,■ P. C. Schmitter, and L. Whitehead, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, 3-10. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.■ Silva, Fernando Dioga da. "Uma Administração Envelhecido." Revista da Ad-ministraçao Pública 2 (Oct.-Dec. 1979).■ Simões, Martinho, ed. Relatório Do 25 De Novembro: Texto Integral, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1976.■ Soares, Isabel, ed. Mário Soares: O homem e o político. Lisbon, 1976. Soares, Mário. Democratização e Descolonização: Dez meses no Governo Provisório. Lisbon, 1975. Sobel, Lester A., ed. Portuguese Revolution, 1974-1976. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1976.■ Spínola, Antônio de. Portugal e o Futuro. Lisbon, 1974.■. País Sem Rumo: Contributo para a História de uma Revolução. Lisbon, 1978.■ Story, Jonathan. "Portugal's Revolution of Carnations: Patterns of Change and Continuity." International Affairs 52 (July 1976): 417-34. Sweezey, Paul. "Class Struggles in Portugal." Monthly Review 27, 4 (Sept. 1975): 1-26.■ Szulc, Tad. "Lisbon and Washington: Behind Portugal's Revolution." Foreign Policy 21 (Winter 1975-76): 3-62. Tavares de Almeida, Antônio. Balsemão: O retrato. Lisbon, 1981. "Vasco." Desenhos Políticos. Lisbon, 1974.■ Vasconcelos, Alvaro. "Portugal in Atlantic-Mediterranean Security." In Douglas T. Stuart, ed., Politics and Security in the Southern Region of the Atlantic Alliance, 117-36. London: Macmillan, 1988.■ Wheeler, Douglas L. "Golpes militares e golpes literários. A literatura do golpe de 25 de Abril de 1974 em contexto histôrico." Penélope. Fazer E Desfazer A História, 19-20 (1998): 191-212.■. "Tributo ao Historiador dos Historiadores. Memorias de A.H.de Oliveira Marques (1933-2007)," Historia XXIX, 95, III series (March 2007), 18-22.■ Wiarda, Howard J. Transcending Corporatism? The Portuguese Corporative System and the Revolution of 1974. Columbia: Institute of International Studies, University of South Carolina, 1976.■. The Transition to Democracy in Spain and Portugal. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1989. Wise, Audrey. Eyewitness in Revolutionary Portugal. With a Preface by Judith Hart, MP. London: Spokesman, 1975.■ PHYSICAL FEATURES: GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, FAUNA, AND FLORA■ Birot, Pierre. Le Portugal: Étude de géographie régionale. Paris, 1950.■ Embleton, Clifford. Geomorphology of Europe. London: Macmillan, 1984.■ Girão, Aristides de Amorim. Divisão regional, divisão agrícola e divisão administrativa. Coimbra, 1932.■. Condições geográficos e históricas de autonomia política de Portugal. Coimbra, 1935.■. Atlas de Portugal, 2nd ed. Coimbra, 1958.■ Ribeiro, Orlando. Portugal, O Mediterrâneo e o Altântico. Coimbra, 1945 and later eds.■. Portugal. Volume V of Geografia de Espana y Portugal. Barcelona, 1955.■. Ensaios de Geografia Humana e regio nal. Lisbon, 1970.■. A geografia e a divisão regional do país. Lisbon, 1970.■ Stanislawski, Dan. The Individuality of Portugal. Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1959.■. Portugal's Other Kingdom: The Algarve. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1963.■ Taylor, Albert William. Wild Flowers of Spain and Portugal. London: Chatto & Windus, 1972.■ Way, Ruth, and Margaret Simmons. A Geography of Spain and Portugal. London: Methuen, 1962.■ ARCHAEOLOGY AND PREHISTORY■ "Actas do Colóquio Inter-Universitário do Noroeste Peninsular (Porto-Baião, 1988), vol. II, Proto-História, romanização e Idade Média." In Trabalhos de antropologia e etnologia. 28, 3-4 (1988).■ Alarcão, Jorge de, ed. "Do Paleolítico va arte visigótica." Vol. 1, História da■ Arte em Portugal. Lisbon: Alfa, 1986.■. Roman Portugal, 3 vols. Warminister, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■. Portugal Das Orígens A Romanização. Vol. I. In J. Serrão and A. H. de Oliveira Marques, eds. Nova História de Portugal. Lisbon: Presença, 1990. Anderson, James M., and M. S. Lea. Portugal 1001 Sights: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary and Robert Hale, 1994.■ Balmuth, Miriam S., Antonio Gilman, and Lourdes Prados-Torreira, eds. Encounters and Transformations: The Archaeology of Iberia in Transition. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology, no. 7. Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.■ Beirão, C. M. M. Une civilization protohistorique du Sud au Portugal ( 1er Age du Fer). Paris: D. Boccard, 1986.■ Cardoso, João Luís, Santinho A. Cunha, and Delberto Aguiar. O Homem Pre-Histórico no Concelho de Oeiras. Oeiras, Portugal: Estudos Arquelógicos de Oeiras, 1991.■ Harrison, Richard J. The Bell Beaker Cultures of Spain and Portugal. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977.■ Mangas, Júlio, ed. Hispania epigraphica. Madrid, 1989.■ Maloney, Stephanie J. "The Villa of Toerre de Palma, Portugal: Archaeology and Preservation." Portuguese Studies Review VIII, 1 (Fall-Winter, 1999-2000): 14-28.■ Savory, H. N. Spain and Portugal: The Prehistory of the Iberian Peninsula. London, 1968.■ Silva, A. C. F. A cultura castreja no Noroeste de Portugal. Paços de Ferreira:■ Museu da Citânia de Sanfins, 1986. Straus, L. G. Iberia before the Iberians. Albuquerque, N.M., 1992.■ FOREIGN TRAVELERS AND RESIDENTS' ACCOUNTS■ Andersen, Hans Christian. A Visit to Portugal 1866. London: Peter Owen, 1972.■ Beckford, William. Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal. Paris: Baudry's European Library, 1834.■ Boyd Alexander, ed. London: Hart-Davies, 1954.■. Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcoboca and Batalha. Fontwell, U.K.: Centaur Press, 1972.■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. In Portugal. London: Bodley Head, 1912.■ Borrow, George. The Bible in Spain, 2 vols. London: Constable, 1923 ed.■ Chaves, Castelo Branco. Os livros de viagens em Portugal no século XVIII e a sua projecção europeia. Lisbon, 1977.■ Costigan, Arthur William. Sketches of Society and Manners in Portugal. London: T. Vernon, 1787.■ Crawfurd, Oswald. Portugal Old and New. London: Kegan, Paul, 1880.■. Round the Calendar in Portugal. London: Chapman & Hall, 1890.■ Darymple, William. Travels through Spain and Portugal in 1774. London: J. Almon, 1777.■ Dumouriez, Charles Francois Duperrier. An Account of Portugal as It Appeared in 1766. London: C. Law, 1797.■ Fielding, Henry. Jonathan Wild and the Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon. London: J. M. Dent, 1932.■ Fullerton, Alice. To Portugal for Pleasure. London: Grafton, 1945.■ Gibbons, John. I Gathered No Moss. London: Robert Hale, 1939.■ Gordon, Jan, and Cora Gordon. Portuguese Somersault. London: Harrap, 1934.■ Hewitt, Richard. A Cottage in Portugal. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.■ Huggett, Frank. South of Lisbon: Winter Travels in Southern Portugal. London: Gollancz, 1960.■ Hume, Martin. Through Portugal. London: Richards, 1907.■ Hyland, Paul. Backwards Out of the Big World: A Voyage into Portugal. Hammersmith, U.K.: HarperCollins, 1996.■ Jackson, Catherine Charlotte, Lady. Fair Lusitania. London: Bentley, 1874.■ Kelly, Marie Node. This Delicious Land Portugal. London: Hutchinson, 1956.■ Kempner, Mary Jean. Invitation to Portugal. New York: Athenaeum, 1969.■ Kingston, William H. G. Lusitanian Sketches of the Pen and Pencil. 2 vol. London: Parker, 1845.■ Landmann, George. Historical, Military and Picturesque Observations on Portugal. 2 vol. London: Cadell and Davies, 1818.■ Latouche, John [Pseudonym of Oswald Crawfurd]. Travels in Portugal. London: Ward, Lock & Taylor, ca. 1874.■ Link, Henry Frederick. Travels in Portugal and France and Spain. London: Longman & Rees, 1801.■ Macauley, Rose. They Went to Portugal. London: Jonathan Cape, 1946.■. They Went to Portugal, Too. Manchester: Carcanet Books, 1990.■ Merle, Iris. Portuguese Panorama. London: Ouzel, 1958.■ Murphy, J. C. Travels in Portugal. London: 1795.■ Proper, Datus C. The Last Old Place: A Search through Portugal. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.■ Quillinan, Dorothy [Wordsworth]. Journal of a Few Months in Portugal with Glimpses of the South of Spain. 2 vol. London: Moxon, 1847. Sitwell, Sacheverell. Portugal and Madeira. London: Batsford, 1954. Smith, Karine R. Until Tomorrow: Azores and Portugal. Snohomish, Wash.: Snohomish Publishing, 1978. Southey, Robert. Journals of a Residence in Portugal, 1800-1801 and a Visit to France, 1838. London and New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1912. Thomas, Gordon Kent. Lord Byron's Iberian Pilgrimage. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1983. Twiss, Richard. Travels through Portugal and Spain in 1772-1773. London, 1775.■ Watson, Gilbert. Sunshine and Sentiment in Portugal. London: Arnold, 1904. Wheeler, Douglas L. "A[n American] Fulbrighter in Lisbon, Portugal, 196162." Portuguese Studies Review 1 (1991): 9-16.■ PORTUGUESE CARTOGRAPHY, DISCOVERIES, AND NAVIGATION■ Albuquerque, Luís de. Curso de História de Naútica. Coimbra, 1972.■. Introdução a história dos descobrimentos, 3rd ed. Mem Martins, 1983.■. Os Descobrimentos Portugueses. Lisbon: Alfa, 1983.■. Portuguese Books on Nautical Science from Pedro Nunes to 1650. Lisbon, 1984.■. Os Descobrimentos Portugueses. Lisbon, 1985.■ Boorstin, Daniel. The Discoverers. New York: Random House, 1983. Boxer, C. R. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825. London: Hutchinson, 1969.■ Brazão, Eduardo. La découverte de Terre-Neuve. Montreal: Les Presses de l'Université, 1964.■. "Les Corte-Real et le Nouveau Monde." Revue d'histoire d'Amérique Française 19, 1 (1965): 335-49. Cortesão, Armando, and Avelino Teixeira de Mota. Cartografia Portuguesa Antiga. Lisbon, 1960.■. Portugalia Monumenta Cartográfica, 6 vols. Lisbon, 1960-62.■. História da Cartografia Portuguesa, 2 vols. Coimbra, 1969-70.■ Cortesão, Jaime. L'expansion des portugais dans l'historie de la civilisation. Brussels, 1930.■. Os descobrimentos portugueses, 2 vols. V. Magalhães Godinho and Joel Serrão, eds. Lisbon, 1960.■. A expansão dos Portugueses no período henriquinho. Lisbon, 1965.■. Descobrimentos precolombanos dos portugueses. Lisbon, 1966.■ Costa, Abel Fontoura da. A Marinharia dos Descobrimentos, 3rd ed. Lisbon, 1960.■ Costa Brochado, Idalino F. Descobrimento do Atlântico. Lisbon, 1958. English ed., 1959-60.■ Coutinho, Admiral Gago. A naútica dos descobrimentos, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1951-52.■ Crone, G. R. Maps and Their Makers. New York: Capricorn Books, 1966.■ Dias, José S. da Silva. Os descobrimentos e a problemática cultural do Século XVI, 2nd ed. Lisbon, 1982.■ Disney, Anthony, and Emily Booth, eds. Vasco Da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.■ Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães, ed. Documentos sobre a expansão portuguesa [ to 1460], 3 vols. Lisbon, 1945-54.■ Guedes, Max, and Gerald Lombardi, eds. Portugal. Brazil: The Age of Atlantic Discoveries. Lisbon: Bertrand; Milan: Ricci; Brazilian Culture Foundation, 1990. [Catalogue of New York Public Library Exhibit, Summer 1990]■ Harley, J. B., and David Woodward. The History of Cartography. Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient and Medieval Europe and Mediterranean. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.■ Leite, Duarte. História dos Descobrimentos: Colectânea de esparsos, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1958-61.■ Ley, Charles. Portuguese Voyages, 1498-1663. London: Dent, 1953.■ Marques, J. Martins da Silva. Descobrimentos portugueses, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1944-71.■ Martyn, John R. 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Brother Luiz de Sousa [play]. Edgar Prestage, trans. London: Elkin Mathess, 1909.■. Travels in My Homeland. John M. Parker, trans. London: Peter Owen and UNESCO, 1987. Griffin, Jonathan. Camões: Some Poems Translated from the Portuguese by Jonathan Griffin. London: Menard Press, 1976. Jorge, Lídia. The Murmuring Coast. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.■ Lisboa, Eugénio, ed. Portuguese Short Fiction. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet, 1997.■ Lopes, Fernão. The English in Portugal 1367-87: Extracts from the Chronicles of Dom Fernando and Dom João. Derek W. Lomax and R. J. Oakley, eds. and trans. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■ Macedo, Helder, ed. Contemporary Portuguese Poetry: An Anthology in English. Helder Macedo, et al., trans. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet New Press, 1978.■ Martins, J. P. De Oliveira. A History of Iberian Civilization. Aubrey F. G. Bell, trans.; preface by Salvador de Madariaga. New York: Cooper Square, 1969.■ Mendes Pinto, Fernão. 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Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1932.■ Agriculture, Viticulture, and Fishing■ Abreu-Ferreira, Darlene. "The Portuguese in Newfoundland: Documentary Evidence Examined." Portuguese Studies Review 4, 1 (1995-96): 11-33.■ Allen, H. Warner. The Wines of Portugal. London: Michael Joseph, 1963.■ Barros, Afonso de. A reforma agrária em Portugal. Oeiras, 1979.■ Beamish, Huldine V. The Hills of Alentejo. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1958.■ Bennett, Norman R. "The Golden Age of the Port Wine System, 1781-1807." The International History Review XII (1990): 221-18.■ Black, Richard. "The Myth of Subsistence: Market Production in the Small Farm Sector of Northern Portugal." Iberian Studies 1, 8 (1989): 25-41.■ Bravo, Pedro, and Duarte de Oliveira. Viticulture Moderna. Lisbon, 1974.■. Vinhas e Vinhos De Portugal. Lisbon, 1979.■ Cabral, Manuel V. "Agrarian Structures and Recent Movements in Portugal." Journal of Peasant Studies 4, 5 (July 1978): 411-45.■ Cardoso, José Carvalho. A Agricultura Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1973.■ Carvalho, Bento de. Guía Dos Vinhos Portugueses. Lisbon, 1982.■ Clarke, Robert. Open Boat Whaling in the Azores: The History and Present Methods of a Relic Industry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954.■ Cockburn, Ernest. Port Wine and Oporto. London: Wine & Spirit, 1949. Cole, S. C. "Cod, Cod Country and Family: The Portuguese Newfoundland Fishery." Mast 3, 1 (1990): 1-29.■ Coull, James. The Fisheries of Europe. London: G. Bell & Sons, 1972.■ Croft-Cooke, Rupert. Port. London: Putnam, 1957.■. Madeira. London: Putnam, 1961.■ Delaforce, John. The Factory House at Oporto. London: Christie's Wine Publications, 1979 and later eds.■ Doel, Patricia A. Port O'Call: Memories of the Portuguese White Fleet in St. John's Newfoundland. St. John's, Newfoundland: ISER, 1992.■ Fletcher, Wyndham. Port: An Introduction to Its History and Delights. London: Bernet, 1978.■ Francis, A. D. The Wine Trade. 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London: Dent, 1969.■ Read, Jan. The Wines of Portugal. London: Faber & Faber, 1982.■ Robertson, George. Port. London: Faber & Faber, 1982 ed.■ Rutledge, Ian. "Land Reform and the Portuguese Revolution." Journal of Peasant Studies 5, 1 (Oct. 1977): 79-97.■ Sanceau, Elaine. The British Factory at Oporto. Oporto, 1970.■ Simon, Andre L. Port. London: Constable, 1934.■ Simões, J. Os grandes trabalhadores do Mar: Reportagens na Terra Nova e na Groenlândia. Lisbon: Gazeta dos Caminho de Ferro, 1942.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992: Special Report. New York: Camões Center/RIIC, Columbia University, 1990.■ Stanislawski, Dan. Landscapes of Bacchus: The Vine in Portugal. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970.■ Teixeira, Carlos, and Victor M. Pereira da Rosa, eds. The Portuguese in Canada: From the Seat to the City. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000.■ Unwin, Tim. "Farmers' Perceptions of Agrarian Change in Northwest Portugal." 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Washington, D.C.: Wilson Center Press, 1990.■ Barbosa, Manuel P. Growth, Migration and the Balance of Payments in a Small, Open Economy. New York: Garland, 1984.■ Braga de Macedo, Jorge, and Simon Serfaty, eds. Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1981.■ Carvalho, Camilo, et al. Sabotagem Econômica: " Dossier" Banco Espírito Santo e Comercial de Lisboa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Corkill, David. The Development of the Portuguese Economy: A Case of Euro-peanization. London: Routledge, 1999.■ Cravinho, João. "The Portuguese Economy: Constraints and Opportunities." In K. Maxwell, ed., Portugal in the 1980s, 111-65. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■ Dornsbusch, Rudiger, Richard S. Eckhaus, and Lane Taylor. "Analysis and Projection of Macroeconomic Conditions in Portugal." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 299-330. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.■ The Economist (London). 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Beaton, Cecil. Near East. London: Batsford, 1943.■. Lisboa 1942: Cecil Beaton, Lisbon 1942. Lisbon: British Historical Society of Portugal/Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1995.■ Bottineau, Yves. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1957.■ Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. 7 Olhares ( Seven Viewpoints). Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1998.■ Capital, A. Lisboa: Imagens d'A Capital. Lisbon: Edit. Notícias, 1984.■ Dias, Marina Tavares. Photographias de Lisboa, 1900 ( Photographs of Lisbon, 1900). Lisbon: Quimera, 1991.■. Os melhores postais antigos de Lisboa ( The best old postcards of Lisbon). Lisbon: Químera, 1995.■ Finlayson, Graham, and Frank Tuohy. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1970.■ Glassner, Helga. Portugal. Berlin-Zurich: Atlantis-Verlag, 1942. Hopkinson, Amanda, ed. Reflections by Ten Portuguese photographers. Bark-way, U.K.: Frontline/Portugal 600, 1996.■ Lima, Luís Leiria, and Isabel Salema. Lisboa de Pedra e Bronze. Lisbon, 1990.■ Martins, Miguel Gomes. Lisboa ribeirinha ( Riverside Lisbon). Lisbon: Arquivo Municipal, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 1994. Vieira, Alice. Esta Lisboa ( This Lisbon). Lisbon: Caminho, 1994. Wohl, Hellmut, and Alice Wohl. Portugal. London: Frederick Muller, 1983.■ EQUESTRIANISM■ Andrade, Manoel Carlos de, Luz da Liberal e Nobre Arte da Cavallaria. Lisbon, 1790.■ Graciosa, Filipe. Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre. Lisbon, 2004.■ Horsetalk Magazine. Published in New Zealand.■ Oliveira, Nuno. Reflections on the Equestrian Art. London, 2000.■ Russell, Eleanor, ed. The Truth in the Teaching of Nuno Oliveira. Stanhope,■ Queensland, Australia, 2003. Vilaca, Luis V., and Pedro Yglesias d'Oliveira, eds. LUSITANO. Coudelarias De Portugal. O Cavalo ancestral do Sudoeste da Europa. Lisbon: ICONOM, 2005.■ Websites of interest: www.equestrian.pt portugalweb.comHistorical dictionary of Portugal > CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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2 Haynes, Elwood
[br]b. 14 October 1857 Portland, Indiana, USAd. 13 April 1925 Kokomo, Indiana, USA[br]American inventor ofStellite cobalt-based alloys, early motor-car manufacturer and pioneer in stainless steels.[br]From his early years, Haynes was a practising Presbyterian and an active prohibitionist. He graduated in 1881 at Worcester, Massachusetts, and a spell of teaching in his home town was interrupted in 1884–5 while he attended the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. In 1886 he became permanently diverted by the discovery of natural gas in Portland. He was soon appointed Superintendent of the local gas undertaking, and then in 1890 he was hired by the Indiana Natural Gas \& Oil Company. While continuing his gas-company employment until 1901, Haynes conducted numerous metallurgical experiments. He also designed an automobile: this led to the establishment of the Haynes- Apperson Company at Kokomo as one of the earliest motor-car makers in North America. From 1905 the firm traded as the Haynes Automobile Company, and before its bankruptcy in 1924 it produced more than 50,000 cars. After 1905, Haynes found the first "Stellite" alloys of cobalt and chromium, and in 1910 he was publicizing the patented material. He then discovered the valuable hardening effect of tungsten, and in 1912 began applying the "improved" Stellite to cutting tools. Three years later, the Haynes Stellite Company was incorporated, with Haynes as President, to work the patents. It was largely from this source that Haynes became a millionaire in 1920. In April 1912, Haynes's attempt to patent the use of chromium with iron to render the product rustless was unsuccessful. However, he re-applied for a US patent on 12 March 1915 and, although this was initially rejected, he persevered and finally obtained recognition of his modified claim. The American Stainless Steel Company licensed the patents of Brearley and Haynes jointly in the USA until the 1930s.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsJohn Scott Medal 1919 (awarded for useful inventions).BibliographyHaynes was the author of more than twenty published papers and articles, among them: 1907, "Materials for automobiles", Proceedings of the American Society of MechanicalEngineers 29:1,597–606; 1910, "Alloys of nickel and cobalt with chromium", Journal of Industrial Engineeringand Chemistry 2:397–401; 1912–13, "Alloys of cobalt with chromium and other metals", Transactions of the American Institute of 'Mining Engineers 44:249–55;1919–20, "Stellite and stainless steel", Proceedings of the Engineering Society of WestPennsylvania 35:467–74.1 April 1919, US patent no. 1,299,404 (stainless steel).The four US patents worked by the Haynes Stellite Company were: 17 December 1907, patent no. 873,745.1 April 1913, patent no. 1,057,423.1 April 1913, patent no. 1,057, 828.17 August 1915, patent no. 1,150, 113.Further ReadingR.D.Gray, 1979, Alloys and Automobiles. The Life of Elwood Haynes, Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society (a closely documented biography).JKA -
3 Bibliography
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The making of memory: From molecules to mind. New York: Anchor Books. (Originally published in 1992)■ Roszak, T. (1994). The cult of information: A neo- Luddite treatise on high- tech, artificial intelligence, and the true art of thinking (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.■ Royce, J. R., & W. W. Rozeboom (Eds.) (1972). The psychology of knowing. New York: Gordon & Breach.■ Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Introduction to human information processing. New York: Wiley.■ Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. Bruce & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Rumelhart, D. E., & J. L. McClelland (1986). On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In J. L. McClelland & D. E. Rumelhart (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Rumelhart, D. E., P. Smolensky, J. L. McClelland & G. E. Hinton (1986). Schemata and sequential thought processes in PDP models. In J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart & the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel Distributed Processing (Vol. 2, pp. 7-57). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Russell, B. (1927). An outline of philosophy. London: G. Allen & Unwin.■ Russell, B. (1961). History of Western philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin.■ Russell, B. (1965). How I write. In Portraits from memory and other essays. London: Allen & Unwin.■ Russell, B. (1992). In N. Griffin (Ed.), The selected letters of Bertrand Russell (Vol. 1), The private years, 1884- 1914. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ryecroft, C. (1966). Psychoanalysis observed. London: Constable.■ Sagan, C. (1978). The dragons of Eden: Speculations on the evolution of human intel ligence. New York: Ballantine Books.■ Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Expertise as the circumvention of human processing limitations. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 172-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Sanford, A. J. (1987). The mind of man: Models of human understanding. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.■ Sapir, E. (1921). Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.■ Sapir, E. (1964). Culture, language, and personality. Berkeley: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1941.)■ Sapir, E. (1985). The status of linguistics as a science. In D. G. Mandelbaum (Ed.), Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality (pp. 160166). Berkeley: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1929).■ Scardmalia, M., & C. Bereiter (1992). Literate expertise. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 172-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Schafer, R. (1954). Psychoanalytic interpretation in Rorschach testing. New York: Grune & Stratten.■ Schank, R. C. (1973). Identification of conceptualizations underlying natural language. In R. C. Schank & K. M. Colby (Eds.), Computer models of thought and language (pp. 187-248). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.■ Schank, R. C. (1976). The role of memory in language processing. In C. N. Cofer (Ed.), The structure of human memory. (pp. 162-189) San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.■ Schank, R. C. (1986). Explanation patterns: Understanding mechanically and creatively. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Schank, R. C., & R. P. Abelson (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ SchroЁdinger, E. (1951). Science and humanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Searle, J. R. (1981a). Minds, brains, and programs. In J. Haugeland (Ed.), Mind design: Philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence (pp. 282-306). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Searle, J. R. (1981b). Minds, brains and programs. In D. Hofstadter & D. Dennett (Eds.), The mind's I (pp. 353-373). New York: Basic Books.■ Searle, J. R. (1983). Intentionality. New York: Cambridge University Press.■ Serres, M. (1982). The origin of language: Biology, information theory, and thermodynamics. M. Anderson (Trans.). In J. V. Harari & D. F. Bell (Eds.), Hermes: Literature, science, philosophy (pp. 71-83). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.■ Simon, H. A. (1966). Scientific discovery and the psychology of problem solving. In R. G. Colodny (Ed.), Mind and cosmos: Essays in contemporary science and philosophy (pp. 22-40). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.■ Simon, H. A. (1979). Models of thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.■ Simon, H. A. (1989). The scientist as a problem solver. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert Simon. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Simon, H. A., & C. Kaplan (1989). Foundations of cognitive science. In M. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 1-47). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Simonton, D. K. (1988). Creativity, leadership and chance. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Knopf.■ Smith, E. E. (1988). Concepts and thought. In J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 19-49). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Smith, E. E. (1990). Thinking: Introduction. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Thinking. An invitation to cognitive science. (Vol. 3, pp. 1-2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Socrates. (1958). Meno. In E. H. Warmington & P. O. Rouse (Eds.), Great dialogues of Plato W.H.D. Rouse (Trans.). New York: New American Library. (Original publication date unknown.)■ Solso, R. L. (1974). Theories of retrieval. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology. Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Spencer, H. (1896). The principles of psychology. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.■ Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. New York: Oxford University Press.■ Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.■ Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg, Thinking and problem solving. San Diego: Academic Press.■ Sternberg, R. J., & J. E. Davidson (1985). Cognitive development in gifted and talented. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented (pp. 103-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.■ Storr, A. (1993). The dynamics of creation. New York: Ballantine Books. (Originally published in 1972.)■ Stumpf, S. E. (1994). Philosophy: History and problems (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.■ Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Random House/Vintage Books.■ Thorndike, E. L. (1906). Principles of teaching. New York: A. G. Seiler.■ Thorndike, E. L. (1970). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Darien, CT: Hafner Publishing Co. (Originally published in 1911.)■ Titchener, E. B. (1910). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.■ Titchener, E. B. (1914). A primer of psychology. New York: Macmillan.■ Toulmin, S. (1957). The philosophy of science. London: Hutchinson.■ Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organisation of memory. London: Academic Press.■ Turing, A. (1946). In B. E. Carpenter & R. W. Doran (Eds.), ACE reports of 1946 and other papers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Turkle, S. (1984). Computers and the second self: Computers and the human spirit. New York: Simon & Schuster.■ Tyler, S. A. (1978). The said and the unsaid: Mind, meaning, and culture. New York: Academic Press.■ van Heijenoort (Ed.) (1967). From Frege to Goedel. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.■ Varela, F. J. (1984). The creative circle: Sketches on the natural history of circularity. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality (pp. 309-324). New York: W. W. Norton.■ Voltaire (1961). On the Penseґs of M. Pascal. In Philosophical letters (pp. 119-146). E. Dilworth (Trans.). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.■ Wagman, M. (1991a). Artificial intelligence and human cognition: A theoretical inter comparison of two realms of intellect. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1991b). Cognitive science and concepts of mind: Toward a general theory of human and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1993). Cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence: Theory and re search in cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1995). The sciences of cognition: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1996). Human intellect and cognitive science: Toward a general unified theory of intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1997a). Cognitive science and the symbolic operations of human and artificial intelligence: Theory and research into the intellective processes. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1997b). The general unified theory of intelligence: Central conceptions and specific application to domains of cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998a). Cognitive science and the mind- body problem: From philosophy to psychology to artificial intelligence to imaging of the brain. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998b). Language and thought in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology, artificial intelligence, and neural science. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1998c). The ultimate objectives of artificial intelligence: Theoretical and research foundations, philosophical and psychological implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (1999). The human mind according to artificial intelligence: Theory, re search, and implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wagman, M. (2000). Scientific discovery processes in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.■ Wall, R. (1972). Introduction to mathematical linguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.■ Wallas, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.■ Wason, P. (1977). Self contradictions. In P. Johnson-Laird & P. Wason (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.■ Wason, P. C., & P. N. Johnson-Laird. (1972). Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.■ Watson, J. (1930). Behaviorism. New York: W. W. Norton.■ Watzlawick, P. (1984). Epilogue. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984.■ Weinberg, S. (1977). The first three minutes: A modern view of the origin of the uni verse. New York: Basic Books.■ Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity: Genius and other myths. New York: W. H. Freeman.■ Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason: From judgment to cal culation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.■ Wertheimer, M. (1945). Productive thinking. New York: Harper & Bros.■ Whitehead, A. N. (1925). Science and the modern world. New York: Macmillan.■ Whorf, B. L. (1956). In J. B. Carroll (Ed.), Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Whyte, L. L. (1962). The unconscious before Freud. New York: Anchor Books.■ Wiener, N. (1954). The human use of human beings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.■ Wiener, N. (1964). God & Golem, Inc.: A comment on certain points where cybernetics impinges on religion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Winograd, T. (1972). Understanding natural language. New York: Academic Press.■ Winston, P. H. (1987). Artificial intelligence: A perspective. In E. L. Grimson & R. S. Patil (Eds.), AI in the 1980s and beyond (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.■ Winston, P. H. (Ed.) (1975). The psychology of computer vision. New York: McGrawHill.■ Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.■ Wittgenstein, L. (1958). The blue and brown books. New York: Harper Colophon.■ Woods, W. A. (1975). What's in a link: Foundations for semantic networks. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representations and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 35-84). New York: Academic Press.■ Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Holt; London: Methuen (1939).■ Wundt, W. (1904). Principles of physiological psychology (Vol. 1). E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.■ Wundt, W. (1907). Lectures on human and animal psychology. J. E. Creighton & E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.■ Young, J. Z. (1978). Programs of the brain. New York: Oxford University Press.■ Ziman, J. (1978). Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
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4 Behrens, Peter
SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building[br]b. 14 April 1868 Hamburg, Germanyd. 27 February 1940 Berlin, Germany[br]German pioneer of modern architecture, developer of the combined use of steel, glass and concrete in industrial work.[br]During the 1890s Behrens, as an artist, was a member of the German branch of Sezessionismus and then moved towards Jugendstil (Art Nouveau) types of design in different media. His interest in architecture was aroused during the first years of the twentieth century, and a turning-point in his career was his appointment in 1907 as Artistic Supervisor and Consultant to AEG, the great Berlin electrical firm. His Turbine Factory (1909) in the city was a breakthrough in design and is still standing: in steel and glass, with visible girder construction, this is a truly functional modern building far ahead of its time. In 1910 two more of Behrens's factories were completed in Berlin, followed in 1913 by the great AEG plant at Riga, Latvia.After the First World War Behrens was in great demand for industrial construction. He designed office schemes such as those at the Mannesmann Steel Works in Dusseldorf (1911–12; now destroyed) and, in a departure from his earlier work, was responsible for a more Expressionist form of design, mainly in brick, in his extensive complex for I.G.Farben at Höchst (1920–4).In the years before the First World War, some of those who were later amongst the most famous names in modern architecture were among his pupils: Gropius, Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret).[br]Further ReadingT.Buddenseig, 1979, Industrielkultur: Peter Behrens und die AEG 1907–14, Berlin: Mann.W.Weber (ed.), 1966, Peter Behrens (1868–1940), Kaiserslautern, Germany: Pfalzgalerie.DY -
5 Garforth, William Edward
SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology[br]b. 1845 Dukinfield, Cheshire, Englandd. 1 October 1921 Pontefract, Yorkshire, England[br]English colliery manager, pioneer in machine-holing and the safety of mines.[br]After Menzies conceived his idea of breaking off coal with machines in 1761, many inventors subsequently followed his proposals through into the practice of underground working. More than one century later, Garforth became one of the principal pioneers of machine-holing combined with the longwall method of working in order to reduce production costs and increase the yield of coal. Having been appointed agent to Pope \& Pearson's Collieries, West Yorkshire, in 1879, of which company he later became Managing Director and Chairman, he gathered a great deal of experience with different methods of cutting coal. The first disc machine was exhibited in London as early as 1851, and ten years later a pick machine was invented. In 1893 he introduced an improved type of deep undercutting machine, his "diamond" disc coal-cutter, driven by compressed air, which also became popular on the European continent.Besides the considerable economic advantages it created, the use of machinery for mining coal increased the safety of working in hard and thin seams. The improvement of safety in mining technology was always his primary concern, and as a result of his inventions and his many publications he became the leading figure in the British coal mining industry at the beginning of the twentieth century; safety lamps still carry his name. In 1885 he invented a firedamp detector, and following a severe explosion in 1886 he concentrated on coal-dust experiments. From the information he obtained of the effect of stone-dust on a coal-dust explosion he proposed the stone-dust remedy to prevent explosions of coal-dust. As a result of discussions which lasted for decades and after he had been entrusted with the job of conducting the British coal-dust experiments, in 1921 an Act made it compulsory in all mines which were not naturally wet throughout to treat all roads with incombustible dust so as to ensure that the dust always consisted of a mixture containing not more than 50 per cent combustible matter. In 1901 Garforth erected a surface gallery which represented the damaged roadways of a mine and could be filled with noxious fumes to test self-contained breathing apparata. This gallery formed the model from which all the rescue-stations existing nowadays have been developed.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1914. LLD Universities of Birmingham and Leeds 1912. President, Midland Institute 1892–4. President, The Institution of Mining Engineers 1911–14. President, Mining Association of Great Britain 1907–8. Chairman, Standing Committee on Mining, Advisory Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Fellow of the Geological Society of London. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers Greenwell Silver Medal 1907. Royal Society of Arts Fothergill Gold Medal 1910. Medal of the Institution of Mining Engineers 1914.Bibliography1901–2, "The application of coal-cutting machines to deep mining", Transactions of the Federated Institute of Mining Engineers 23: 312–45.1905–6, "A new apparatus for rescue-work in mines", Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers 31:625–57.1902, "British Coal-dust Experiments". Paper communicated to the International Congress on Mining, Metallurgy, Applied Mechanics and Practical Geology, Dusseldorf.Further ReadingGarforth's name is frequently mentioned in connection with coal-holing, but his outstanding achievements in improving safety in mines are only described in W.D.Lloyd, 1921, "Memoir", Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers 62:203–5.WKBiographical history of technology > Garforth, William Edward
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6 Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin
[br]b. 26 June 1824 Belfast, Ireland (now Northern Ireland)d. 17 December 1907 Largs, Scotland[br]Irish physicist and inventor who contributed to submarine telegraphy and instrumentation.[br]After education at Glasgow University and Peterhouse, Cambridge, a period of study in France gave Thomson an interest in experimental work and instrumentation. He became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow in 1846 and retained the position for the rest of his career, establishing the first teaching laboratory in Britain.Among his many contributions to science and engineering was his concept, introduced in 1848, of an "absolute" zero of temperature. Following on from the work of Joule, his investigations into the nature of heat led to the first successful liquefaction of gases such as hydrogen and helium, and later to the science of low-temperature physics.Cable telegraphy gave an impetus to the scientific measurement of electrical quantities, and for many years Thomson was a member of the British Association Committee formed in 1861 to consider electrical standards and to develop units; these are still in use. Thomson first became Scientific Adviser to the Atlantic Telegraph Company in 1857, sailing on the Agamemnon and Great Eastern during the cable-laying expeditions. He invented a mirror galvanometer and more importantly the siphon recorder, which, used as a very sensitive telegraph receiver, provided a permanent record of signals. He also laid down the design parameters of long submarine cables and discovered that the conductivity of copper was greatly affected by its purity. A major part of the success of the Atlantic cable in 1866 was due to Thomson, who received a knighthood for his contribution.Other instruments he designed included a quadrant electrostatic voltmeter to measure high voltages, and his "multi-cellular" instrument for low voltages. They could be used on alternating or direct current and were free from temperature errors. His balances for precision current measurement were widely used in standardizing laboratories.Thomson was a prolific writer of scientific papers on subjects across the whole spectrum of physics; between 1855 and 1866 he published some 110 papers, with a total during his life of over 600. In 1892 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kelvin of Largs. By the time of his death he was looked upon as the "father" of British physics, but despite his outstanding achievements his later years were spent resisting change and progress.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1866. Created Lord Kelvin of Largs 1892. FRS 1851. President, Royal Society 1890–4. An original member of the Order of Merit 1902. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers 1874. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1889 and 1907. Royal Society Royal Medal 1856, Copley Medal 1883.Bibliography1872, Reprints of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, London; 1911, Mathematical and Physical Papers, 6 vols, Cambridge (collections of Thomson's papers).Further ReadingSilvanus P.Thompson, 1910, The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs, 2 vols, London (an uncritical biography).D.B.Wilson, 1987, Kelvin and Stokes: A Comparative Study in Victorian Physics, Bristol (provides a present-day commentary on all aspects of Thomson's work).J.G.Crowther, 1962, British Scientists of the 19th Century, London, pp. 199–257 (a short critical biography).GWBiographical history of technology > Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin
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7 Socialist Party
истПолитическая партия; создана в 1901 в Индианаполисе В. Бергером [Berger, Victor L.], Дж. Харриманом [Harriman, Job] и М. Хилкуитом [ Hillquit, Morris] из Социалистической рабочей партии [ Socialist Labor Party of North America] и Ю. Дебсом [ Debs, Eugene Victor] из Профсоюза американских железнодорожников [American Railway Union] в результате слияния Социал-демократической партии [ Social-Democratic Party] и отколовшейся части Социалистической рабочей партии [ Socialist Labor Party of North America]. Правое крыло (М. Хилкуит, В. Бергер, Н. Томас [Thomas, Norman]) стремилось ограничить деятельность партии участием в избирательных кампаниях. Наибольшим влиянием в стране партия пользовалась в 1907-12, когда ее политика и действия определялись влиянием ее левого крыла (Ю. Дебс, У. Хейвуд [ Haywood, William Dudley (Big Bill)], Ч. Рутенберг [ Ruthenberg, Charles Emil]). В 1910-12 в партии состояло 118 тыс. членов. Примерно 1 тыс. членов партии была избрана в местные органы власти и органы власти штатов. В 1910 В. Бергер стал первым социалистом, избранным в Конгресс, а в 1912 Ю. Дебс набрал 6 процентов голосов избирателей на президентских выборах. В 1913 из исполкома партии был исключен председатель массовой рабочей организации "Индустриальные рабочие мира" [ Industrial Workers of the World] Ю. Дебс, и, лишившись боевого левого крыла, партия быстро потеряла свое влияние. Ослабленная репрессиями властей и уходом левых сил, партия безуспешно попыталась в 1924 поддержать кандидата независимой Прогрессивной партии Р. Лафоллетта [ La Follette, Robert Marion]. После 1948 в выборах не участвовала и влиянием не пользоваласьEnglish-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Socialist Party
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8 Farman, Henri
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 26 May 1874 Paris, Franced. 17 July 1958 Paris, France[br]French aeroplane designer who modified Voisin biplanes and later, with his brother Maurice (b. 21 March 1877 Paris, France; d. 26 February 1964 Paris, France), created a major aircraft-manufacturing company.[br]The parents of Henri and Maurice Farman were British subjects living in Paris, but their sons lived all their lives in France and became French citizens. As young men, both became involved in cycle and automobile racing. Henri (or Henry—he used both versions) turned his attention to aviation in 1907 when he bought a biplane from Gabriel Voisin. Within a short time he had established himself as one of the leading pilots in Europe, with many record-breaking flights to his credit. Farman modified the Voisin with his own improvements, including ailerons, and then in 1909 he designed the first Farman biplane. This became the most popular biplane in Europe from the autumn of 1909 until well into 1911 and is one of the classic aeroplanes of history. Meanwhile, Maurice Farman had also begun to design and build biplanes; his first design of 1909 was not a great success but from it evolved two robust biplanes nicknamed the "Longhorn" and the "Shorthorn", so called because of their undercarriage skids. In 1912 the brothers joined forces and set up a very large factory at Billancourt. The "Longhorn" and "Shorthorn" became the standard training aircraft in France and Britain during the early years of the First World War. The Farman brothers went on to produce a number of other wartime designs, including a large bomber. After the war the Farmans produced a series of large airliners which played a key role in establishing France as a major airline operator. Most famous of these was the Goliath, a twin-engined biplane capable of carrying up to twelve passengers. This was produced from 1918 to 1929 and was used by many airlines, including the Farman Line. The brothers retired when their company was nationalized in 1937.[br]Bibliography1910, The Aviator's Companion, London (with his brother Dick Farman).Further ReadingM.Farman, 1901, 3,000 kilomètres en ballon, Paris (an account of several balloon flights from 1894 to 1900).J.Liron, 1984, Les Avions Farman, Paris (provides comprehensive descriptions of all Farman aircraft).Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War I, 1990, London (reprint) (gives details of all early Farman aircraft).J.Stroud, 1966, European Aircraft since 1910, London (provides details about Farman air-liners).JDS -
9 Rolls, The Hon. Charles Stewart
[br]b. 28 August 1877 London, Englandd. 12 July 1910 Bournemouth, Hampshire, England.[br]English motorist, aviator and automobile manufacturer.[br]The son of a baron, Rolls drove cars such as Panhards and Mors from 1895. He was educated at Cambridge University, and set up in business selling French and Belgian cars. Henry Royce's third car was built for a director of Royce Ltd, Henry Edwards, who was a friend of Rolls. A meeting was arranged between Royce and Rolls and, in 1904, they formed a partnership. From 1907. Rolls was selling the 40/50 hp RollsRoyce Ghost from his London showroom; in 1908. the factory moved to Derby. Rolls took up flying and crossed the English Channel in a balloon in 1906, and in June 1910 he crossed it by plane. In the following month, he was killed when the plane he was piloting crashed.[br]Further ReadingJ.J.Fucini and S.Fucini, 1985, Entrepreneurs, Boston: C.K.Hall \& Co.IMcNBiographical history of technology > Rolls, The Hon. Charles Stewart
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10 Fisher, Harry Conway (Bud)
(1884-1954) Фишер, Гарри Конуэй ("Бад")Карикатурист. В 1907 создал образ Матта - карлика в цилиндре, нахального "продавца информации" на бегах и скачках; затем появился его приятель Джеф. Оба стали героями ежедневного комикса [ comic strip] в газете "Сан-Франциско игзэминер" [San Francisco Examiner]. Комикс вскоре стал публиковаться в большом числе газет. В 1910-16 комиксы "Матт и Джеф" [ Mutt and Jeff] вышли отдельным изданием в нескольких книжкахEnglish-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Fisher, Harry Conway (Bud)
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11 Guthrie
Город в центральной части штата Оклахома, в 45 км к северу от г. Оклахома-Сити. 9,9 тыс. жителей (2000). Административный центр [ county seat] округа Логан [Logan County]. Торговый центр сельскохозяйственного района (овощи, молочное животноводство), района добычи нефти и газа. Железнодорожный узел. Производство оборудования для нефтяной отрасли, мебели и др. Основан 22 апреля 1889 путем "набега" ["run"] на открытые для заселения земли, статус города с 1890. Был административным центром [territorial capital] Территории Оклахома [Oklahoma Territory; Oklahoma] до 1907, столицей штата [state capital] - до 1910. Среди достопримечательностей - исторические кварталы, застроенные в викторианском стиле (свыше 2,1 тыс. зданий). -
12 Oklahoma
Штат на юге центральной части США, в группе штатов Юго-Западного Центра [ West South Central States]. Граничит со штатами Канзас [ Kansas] и Колорадо [ Colorado] на севере, Нью-Мексико [ New Mexico] на западе, с Техасом [ Texas] на западе и юге, с Миссури [ Missouri] и Арканзасом [ Arkansas] на востоке. По форме штат напоминает кастрюлю с ручкой [ panhandle]. Площадь 181 тыс. кв. км. Население 3,4 млн. человек (2000). Столица и крупнейший город Оклахома-Сити [ Oklahoma City]. Другие крупные города: Талса [ Tulsa], Лотон [ Lawton], Норман [ Norman], Мидуэст-Сити [Midwest City]. Большая часть штата расположена на Великих равнинах [ Great Plains]. Значительная часть покрыта лесами. В центральной части низменности. Есть небольшие обособленные возвышенности: на западе предгорья Скалистых гор [ Rocky Mountains], на юго-востоке горы Уошито [ Ouachita Mountains], плато Озарк [ Ozark Mountains], на юго-западе горы Уичита [Wichita Mountains]. Главные реки - Арканзас [ Arkansas River], Ред-Ривер [ Red River] и Канейдиан [ Canadian River]. Теплый континентальный климат, на западе засушливый, на юго-востоке влажный субтропический. Штат расположен в т.н. Солнечном поясе [ Sun Belt]. Оклахома богата полезными ископаемыми: уголь, природный газ, цинковые руды, доломит, гранит, соль. Уже около 15 тыс. лет назад на территории Оклахомы жили индейцы. Первыми европейцами, появившимися здесь в 1541, были участники экспедиции Ф. де Коронадо [Coronado, Francisco Vazquez de]. В 1817 французский торговец О. Шуто [Chouteau, Auguste P.] основал здесь первое постоянное поселение. В 1803 США купили у Франции Территорию Луизиана [ Louisiana Purchase], частью которой была Оклахома. Район Пэнхэндл [ panhandle] до 1821 принадлежал Испании, в 1821-36 Мексике, затем до 1850 Техасской Республике, после чего вошел в США и в 1890 был включен в состав Территории Оклахома [Oklahoma Territory]. Освоение региона началось после покупки Луизианы. Торговцы отправляли купленные здесь у индейцев товары в Новый Орлеан на плоскодонных баржах [ flatboat]. В 1808 племя осейдж [ Osage] уступило США всю восточную часть Оклахомы к северу от р. Арканзас, в 1818 индейцы куапо [ Quapaw] отказались в пользу США от земель к югу от этой реки (в нынешних Оклахоме и Арканзасе). Американское правительство стало заключать договоры с индейскими племенами, по которым планировалось всю территорию современной Оклахомы передать "Пяти цивилизованным племенам" [ Five Civilized Tribes]. В 1830 был принят Закон о переселении индейцев [ Indian Removal Act], и в 1830-40 около 100 тыс. индейцев были переселены в Индейскую Территорию [ Indian Territory], где каждому племени были постепенно выделены отдельные земли. "Цивилизованные племена" создали органы самоуправления, города и фермы, основали свои фирмы. Многие индейцы владели рабами, поэтому с началом Гражданской войны [ Civil War] их симпатии разделились между Союзом [ Union] и Конфедерацией [ Confederate States of America]. Оклахома серьезно пострадала от военных действий. После войны власти обвинили часть индейцев в пособничестве Конфедерации и заставили их продать западные земли по заниженным ценам. Большая часть западных районов Индейской Территории была превращена в резервации, куда были переселены равнинные индейцы [ Plains Indians]: арапахо [ Arapaho], шайенны [ Cheyenne], пауни [ Pawnee], кайова [ Kiowa], команчи [ Comanche] и др. На юго-западе стали селиться выходцы из Техаса, началось движение за открытие для заселения "ничейных земель" [ Unassigned Lands] в центре Оклахомы. 22 апреля 1889 эти территории были заселены путем "набега" ["horse race", "run"]: в течение нескольких часов образовались города Энид [Enid], Гатри [ Guthrie] и Оклахома-Сити. 2 мая 1890 была официально образована Территория Оклахома [Oklahoma Territory]. Белые поселенцы стали выступать за оттеснение индейцев, создание штата и гомстедов [ homestead] на больших территориях. Конгресс образовал комиссию Дауэса [ Dawes Commission], которая к 1887 подготовила Закон о распределении земли [ Land Allotment Act], предусматривавший передачу с согласия индейцев земель резерваций, находящихся в общинной собственности, в индивидуальную собственность. Оставшиеся после распределения земли продавались, деньги шли в фонд племени; этот процесс в основном завершился к 1910, хотя на двух третях Территории Оклахома уже был образован штат, вошедший в США в ноябре 1907. Действующая по настоящее время конституция была одобрена путем референдума. Индейцы, выступавшие против перераспределения земель, еще до этого (14 июля 1905) собрались в Маскоги и приняли конституцию штата, который назвали Секвойя [Sequoyah], но Конгресс отказался признать его. Население нового штата Оклахома стремительно росло в начале XX века, затем значительно сократилось в 1930-е в период пыльных бурь [ dust bowl] и Великой депрессии [ Great Depression], когда тысячи фермеров [ Okie] были вынуждены покинуть штат в поисках работы. Ныне Оклахома из аграрного штата превратилась в преимущественно урбанизированный штат с развивающейся промышленностью, но на протяжении всего послевоенного периода сталкивалась с серьезными экономическими проблемами. С 1950-х, наряду с добывающей промышленностью, большую роль в экономике штата играет обрабатывающая промышленность: производство промышленного оборудования, продуктов питания, металлоизделий и резины. Развитию промышленности способствует благоприятная налоговая политика. Месторождения нефти, открытые на востоке штата в 1859, уже с 1896 вывели Оклахому на лидирующие позиции в нефтяной промышленности. В сельском хозяйстве преобладают крупные фермерские хозяйства и ранчо [ ranch]. Наиболее важные культуры - озимая пшеница, сеяные травы, арахис, хлопчатник, соя. В животноводстве преобладает мясо-шерстное направление. На национальных выборах жители штата обычно голосуют за Республиканскую партию [ Republican Party]. -
13 Porter, William Sydney (O. Henry)
(1862-1910) Портер, Уильям Сидни (О. Генри)Писатель, признанный мастер короткого рассказа, публиковался под псевдонимом О. Генри. Работал банковским служащим, в 1896 был обвинен в присвоении денег и, не дожидаясь суда, бежал в Центральную Америку (позднее впечатления об этом периоде жизни легли в основу авантюрно-юмористической книги "Короли и капуста" ["Cabbages and Kings"] (1904)). Однако узнав, что его жена в США тяжело больна, вернулся и после ее смерти сдался властям. Следующие три с половиной года провел в тюрьме, причем есть сведения, что обвинен он был ошибочно. В тюрьме же начал писать и печатать свои рассказы. Действие большинства из них происходит в Нью-Йорке, который писатель называл "Багдадом-на-подземке" ["Bagdad-on-the-Subway"], может быть, поэтому его истории чем-то напоминают сказки "1001 ночи". Критика часто обвиняла О. Генри в сентиментальности, нежизненности сюжетов, упрекала за непременный хэппи-энд, но непреходящая любовь читателей снискала автору славу классика американской литературы. Среди лучших рассказов: "Дары волхвов" ["The Gift of the Magi"] (1906), "Последний лист" ["The Last Leaf"] (1907) и др.English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Porter, William Sydney (O. Henry)
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14 James, William
Джеймс, Уильям (1842—1910), философ-идеалист и психолог. Старший брат известного писателя Генри Джеймса. Один из основателей прагматизма; отвергая объективность истины, выдвинул «прагматический» критерий: истинно то, что отвечает практическому успеху действия. В психологии развил концепцию «потока сознания» [stream of consciousness]; обосновал теорию, что люди, как и животные, обладают инстинктами; создал первую в США психологическую лабораторию‘Principles of Psychology' («Принципы психологии», 1908)
‘Pragmatism' («Прагматизм», 1907)
США. Лингвострановедческий англо-русский словарь > James, William
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15 Baekeland, Leo Hendrik
[br]b. 14 November 1863 Saint-Martens-Latern, Belgiumd. 23 February 1944 Beacon, New York, USA[br]Belgian/American inventor of the Velox photographic process and the synthetic plastic Bakélite.[br]The son of an illiterate shoemaker, Baekeland was first apprenticed in that trade, but was encouraged by his mother to study, with spectacular results. He won a scholarship to Gand University and graduated in chemistry. Before he was 21 he had achieved his doctorate, and soon afterwards he obtained professorships at Bruges and then at Gand. Baekeland seemed set for a distinguished academic career, but he turned towards the industrial applications of chemistry, especially in photography.Baekeland travelled to New York to further this interest, but his first inventions met with little success so he decided to concentrate on one that seemed to have distinct commercial possibilities. This was a photographic paper that could be developed in artificial light; he called this "gas light" paper Velox, using the less sensitive silver chloride as a light-sensitive agent. It proved to have good properties and was easy to use, at a time of photography's rising popularity. By 1896 the process began to be profitable, and three years later Baekeland disposed of his plant to Eastman Kodak for a handsome sum, said to be $3–4 million. That enabled him to retire from business and set up a laboratory at Yonkers to pursue his own research, including on synthetic resins. Several chemists had earlier obtained resinous products from the reaction between phenol and formaldehyde but had ignored them. By 1907 Baekeland had achieved sufficient control over the reaction to obtain a good thermosetting resin which he called "Bakélite". It showed good electrical insulation and resistance to chemicals, and was unchanged by heat. It could be moulded while plastic and would then set hard on heating, with its only drawback being its brittleness. Bakelite was an immediate success in the electrical industry and Baekeland set up the General Bakelite Company in 1910 to manufacture and market the product. The firm grew steadily, becoming the Bakélite Corporation in 1924, with Baekeland still as active President.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Electrochemical Society 1909. President, American Chemical Society 1924. Elected to the National Academy of Sciences 1936.Further ReadingJ.Gillis, 1965, Leo Baekeland, Brussels.A.R.Matthis, 1948, Leo H.Baekeland, Professeur, Docteur ès Sciences, chimiste, inventeur et grand industriel, Brussels.J.K.Mumford, 1924, The Story of Bakélite.C.F.Kettering, 1947, memoir on Baekeland, Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 24 (includes a list of his honours and publications).LRD -
16 Brown, Andrew
SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping[br]b. October 1825 Glasgow, Scotlandd. 6 May 1907 Renfrew, Scotland[br]Scottish engineer and specialist shipbuilder, dredge-plant authority and supplier.[br]Brown commenced his apprenticeship on the River Clyde in the late 1830s, working for some of the most famous marine engineering companies and ultimately with the Caledonian Railway Company. In 1850 he joined the shipyard of A. \& J.Inglis Ltd of Partick as Engineering Manager; during his ten years there he pioneered the fitting of link-motion valve gear to marine engines. Other interesting engines were built, all ahead of their time, including a three-cylinder direct-acting steam engine.His real life's work commenced in 1860 when he entered into partnership with the Renfrew shipbuilder William Simons. Within one year he had designed the fast Clyde steamer Rothesay Castle, a ship less than 200 ft (61 m) long, yet which steamed at c.20 knots and subsequently became a notable American Civil War blockade runner. At this time the company also built the world's first sailing ship with wire-rope rigging. Within a few years of joining the shipyard on the Cart (a tributary of the Clyde), he had designed the first self-propelled hopper barges built in the United Kingdom. He then went on to design, patent and supervise the building of hopper dredges, bucket ladder dredges and sand dredges, which by the end of the century had capacity of 10,000 tons per hour. In 1895 they built an enclosed hopper-type ship which was the prototype of all subsequent sewage-dumping vessels. Typical of his inventions was the double-ended screw-elevating deck ferry, a ship of particular value in areas where there is high tidal range. Examples of this design are still to be found in many seaports of the world. Brown ultimately became Chairman of Simons shipyard, and in his later years took an active part in civic affairs, serving for fifteen years as Provost of Renfrew. His influence in establishing Renfrew as one of the world's centres of excellence in dredge design and building was considerable, and he was instrumental in bringing several hundred ship contracts of a specialist nature to the River Clyde.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsVice-President, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.BibliographyA Century of Shipbuilding 1810 to 1910, Renfrew: Wm Simons.Further ReadingF.M.Walker, 1984, Song of the Clyde. A History of Clyde Shipbuilding, Cambridge.FMW -
17 Cardew, Philip
[br]b. 24 September 1851 Leatherhead, Surrey, Englandd. 17 May 1910 Godalming, Surrey, England[br]English electrical engineer and inventory adviser to the Board of Trade.[br]After education at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, Cardew was placed in charge of Bermudan military telegraphs in 1876. In 1889 he was appointed the first Electrical Adviser to the Board of Trade, where he formulated valuable regulations for the safety and control of public electricity supplies. In 1883 Cardew invented the thermogalvanometer, a hot-wire measuring instrument, that became widely used as a voltmeter but was obsolete by 1907. The device depended for its action on the heating and subsequent elongation of a platinum wire and could be used on alternating currents of high frequency. Retiring from the Board of Trade in 1899, Cardew joined a partnership of consulting engineers with Sir William Preece and his son. Taking a particular interest in railway electrification, he became a director of the London Brighton \& South Coast Railway.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsInventions Exhibition Gold Medal 1885.Bibliography1881, Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers 10:111–14 (describes the application of electricity to railways).5 February 1883, British patent no. 623 (Cardew's hot-wire instrument).1898, Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 19:425–47 (his account of Board of Trade legislation).Further ReadingJ.T.Stock and D.Vaughan, 1983, The Development of Instruments to Measure Electric Current, London: Science Museum (for instrument origins).Dictionary of National Biographyr, 1912, Vol. I, Suppl. 2, pp. 313–14.GW -
18 Dunne, John William
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 2 December 1875 Co. Kildare, Irelandd. 24 August 1949 Oxfordshire, England[br]Irish inventor who pioneered tailless aircraft designed to be inherently stable.[br]After serving in the British Army during the Boer War. Dunne returned home convinced that aeroplanes would be more suitable than balloons for reconnaissance work. He built models to test his ideas for a tailless design based on the winged seed of a Javanese climbing plant. In 1906 Dunne joined the staff of the Balloon Factory at Farnborough, where the Superintendent, Colonel J.E.Capper, was also interested in manned kites and aeroplanes. Since 1904 the colourful American "Colonel" S.F. Cody had been experimenting at Farnborough with manned kites, and in 1908 his "British Army Dirigible No. 1" made the first powered flight in Britain. Dunne's first swept-wing tailless glider was ready to fly in the spring of 1907, but it was deemed to be a military secret and flying it at Farnborough would be too public. Dunne, Colonel Capper and a team of army engineers took the glider to a remote site at Blair Atholl in Scotland for its test flights. It was not a great success, although it attracted snoopers, with the result that it was camouflaged. Powered versions made short hops in 1908, but then the War Office withdrew its support. Dunne and his associates set up a syndicate to continue the development of a new tailless aeroplane, the D 5; this was built by Short Brothers (see Short, Hugh Oswald) and flew successfully in 1910. It had combined elevators and ailerons on the wing tips (or elevons as they are now called when fitted to modern delta-winged aircraft). In 1913 an improved version of the D 5 was demonstrated in France, where the pilot left his cockpit and walked along the wing in flight. Dunne had proved his point and designed a stable aircraft, but his health was suffering and he retired. During the First World War, however, it was soon learned that military aircraft needed to be manoeuvrable rather than stable.[br]Bibliography1913, "The theory of the Dunne aeroplane", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (April).After he left aviation, Dunne became well known for his writings on the nature of the universe and the interpretation of dreams. His best known-work was An ExperimentWith Time (1927; and reprints).Further ReadingP.B.Walker, 1971, Early Aviation at Farnborough, Vol. I, London; 1974, Vol. II (provides a detailed account of Dunne's early work; Vol. II is the more relevant).P.Lewis, 1962, British Air craft 1809–1914, London (for details of Dunne's aircraft).JDS -
19 Handley Page, Sir Frederick
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 15 November 1885 Cheltenham, Englandd. 21 April 1962 London, England[br]English aviation pioneer, specialist in large aircraft and developer of the slotted wing for safer slow flying.[br]Frederick Handley Page trained as an electrical engineer but soon turned his attention to the more exciting world of aeronautics. He started by manufacturing propellers for aeroplanes and airships, and then in 1909 he founded a public company. His first aeroplane, the Bluebird, was not a success, but an improved version flew well. It was known as the "Yellow Peril" because of its yellow doped finish and made a notable flight across London from Barking to Brooklands. In 1910 Handley Page became one of the first college lecturers in aeronautical engineering. During the First World War Handley Page concentrated on the production of large bombers. The 0/100 was a biplane with a wing span of 100 ft (30 m) and powered by two engines: it entered service in 1916. In 1918 an improved version, the 0/400, entered service and a larger four-engined bomber made its first flight. This was the V/1500, which was designed to bomb Berlin, but the war ended before this raid took place. After the war, Handley Page turned his attention to airline operations with the great advantage of having at his disposal large bombers which could be adapted to carry passengers. Handley Page Air Transport Ltd was formed in 1919 and provided services to several European cities. Eventually this company became part of Imperial Airways, but Handley Page continued to supply them with large airliners. Probably the most famous was the majestic HP 42 four-engined biplane, which set very high standards of comfort and safety. Safety was always important to Handley Page and in 1920 he developed a wing with a slot along the leading edge: this made slow flying safer by delaying the stall. Later versions used separate aerofoil-shaped slats on the leading edge that were sometimes fixed, sometimes retractable. The HP 42 was fitted with these slats. From the 1930s Handley Page produced a series of bombers, such as the Heyford, Hampden, Harrow and, most famous of all, the Halifax, which played a major role in the Second World War. Then followed the Victor V-bomber of 1952 with its distinctive "crescent" wing and high tailplane. Sir Frederick's last venture was the Herald short-haul airliner of 1955; designed to replace the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3, it was only a limited success.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1942. CBE 1918. Lord Lieutenant of the County of Middlesex 1956–60. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society.Bibliography1950, "Towards slower and safer flying, improved take-off and landing and cheaper airports", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society.Further ReadingTwo accounts of Handley Page's life and work were published in the Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society December 1962 and July 1964.D.C.Clayton, 1970, Handley Page: An Aircraft Album, London (for details of his aircraft).C.H.Barnes, 1976, Handley Page Aircraft since 1907, London.JDSBiographical history of technology > Handley Page, Sir Frederick
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20 Hornby, Frank
SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors[br]b. 15 May 1863 Liverpool, Englandd. 21 September 1936 Liverpool, England[br]English toy manufacturer and inventor of Meccano kits.[br]Frank Hornby left school at the age of 16 and worked as a clerk, at first for his father, a provision merchant, and later for D.H.Elliott, an importer of meat and livestock, for whom he became Managing Clerk. As a youth he was interested in engineering and in his own small workshop he became a skilled amateur mechanic. He made toys for his children and c.1900 he devised a constructional toy kit consisting of perforated metal strips which could be connected by bolts and nuts. He filed a patent application in January 1901 and, having failed to interest established toy manufacturers, he set up a small business in partnership with his employer, D.H. Elliott, who provided financial support. The kits were sold at first under the name of Mechanics Made Easy, but by 1907 the name Meccano had been registered as a trade mark. The business expanded rapidly and in 1908 Elliott withdrew from the partnership and Hornby continued on his own account, the company being incorporated as Meccano Ltd. Although parts for Meccano were produced at first by various manufacturers, Hornby soon acquired premises to produce all the components under his own control, and between 1910 and 1913 he established his own factory on a 5-acre (2-hectare) site at Binn's Road, Liverpool. The Meccano Magazine, a monthly publication with articles of general engineering interest, developed from a newsletter giving advice on the use of Meccano, and from the first issue in 1916 until 1924 was edited by Frank Hornby. In 1920 he introduced the clockwork Hornby trains, followed by the electric version five years later. These were gauge "0" (1 1/4 in./32 mm); the smaller gauge "00", or Hornby Dublo, was a later development. Another product of Meccano Ltd was the series of model vehicles known as Dinky toys, introduced in 1934.Frank Hornby served as a Member of Parliament for the Everton Division of Liverpool from 1931 to 1935.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsMP, 1931–5.Further ReadingD.J.Jeremy (ed.), 1984–6, Dictionary of Business Biography, Vol. 3, London, 345–9 (a useful biography).Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers 127(1934):140–1 (describes the Binn's Road factory).RTS
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1907 Copa del Rey — Country Spain Teams 5 Champions Madrid FC Matches played 11 Goals scored 38 (3.45 per match) Top goal scorer(s) … Wikipedia
1910 dans les parcs d'attractions — Années : 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Décennies : 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 Siècles : XIXe … Wikipédia en Français
1910 au cinema — 1910 au cinéma Années : 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Décennies : 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 Siècles : XIXe siècle … Wikipédia en Français
1910 au theatre — 1910 au théâtre Années : 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Décennies : 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 Siècles : XIXe siècle … Wikipédia en Français
