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to+increase+a+country's+influence

  • 1 influence

    1. n
    (on / with smb) влияние; воздействие (на кого-л.)

    influence declines / diminishes / wanes — влияние падает

    to be under the influence — 1) быть / находиться под влиянием 2) быть в состоянии алкогольного опьянения

    to bolster one's influence — усиливать свое влияние

    to come under smb's influence — попадать под чье-л. влияние

    to counteract smb's influence — противодействовать чьему-л. влиянию

    to curb smb's influence — сдерживать / ограничивать чье-л. влияние

    to diminish smb's influence on smb — уменьшать чье-л. влияние на кого-л.

    to erode smb's influence — подрывать чье-л. влияние

    to expand one's influence — расширять свое влияние

    to extend smb's influence over a country — распространять чье-л. влияние на какую-л. страну

    to flaunt one's influence — афишировать свое влияние

    to have influence over / with smb — иметь влияние на кого-л.

    to hold smb's influence in check — препятствовать чьему-л. влиянию

    to intercept smb's influence — препятствовать чьему-л. воздействию; не допускать чьего-л. влияния / воздействия

    to lessen smb's influence on smb — уменьшать чье-л. влияние на кого-л.

    to neutralize smb's influence — нейтрализовать чье-л. влияние

    to offset smb's influence — нейтрализовать чье-л. влияние; противостоять чьему-л. влиянию

    to peddle one's influence — распространять свое влияние

    to reduce smb's influence on smb — уменьшать чье-л. влияние на кого-л.

    to restrain / to restrict influence — ограничивать влияние

    to spread one's influence — распространять свое влияние

    to strengthen one's influence — усиливать влияние

    to use one's influence — использовать свое влияние

    to weaken smb's influence — ослаблять чье-л. влияние

    to wield ( one's) influence — иметь влияние, пользоваться влиянием

    - backstage influence
    - back-stairs influence
    - behind-the-scenes influence
    - beneficial influence
    - corrupting influence
    - cultural influence
    - decisive influence
    - decline of influence
    - direct influence
    - economic influence     - growing influence
    - growth of influence
    - ideological influence
    - increasing influence
    - influence of ideas
    - loss of personal influence
    - man of influence
    - marked influence
    - means of ideological influence
    - measures of ideological influence
    - political influence
    - power of public influence
    - power of social influence
    - profound influence
    - psychological influence
    - public influence
    - scramble for influence
    - social influence     - strong influence
    - undue influence
    - vestiges of influence
    - waning influence
    - worldwide influence     2. v
    влиять (на кого-л.), влиять (на что-л.)

    to influence smb by one's example — воздействовать на кого-л. силой примера

    Politics english-russian dictionary > influence

  • 2 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 3 over

    1.
    ['əʊvə(r)]adverb
    1) (outward and downward) hinüber
    2) (so as to cover surface)

    draw/board/cover over — zuziehen/-nageln/-decken

    3) (with motion above something)

    climb/look/jump over — hinüber- od. (ugs.) rüberklettern/-sehen/-springen

    4) (so as to reverse position etc.) herum

    switch over — umschalten [Programm, Sender]

    it rolled over and over — es rollte und rollte

    5) (across a space) hinüber; (towards speaker) herüber

    he swam over to us/the other side — er schwamm zu uns herüber/hinüber zur anderen Seite

    over here/there — (direction) hier herüber/dort hinüber; (location) hier/dort

    they are over [here] for the day — sie sind einen Tag hier

    ask somebody over [for dinner] — jemanden [zum Essen] einladen

    [come in, please,] over — übernehmen Sie bitte

    7) (in excess etc.)

    children of 12 and over — Kinder im Alter von zwölf Jahren und darüber

    be [left] over — übrig [geblieben] sein

    9 into 28 goes 3 and 1 over — 28 geteilt durch neun ist gleich 3, Rest 1

    it's a bit over — (in weight) es ist ein bisschen mehr

    8) (from beginning to end) von Anfang bis Ende

    over and over [again] — immer wieder

    9) (at an end) vorbei; vorüber

    be over — vorbei sein; [Aufführung:] zu Ende sein

    10)

    all over — (completely finished) aus [und vorbei]; (in or on one's whole body etc.) überall; (in characteristic attitude) typisch

    I ache all over — mir tut alles weh

    be shaking all over — am ganzen Körper zittern

    that is him/something all over — das ist typisch für ihn/etwas

    11) (overleaf) umseitig
    2. preposition
    1) (above) (indicating position) über (+ Dat.); (indicating motion) über (+ Akk.)
    2) (on) (indicating position) über (+ Dat.); (indicating motion) über (+ Akk.)
    3) (in or across every part of) [überall] in (+ Dat.); (to and fro upon) über (+ Akk.); (all through) durch

    all over — (in or on all parts of) überall in (+ Dat.)

    she spilt wine all over her skirt — sie hat sich (Dat.) Wein über den ganzen Rock geschüttet

    4) (round about) (indicating position) über (+ Dat.); (indicating motion) über (+ Akk.)
    5) (on account of) wegen
    6) (engaged with) bei

    take trouble over something — sich (Dat.) mit etwas Mühe geben

    over work/dinner/a cup of tea — bei der Arbeit/beim Essen/bei einer Tasse Tee

    7) (superior to, in charge of) über (+ Akk.)

    have command/authority over somebody — Befehlsgewalt über jemanden/Weisungsbefugnis gegenüber jemandem haben

    be over somebody — (in rank) über jemandem stehen

    8) (beyond, more than) über (+ Akk.)

    it's been over a month since... — es ist über einen Monat her, dass...

    9) (in comparison with)
    10) (out and down from etc.) über (+ Akk.)
    11) (across) über (+ Akk.)

    the pub over the road — die Wirtschaft auf der anderen Straßenseite od. gegenüber

    be over the worst — das Schlimmste hinter sich (Dat.) od. überstanden haben

    12) (throughout, during) über (+ Akk.)

    stay over Christmas/the weekend/Wednesday — über Weihnachten/das Wochenende/bis Donnerstag bleiben

    * * *
    ['əuvə] 1. preposition
    1) (higher than; above in position, number, authority etc: Hang that picture over the fireplace; He's over 90 years old.) über
    2) (from one side to another, on or above the top of; on the other side of: He jumped over the gate; She fell over the cat; My friend lives over the street.) über
    3) (covering: He put his handkerchief over his face.) über
    4) (across: You find people like him all over the world.) über
    5) (about: a quarrel over money.) wegen
    6) (by means of: He spoke to her over the telephone.) durch
    7) (during: Over the years, she grew to hate her husband.) während
    8) (while having etc: He fell asleep over his dinner.) über
    2. adverb
    1) (higher, moving etc above: The plane flew over about an hour ago.)
    2) (used to show movement, change of position: He rolled over on his back; He turned over the page.)
    3) (across: He went over and spoke to them.)
    4) (downwards: He fell over.)
    5) (higher in number etc: for people aged twenty and over.)
    6) (remaining: There are two cakes for each of us, and two over.)
    7) (through from beginning to end, carefully: Read it over; Talk it over between you.)
    3. adjective
    (finished: The affair is over now.) über
    4. noun
    ((in cricket) a certain number of balls bowled from one end of the wicket: He bowled thirty overs in the match.) das Over
    5. as part of a word
    1) (too (much), as in overdo.) über...
    2) (in a higher position, as in overhead.) ober...
    3) (covering, as in overcoat.) über...
    4) (down from an upright position, as in overturn.) um...
    5) (completely, as in overcome.) über...
    •
    - academic.ru/117784/over_again">over again
    - over all
    - over and done with
    * * *
    [ˈəʊvəʳ, AM ˈoʊvɚ]
    I. adv inv, pred
    1. (across) hinüber; (towards speaker) herüber
    come \over here komm hierher
    why don't you come \over for dinner on Thursday? kommt doch am Donnerstag zum Abendessen zu uns
    he is flying \over from the States tomorrow er kommt morgen aus den Staaten 'rüber fam
    I've got a friend \over from Canada this week ich habe diese Woche einen Freund aus Kanada zu Besuch
    to move [sth] \over [etw] [beiseite] rücken
    I've got a friend \over in Munich ein Freund von mir lebt in München
    \over the sea in Übersee
    \over there dort [drüben]
    3. (another way up) auf die andere Seite
    the dog rolled \over onto its back der Hund rollte sich auf den Rücken
    to turn sth \over etw umdrehen
    to turn a page \over [eine Seite] umblättern
    \over and \over [immer wieder] um sich akk selbst
    the children rolled \over and \over down the gentle slope die Kinder kugelten den leichten Abhang hinunter
    to fall \over hinfallen
    to knock sth \over etw umstoßen
    ▪ to be \over vorbei [o aus] sein
    the game was \over by 5 o'clock das Spiel war um 5 Uhr zu Ende
    it's all \over between us zwischen uns ist es aus
    that's all \over now damit ist es jetzt vorbei
    to be all \over bar the shouting so gut wie gelaufen sein fam
    to get sth \over with etw abschließen
    to get sth \over and done with etw hinter sich akk bringen
    6. AVIAT, TELEC over, Ende
    \over and out Ende [der Durchsage] fam
    [left] \over übrig
    there were a few sandwiches left \over ein paar Sandwiches waren noch übrig
    to read sth \over etw durchlesen
    to talk sth \over etw durchsprechen
    to think sth \over etw überdenken
    the world \over überall auf der Welt
    all \over ganz und gar
    that's him all \over typisch er
    I was wet all \over ich war völlig durchnässt
    10. AM (again) noch einmal
    all \over alles noch einmal
    I'll make you write it all \over ich lasse dich alles noch einmal schreiben
    to say everything twice \over alles zweimal sagen; five times \over fünfmal hintereinander
    \over and \over immer [o wieder und] wieder
    I've done all I can. it's now over to you ich habe alles getan, was ich konnte. jetzt bist du dran
    12. RADIO, TV
    and now it's \over to John Regis for his report wir geben jetzt weiter an John Regis und seinen Bericht
    now we're going \over to Wembley for commentary zum Kommentar schalten wir jetzt hinüber nach Wembley
    13. (more) mehr
    people who are 65 and \over Menschen, die 65 Jahre oder älter sind
    14.
    ▶ to give \over die Klappe halten sl
    ▶ to have one \over the eight BRIT einen sitzen haben fam
    ▶ to hold sth \over etw verschieben
    II. prep
    1. (across) über + akk
    he spilled wine \over his shirt er goss sich Wein über sein Hemd
    he looked \over his newspaper er schaute über seine Zeitung hinweg
    the village is just \over the next hill das Dorf liegt hinter dem nächsten Hügel
    the diagram is \over the page das Diagramm ist auf der nächsten Seite
    \over the way [or road] BRIT auf der anderen Straßenseite, gegenüber
    they live just \over the road from us sie wohnen uns gegenüber auf der anderen Straßenseite
    3. (above) über + dat
    he sat there, bent \over his books er saß da, über seine Bücher gebeugt
    to have a roof \over one's head ein Dach über dem Kopf haben
    4. (everywhere) [überall] in + dat; (moving everywhere) durch + akk
    all \over überall in + dat
    she had blood all \over her hands sie hatte die Hände voll Blut
    you've got mustard all \over your face du hast Senf überall im Gesicht
    all \over the country im ganzen Land
    we travelled all \over the country wir haben das ganze Land bereist
    all \over the world auf der ganzen Welt
    to be all \over sb (sl) von jdm hingerissen sein
    to show sb \over the house jdm das Haus zeigen
    5. (during) in + dat
    , während + gen
    shall we talk about it \over a cup of coffee? sollen wir das bei einer Tasse Kaffee besprechen?
    gentlemen are asked not to smoke \over dinner die Herren werden gebeten, während des Essens nicht zu rauchen
    she fell asleep \over her homework sie nickte über ihren Hausaufgaben ein
    \over the last few months in den letzten Monaten
    \over the summer den Sommer über
    \over the years mit den Jahren
    6. (more than, longer than) über + akk
    this shirt cost me \over £50! dieses Hemd hat mich über 50 Pfund gekostet!
    they are already 25 million dollars \over budget sie haben das Budget bereits um 25 Millionen Dollar überzogen
    he will not survive \over the winter er wird den Winter nicht überstehen
    \over and above über + akk... hinaus
    she receives an extra allowance \over and above the usual welfare payments sie bekommt über die üblichen Sozialhilfeleistungen hinaus eine zusätzliche Beihilfe
    \over and above that darüber hinaus
    7. (through)
    he told me \over the phone er sagte es mir am Telefon
    we heard the news \over the radio wir hörten die Nachricht im Radio
    8. (in superiority to) über + akk
    he has authority \over thirty employees er hat dreißig Mitarbeiter unter sich
    she has a regional sales director \over her sie untersteht einem Gebietsvertriebsleiter
    a colonel is \over a sergeant in the army ein Colonel steht über einem Sergeant in der Armee
    her husband always did have a lot of influence \over her ihr Mann hat schon immer einen großen Einfluss auf sie gehabt
    9. (about) über + akk
    there's no point in arguing \over it es hat keinen Sinn, darüber zu streiten
    don't fret \over him — he'll be alright mach dir keine Sorgen um ihn — es wird ihm schon gutgehen
    we've been \over this before — no TV until you've done your homework das hatten wir doch alles schon — kein Fernsehen bis du deine Hausaufgaben gemacht hast
    10. (past) über + akk... hinweg
    he's not fully recovered but he's certainly \over the worst er ist zwar noch nicht wieder ganz gesund, aber er hat das Schlimmste überstanden
    to be/get \over sb über die Trennung von jdm hinweg sein/kommen
    to be \over an obstacle ein Hindernis überwunden haben
    11. MATH (in fraction) durch + akk
    48 \over 7 is roughly 7 48 durch 7 ist ungefähr 7
    2 \over 5 zwei Fünftel
    * * *
    ['əʊvə(r)]
    1. prep
    1) (indicating motion) über (+acc)

    he spilled coffee over it — er goss Kaffee darüber, er vergoss Kaffee darauf

    2) (indicating position = above, on top of) über (+dat)

    if you hang the picture over the desk — wenn du das Bild über dem Schreibtisch aufhängst or über den Schreibtisch hängst

    3) (= on the other side of) über (+dat); (= to the other side of) über (+acc)

    the house over the road —

    when they were over the river — als sie über den Fluss hinüber waren

    4) (= in or across every part of) in (+dat)

    they came from all over England —

    you've got ink all over you/your hands — Sie/Ihre Hände sind ganz voller Tinte

    5) (= superior to) über (+dat)

    he has no control over his urges/his staff — er hat seine Triebe/seine Angestellten nicht unter Kontrolle

    6) (= more than, longer than) über (+acc)

    that was well over a year ago — das ist gut ein Jahr her, das war vor gut einem Jahr

    7) (in expressions of time) über (+acc); (= during) während (+gen), in (+dat)

    over the summer we have been trying... — während des Sommers haben wir versucht...

    over the (past) years I've come to realize... — im Laufe der (letzten) Jahre ist mir klar geworden...

    8)

    they talked over a cup of coffee —

    let's discuss that over dinner/a beer — besprechen wir das beim Essen/bei einem Bier

    9)
    10) (= about) über (+acc)

    it's not worth arguing over —

    11)
    2. adv
    1) (= across) (away from speaker) hinüber; (towards speaker) herüber; (= on the other side) drüben

    they swam over to us —

    he took the fruit over to his mother when the first man is over the second starts to climb/swim — er brachte das Obst zu seiner Mutter hinüber wenn der Erste drüben angekommen ist, klettert/schwimmt der Zweite los

    I just thought I'd come over — ich dachte, ich komme mal rüber (inf)

    he is over here/there — er ist hier/dort drüben

    and now over to our reporter in Belfast — und nun schalten wir zu unserem Reporter in Belfast um

    and now over to Paris where... — und nun (schalten wir um) nach Paris, wo...

    he went over to the enemy — er lief zum Feind über

    2)

    you've got dirt all over — Sie sind voller Schmutz, Sie sind ganz schmutzig

    I'm wet all over — ich bin völlig nass

    3)

    (indicating movement from one side to another, from upright position) to turn an object over (and over) — einen Gegenstand (immer wieder) herumdrehen

    he hit her and over she went — er schlug sie, und sie fiel um

    4) (= ended) film, first act, operation, fight etc zu Ende; romance, summer vorbei, zu Ende

    the danger was over — die Gefahr war vorüber, es bestand keine Gefahr mehr

    5)

    over and over (again) — immer (und immer) wieder, wieder und wieder

    must I say everything twice over! — muss ich denn immer alles zweimal sagen!

    6) (= excessively) übermäßig, allzu
    7) (= remaining) übrig

    there was no/a lot of meat (left) over — es war kein Fleisch mehr übrig/viel Fleisch übrig

    7 into 22 goes 3 and 1 over — 22 durch 7 ist 3, Rest 1

    8)

    (= more) children of 8 and over —

    all results of 5.3 and over — alle Ergebnisse ab 5,3 or von 5,3 und darüber

    9) (TELEC)

    come in, please, over — bitte kommen, over

    over and out — Ende der Durchsage; (Aviat) over and out

    3. n (CRICKET)
    6 aufeinanderfolgende Würfe
    * * *
    over [ˈəʊvə(r)]
    A präp
    1. (Grundbedeutung) über (dat oder akk)
    2. (Lage) über (dat):
    3. (Richtung, Bewegung) über (akk), über (akk) … hin, über (akk) … (hin)weg:
    the bridge over the Danube die Brücke über die Donau;
    he escaped over the border er entkam über die Grenze;
    he will get over it fig er wird darüber hinwegkommen
    4. durch:
    5. Br über (dat), jenseits (gen), auf der anderen Seite von (oder gen):
    over the sea in Übersee, jenseits des Meeres;
    over the street ( oder road) auf der anderen Straßenseite;
    over the way gegenüber
    6. über (dat), bei:
    he fell asleep over his work er schlief über seiner Arbeit ein;
    over a cup of tea bei einer Tasse Tee
    7. über (akk), wegen:
    8. (Herrschaft, Autorität, Rang) über (dat oder akk):
    be over sb über jemandem stehen;
    reign over a kingdom über ein Königreich herrschen;
    he set him over the others er setzte ihn über die anderen
    9. vor (dat):
    preference over the others Vorzug vor den andern
    10. über (akk), mehr als:
    over a week über eine Woche, länger als eine Woche;
    over and above zusätzlich zu, außer ( → B 13)
    11. über (akk), während:
    over the years im Laufe der Jahre;
    over many years viele Jahre hindurch
    12. durch:
    he went over his notes er ging seine Notizen durch
    B adv
    1. hinüber…, darüber…:
    2. hinüber… (to zu):
    3. fig über…, zur anderen Seite oder Partei:
    they went over to the enemy sie liefen zum Feind über
    4. herüber…:
    come over!
    5. drüben:
    over by the tree drüben beim Baum;
    over in Canada (drüben) in Kanada;
    a) da drüben,
    b) US umg (drüben) in Europa;
    over against gegenüber (dat) (a. fig im Gegensatz od im Vergleich zu)
    6. (genau) darüber:
    7. darüber(…), über…(-decken etc):
    paint sth over etwas übermalen
    a) über…(-geben etc)
    b) über…(-kochen etc)
    9. (oft in Verbindung mit Verben)
    a) um…(-fallen, -werfen etc)
    b) herum…(-drehen etc)
    10. durch(weg), von Anfang bis (zum) Ende:
    one foot over ein Fuß im Durchmesser;
    covered (all) over with red spots ganz oder über und über mit roten Flecken bedeckt;
    a) in der ganzen Welt,
    b) durch die ganze Welt
    11. (gründlich) über…(-legen, -denken etc)
    12. nochmals, wieder:
    (all) over again nochmal, (ganz) von vorn;
    over and over again immer (u. immer) wieder;
    do sth over etwas nochmals tun;
    ten times over zehnmal hintereinander
    13. darüber, mehr:
    children of ten years and over Kinder ab 10 Jahren;
    10 ounces and over 10 Unzen und mehr;
    over and above außerdem, obendrein, überdies ( → A 10)
    14. übrig:
    15. (zeitlich, im Deutschen oft unübersetzt)
    a) ständig
    b) länger:
    we stayed over till Monday wir blieben bis Montag
    16. zu Ende, vorüber, vorbei:
    over! (Funksprechverkehr) over!, kommen!;
    all over ganz vorbei;
    all over with erledigt, vorüber;
    it’s all over with him es ist aus und vorbei mit ihm, er ist endgültig erledigt umg;
    all over and done with total erledigt
    C adj
    1. ober(er, e, es), Ober…
    2. äußer(er, e, es), Außen…
    3. überzählig, überschüssig, übrig
    D s Überschuss m:
    over of exports Exportüberschuss
    * * *
    1.
    ['əʊvə(r)]adverb

    draw/board/cover over — zuziehen/-nageln/-decken

    3) (with motion above something)

    climb/look/jump over — hinüber- od. (ugs.) rüberklettern/-sehen/-springen

    4) (so as to reverse position etc.) herum

    switch over — umschalten [Programm, Sender]

    5) (across a space) hinüber; (towards speaker) herüber

    he swam over to us/the other side — er schwamm zu uns herüber/hinüber zur anderen Seite

    over here/there — (direction) hier herüber/dort hinüber; (location) hier/dort

    they are over [here] for the day — sie sind einen Tag hier

    ask somebody over [for dinner] — jemanden [zum Essen] einladen

    [come in, please,] over — übernehmen Sie bitte

    7) (in excess etc.)

    be [left] over — übrig [geblieben] sein

    9 into 28 goes 3 and 1 over — 28 geteilt durch neun ist gleich 3, Rest 1

    it's a bit over — (in weight) es ist ein bisschen mehr

    8) (from beginning to end) von Anfang bis Ende

    over and over [again] — immer wieder

    9) (at an end) vorbei; vorüber

    be over — vorbei sein; [Aufführung:] zu Ende sein

    10)

    all over — (completely finished) aus [und vorbei]; (in or on one's whole body etc.) überall; (in characteristic attitude) typisch

    that is him/something all over — das ist typisch für ihn/etwas

    11) (overleaf) umseitig
    2. preposition
    1) (above) (indicating position) über (+ Dat.); (indicating motion) über (+ Akk.)
    2) (on) (indicating position) über (+ Dat.); (indicating motion) über (+ Akk.)
    3) (in or across every part of) [überall] in (+ Dat.); (to and fro upon) über (+ Akk.); (all through) durch

    all over — (in or on all parts of) überall in (+ Dat.)

    she spilt wine all over her skirt — sie hat sich (Dat.) Wein über den ganzen Rock geschüttet

    4) (round about) (indicating position) über (+ Dat.); (indicating motion) über (+ Akk.)

    take trouble over something — sich (Dat.) mit etwas Mühe geben

    over work/dinner/a cup of tea — bei der Arbeit/beim Essen/bei einer Tasse Tee

    7) (superior to, in charge of) über (+ Akk.)

    have command/authority over somebody — Befehlsgewalt über jemanden/Weisungsbefugnis gegenüber jemandem haben

    be over somebody — (in rank) über jemandem stehen

    8) (beyond, more than) über (+ Akk.)

    it's been over a month since... — es ist über einen Monat her, dass...

    10) (out and down from etc.) über (+ Akk.)
    11) (across) über (+ Akk.)

    be over the worst — das Schlimmste hinter sich (Dat.) od. überstanden haben

    12) (throughout, during) über (+ Akk.)

    stay over Christmas/the weekend/Wednesday — über Weihnachten/das Wochenende/bis Donnerstag bleiben

    * * *
    adj.
    aus adj.
    vorbei adj.
    übermäßig adj. prep.
    hinüber präp.
    über präp.

    English-german dictionary > over

  • 4 Economy

       Portugal's economy, under the influence of the European Economic Community (EEC), and later with the assistance of the European Union (EU), grew rapidly in 1985-86; through 1992, the average annual growth was 4-5 percent. While such growth rates did not last into the late 1990s, portions of Portugal's society achieved unprecedented prosperity, although poverty remained entrenched. It is important, however, to place this current growth, which includes some not altogether desirable developments, in historical perspective. On at least three occasions in this century, Portugal's economy has experienced severe dislocation and instability: during the turbulent First Republic (1911-25); during the Estado Novo, when the world Depression came into play (1930-39); and during the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April, 1974. At other periods, and even during the Estado Novo, there were eras of relatively steady growth and development, despite the fact that Portugal's weak economy lagged behind industrialized Western Europe's economies, perhaps more than Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar wished to admit to the public or to foreigners.
       For a number of reasons, Portugal's backward economy underwent considerable growth and development following the beginning of the colonial wars in Africa in early 1961. Recent research findings suggest that, contrary to the "stagnation thesis" that states that the Estado Novo economy during the last 14 years of its existence experienced little or no growth, there were important changes, policy shifts, structural evolution, and impressive growth rates. In fact, the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (1961-74) was about 7 percent. The war in Africa was one significant factor in the post-1961 economic changes. The new costs of finance and spending on the military and police actions in the African and Asian empires in 1961 and thereafter forced changes in economic policy.
       Starting in 1963-64, the relatively closed economy was opened up to foreign investment, and Lisbon began to use deficit financing and more borrowing at home and abroad. Increased foreign investment, residence, and technical and military assistance also had effects on economic growth and development. Salazar's government moved toward greater trade and integration with various international bodies by signing agreements with the European Free Trade Association and several international finance groups. New multinational corporations began to operate in the country, along with foreign-based banks. Meanwhile, foreign tourism increased massively from the early 1960s on, and the tourism industry experienced unprecedented expansion. By 1973-74, Portugal received more than 8 million tourists annually for the first time.
       Under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano, other important economic changes occurred. High annual economic growth rates continued until the world energy crisis inflation and a recession hit Portugal in 1973. Caetano's system, through new development plans, modernized aspects of the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors and linked reform in education with plans for social change. It also introduced cadres of forward-looking technocrats at various levels. The general motto of Caetano's version of the Estado Novo was "Evolution with Continuity," but he was unable to solve the key problems, which were more political and social than economic. As the boom period went "bust" in 1973-74, and growth slowed greatly, it became clear that Caetano and his governing circle had no way out of the African wars and could find no easy compromise solution to the need to democratize Portugal's restive society. The economic background of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was a severe energy shortage caused by the world energy crisis and Arab oil boycott, as well as high general inflation, increasing debts from the African wars, and a weakening currency. While the regime prescribed greater Portuguese investment in Africa, in fact Portuguese businesses were increasingly investing outside of the escudo area in Western Europe and the United States.
       During the two years of political and social turmoil following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the economy weakened. Production, income, reserves, and annual growth fell drastically during 1974-76. Amidst labor-management conflict, there was a burst of strikes, and income and productivity plummeted. Ironically, one factor that cushioned the economic impact of the revolution was the significant gold reserve supply that the Estado Novo had accumulated, principally during Salazar's years. Another factor was emigration from Portugal and the former colonies in Africa, which to a degree reduced pressures for employment. The sudden infusion of more than 600,000 refugees from Africa did increase the unemployment rate, which in 1975 was 10-15 percent. But, by 1990, the unemployment rate was down to about 5-6 percent.
       After 1985, Portugal's economy experienced high growth rates again, which averaged 4-5 percent through 1992. Substantial economic assistance from the EEC and individual countries such as the United States, as well as the political stability and administrative continuity that derived from majority Social Democratic Party (PSD) governments starting in mid-1987, supported new growth and development in the EEC's second poorest country. With rapid infrastruc-tural change and some unregulated development, Portugal's leaders harbored a justifiable concern that a fragile environment and ecology were under new, unacceptable pressures. Among other improvements in the standard of living since 1974 was an increase in per capita income. By 1991, the average minimum monthly wage was about 40,000 escudos, and per capita income was about $5,000 per annum. By the end of the 20th century, despite continuing poverty at several levels in Portugal, Portugal's economy had made significant progress. In the space of 15 years, Portugal had halved the large gap in living standards between itself and the remainder of the EU. For example, when Portugal joined the EU in 1986, its GDP, in terms of purchasing power-parity, was only 53 percent of the EU average. By 2000, Portugal's GDP had reached 75 percent of the EU average, a considerable achievement. Whether Portugal could narrow this gap even further in a reasonable amount of time remained a sensitive question in Lisbon. Besides structural poverty and the fact that, in 2006, the EU largesse in structural funds (loans and grants) virtually ceased, a major challenge for Portugal's economy will be to reduce the size of the public sector (about 50 percent of GDP is in the central government) to increase productivity, attract outside investment, and diversify the economy. For Portugal's economic planners, the 21st century promises to be challenging.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Economy

  • 5 lead

    I 1. [liːd]

    to be in the lead to have the lead essere in testa o al primo posto; to go into the lead to take the lead — passare in testa, assumere il comando

    to follow sb.'s lead — seguire l'esempio di qcn

    4) (clue) pista f., indizio m.
    5) teatr. cinem. parte f. principale, ruolo m. principale
    6) giorn.
    7) el. (wire) filo m.
    8) BE (for dog) guinzaglio m.
    2.
    modificatore [guitarist, guitar] primo; [ role] principale; [ article] d'apertura
    II 1. [liːd]
    verbo transitivo (pass., p.pass. led)
    1) (guide, escort) guidare, condurre [ person] (to sth. a qcs.; to sb. da qcn.)

    to lead sb. away — condurre via o allontanare qcn.

    to lead sb. across the road — fare attraversare la strada a qcn

    2) (bring) [path, sign] portare (to a), guidare (to da, verso); [ smell] guidare [ person] (to da, verso)
    3) (be leader of) guidare [army, team, attack, procession]; dirigere [orchestra, research]
    4) sport comm. (be ahead of) condurre su, essere in vantaggio su [ rival]; guidare su [ team]

    to lead the field — (in commerce, research) essere il leader nel settore; (in race) condurre, essere in testa

    5) (cause, influence)

    to lead sb. to do — portare qcn. a fare

    6) (conduct, have) condurre, fare [ active life]
    2.
    verbo intransitivo (pass., p.pass. led)
    1) (go, be directed)

    to lead to — [ path] condurre, portare a; [ door] dare su; [exit, trapdoor] portare a

    to lead to — portare a [complication, discovery, accident, response]

    one thing led to another, and we... — da cosa nacque cosa, e noi

    3) (be ahead) [ company] essere in testa; [runner, car, team] condurre, essere in testa, essere al comando
    4) (go first) (in walk) fare strada; (in procession) essere in testa; (in action, discussion) prendere l'iniziativa
    5) (in dancing) condurre, guidare
    6) giorn.

    to lead with — mettere in prima pagina [story, headline]

    8) (in cards) essere di mano
    •
    ••

    to lead the way — (go first) fare strada; (guide others) mostrare la via o strada; (be ahead, winning) essere in testa

    III 1. [led]
    1) (metal) piombo m.
    2) colloq. fig. (bullets) piombo m.
    3) (anche blacklead) (graphite) grafite f.; (in pencil) mina f.
    4) mar. (for sounding) piombo m., scandaglio m.
    5) BE (for roofing) piombo m.
    2.

    lead poisoning — avvelenamento da piombo, saturnismo

    ••

    to fill o pump sb. full of lead colloq. riempire qcn. di piombo; to get the lead out AE colloq. (stop loafing) darsi una mossa; (speed up) liberarsi della zavorra; to go over AE o down BE like a lead balloon — colloq. fallire miseramente

    * * *
    I 1. [li:d] past tense, past participle - led; verb
    1) (to guide or direct or cause to go in a certain direction: Follow my car and I'll lead you to the motorway; She took the child by the hand and led him across the road; He was leading the horse into the stable; The sound of hammering led us to the garage; You led us to believe that we would be paid!)
    2) (to go or carry to a particular place or along a particular course: A small path leads through the woods.)
    3) ((with to) to cause or bring about a certain situation or state of affairs: The heavy rain led to serious floods.)
    4) (to be first (in): An official car led the procession; He is still leading in the competition.)
    5) (to live (a certain kind of life): She leads a pleasant existence on a Greek island.)
    2. noun
    1) (the front place or position: He has taken over the lead in the race.)
    2) (the state of being first: We have a lead over the rest of the world in this kind of research.)
    3) (the act of leading: We all followed his lead.)
    4) (the amount by which one is ahead of others: He has a lead of twenty metres (over the man in second place).)
    5) (a leather strap or chain for leading a dog etc: All dogs must be kept on a lead.)
    6) (a piece of information which will help to solve a mystery etc: The police have several leads concerning the identity of the thief.)
    7) (a leading part in a play etc: Who plays the lead in that film?)
    •
    - leadership
    - lead on
    - lead up the garden path
    - lead up to
    - lead the way     II [led] noun
    1) (( also adjective) (of) an element, a soft, heavy, bluish-grey metal: lead pipes; Are these pipes made of lead or copper?)
    2) (the part of a pencil that leaves a mark: The lead of my pencil has broken.)
    •
    * * *
    lead (1) /lɛd/
    n.
    1 [u] (chim.) piombo: lead acetate, acetato di piombo; lead arsenate, arseniato di piombo
    2 (naut.) piombo; piombino; scandaglio: sounding lead, piombo per scandaglio
    3 (= blacklead) grafite; mina ( di matita)
    4 (tipogr.) interlinea
    5 [u] (fig.) piombo; proiettili
    ● ( slang) lead balloon, fiasco (fig.); fallimento □ (elettr.) lead-covered cable, cavo sotto piombo □ (fam. USA) lead foot (o lead-footed driver), automobilista che ha il piede pesante ( sull'acceleratore) □ (chim., ecc.) lead-free, senza piombo: lead-free petrol, benzina senza piombo; benzina verde □ (miner.) lead glance, galena □ lead grey, (color) plumbeo: The sky turned a lead grey, il cielo si fece plumbeo □ (naut.) lead line, scandaglio a sagola □ lead paint, minio □ (med.) lead paralysis, paralisi saturnina □ lead pencil, matita ( di grafite) □ ( slang USA) lead-pipe cinch, fatto inevitabile; certezza assoluta □ lead piping, tubazione di piombo □ (med.) lead poisoning, avvelenamento da piombo; saturnismo □ lead seal, piombino ( per sigillare) □ lead shot, pallini di piombo □ lead wool, lana di piombo ( per condutture dell'acqua) □ (naut.) to cast (o to heave) the lead, gettare lo scandaglio □ ( slang) to have lead in one's pencil, esser pieno di vigore sessuale □ ( slang) to put lead in sb. 's pencil, dare la carica a q. □ (fam. ingl.) to swing the lead, oziare, battere la fiacca; darsi malato, marcare visita.
    ♦ lead (2) /li:d/
    n.
    1 [u] comando; guida; posizione di testa; primo posto; avanguardia: We will follow your lead, ci lasceremo guidare da te; ti verremo dietro; to be in the lead, essere all'avanguardia; ( in una gara o classifica) essere in testa, essere al comando, condurre; Burns pulled out to an early lead, Burns passò ben presto in testa; ( sport) to gain the lead, portarsi in testa; prendere il comando; passare in vantaggio; to take the lead, prendere l'iniziativa; prendere il comando; ( in una gara o classifica) portarsi in testa; Asia has taken the lead in car production, l'Asia è diventata la prima produttrice al mondo di automobili; to lose the lead, perdere il comando, ( in una gara o classifica) perdere il primo posto (o la prima posizione)
    2 ( anche polit.) vantaggio: He has a good lead over the other candidates, ha un buon vantaggio sugli altri candidati
    3 suggerimento; indizio; pista, traccia: to give sb. a lead in solving a problem, dare a q. un suggerimento per la soluzione d'un problema; to follow (up) various leads, seguire varie piste
    4 guinzaglio; laccio: The dog was on the lead, il cane era al guinzaglio
    5 (teatr., cinem.) parte principale; primo attore, prima attrice: to play the lead, avere il ruolo principale: DIALOGO → - Discussing a film- I thought that George Harrington was perfect for the lead role, penso che George Harrington fosse perfetto nel ruolo di protagonista NOTA D'USO: - protagonist o main character?-
    6 ( a carte) mano: Whose lead is it?, chi è di mano?; Your lead!, la mano è tua!; sta a te!; sei di mano tu!
    9 (elettr.) conduttore isolato, cavo, cavetto; ( anche) anticipo di fase
    10 (ind. min.) filone ( di minerale)
    11 (mecc.) passo ( di vite)
    12 (giorn.) articolo di fondo (o di spalla); fondo
    13 (giorn.) attacco ( di articolo)
    14 (comm. est.) anticipo ( di pagamento)
    16 ( sport) vantaggio; margine; distacco; scarto
    18 (pl.) (autom., elettr.) collegamenti; fili
    19 (mil., caccia) anticipo
    ● lead-in, introduzione; ( radio, TV) filo dell'antenna, discesa d'antenna □ ( basket) lead official, primo arbitro □ (equit.) lead rope, longia, longina ( corda per guidare un cavallo a mano) □ (mecc.) lead-screw, madrevite □ (mus.) lead singer, voce principale ( di un gruppo musicale) □ lead time, intervallo tra l'inizio e la fine di un processo di produzione □ (mus.) lead violin, primo violino □ (mus.) lead vocals, voce solista; prima voce □ ( sport) to give sb. the lead, mandare in vantaggio q. □ to give sb. a lead, fare strada a, instradare q. □ ( a carte) return lead, rimessa ( di carta dello stesso seme).
    (to) lead (1) /lɛd/
    A v. t.
    1 piombare; impiombare; rivestire di piombo
    2 impiombare; piombare; mettere il piombo (o i piombi) a
    3 (tipogr.) interlineare
    B v. i.
    ( della canna d'arma da fuoco) incrostarsi di piombo.
    ♦ (to) lead (2) /li:d/
    (pass. e p. p. led)
    A v. t.
    1 condurre, essere alla testa di; guidare ( anche nella danza): to lead the demonstration, essere alla testa dei dimostranti; to lead a blind man, guidare un cieco; The captain led his team onto the field, il capitano era alla testa della squadra quando entrarono in campo
    2 dirigere; capeggiare; comandare; essere in testa a (o a capo di); ( sport) essere il capitano di
    3 condurre, portare (a): This road will lead you to the country house, questa strada ti condurrà (o ti porterà) alla villa
    4 condurre; fare; avere: to lead a peaceful existence, condurre una vita tranquilla
    5 far fare: to lead sb. a dog's life, far fare a q. una vita da cani
    6 convincere; persuadere; indurre; portare (fig.): His embarrassment led me to believe he was lying, il suo imbarazzo mi ha indotto (o mi ha portato) a credere che mentisse
    7 essere il primo di; essere in testa a: Saudi Arabia leads the world in oil production, l'Arabia Saudita è il primo paese del mondo per produzione del petrolio
    8 far passare, immettere ( acqua in un canale); passare ( una corda, attraverso qc.)
    9 (mus.) dirigere: to lead an orchestra [a band, a chorus], dirigere un'orchestra [una banda, un coro]
    10 ( a carte) giocare (o calare) come prima carta; aprire il gioco con: to lead the ace of hearts, calare l'asso di cuori (in apertura di gioco)
    11 condurre a mano: to lead a horse, condurre a mano un cavallo
    13 ( sport: nelle corse) essere il capoclassifica di; essere il primo a
    14 ( calcio, ecc.) condurre, essere in vantaggio su
    15 ( sport) passare in avanti, prolungare la palla (o il disco) per ( un compagno); fare un suggerimento a
    B v. i.
    1 essere in testa; fare strada; essere in vantaggio; ( sport) condurre: (autom.) Which car is leading?, quale macchina è in testa (o conduce)?
    2 – to lead to, condurre a; portare a: All roads lead to Rome, tutte le strade portano a Roma; This situation could lead to war, questa situazione potrebbe portare alla guerra
    3 ( boxe) saggiare l'avversario; partire (fig.): Never lead with your right, non partire mai di destro!
    4 ( a carte) avere la mano; aprire
    5 (giorn.) aprire: to lead with a terrible piece of news, aprire con una notizia terribile
    6 (elettr.) essere in anticipo
    ● to lead sb. by the hand, condurre q. per mano □ to lead sb. by the nose, tenere q. al guinzaglio; tenere il piede sul collo a q. □ to lead sb. captive, far prigioniero q. □ to lead the dance, aprire le danze □ to lead a double life, avere una doppia vita □ to lead the fashion, dettare la moda □ ( sport) to lead from the start, prendere subito il comando ( della corsa) □ (fam.) to lead sb. a hard life, rendere la vita difficile a q.; tormentare q. □ (fig.) to lead sb. a merry (o a pretty) dance, menare q. per il naso; portare a spasso q. (fig.) □ to lead a parade, aprire una sfilata □ ( sport) to lead the race, condurre (la corsa); aprire la corsa; essere in testa □ to lead the way, fare strada; (fig.) prendere l'iniziativa □ to lead with one's chin, ( boxe) cominciare l'incontro con il mento scoperto; (fig.) gettarsi ( in una discussione, ecc.) a capofitto; esporsi; scoprirsi; essere avventato □ led horse, cavallo condotto a mano; cavallo di riserva □ (prov.) One thing leads to another, da cosa nasce cosa.
    * * *
    I 1. [liːd]

    to be in the lead to have the lead essere in testa o al primo posto; to go into the lead to take the lead — passare in testa, assumere il comando

    to follow sb.'s lead — seguire l'esempio di qcn

    4) (clue) pista f., indizio m.
    5) teatr. cinem. parte f. principale, ruolo m. principale
    6) giorn.
    7) el. (wire) filo m.
    8) BE (for dog) guinzaglio m.
    2.
    modificatore [guitarist, guitar] primo; [ role] principale; [ article] d'apertura
    II 1. [liːd]
    verbo transitivo (pass., p.pass. led)
    1) (guide, escort) guidare, condurre [ person] (to sth. a qcs.; to sb. da qcn.)

    to lead sb. away — condurre via o allontanare qcn.

    to lead sb. across the road — fare attraversare la strada a qcn

    2) (bring) [path, sign] portare (to a), guidare (to da, verso); [ smell] guidare [ person] (to da, verso)
    3) (be leader of) guidare [army, team, attack, procession]; dirigere [orchestra, research]
    4) sport comm. (be ahead of) condurre su, essere in vantaggio su [ rival]; guidare su [ team]

    to lead the field — (in commerce, research) essere il leader nel settore; (in race) condurre, essere in testa

    5) (cause, influence)

    to lead sb. to do — portare qcn. a fare

    6) (conduct, have) condurre, fare [ active life]
    2.
    verbo intransitivo (pass., p.pass. led)
    1) (go, be directed)

    to lead to — [ path] condurre, portare a; [ door] dare su; [exit, trapdoor] portare a

    to lead to — portare a [complication, discovery, accident, response]

    one thing led to another, and we... — da cosa nacque cosa, e noi

    3) (be ahead) [ company] essere in testa; [runner, car, team] condurre, essere in testa, essere al comando
    4) (go first) (in walk) fare strada; (in procession) essere in testa; (in action, discussion) prendere l'iniziativa
    5) (in dancing) condurre, guidare
    6) giorn.

    to lead with — mettere in prima pagina [story, headline]

    8) (in cards) essere di mano
    •
    ••

    to lead the way — (go first) fare strada; (guide others) mostrare la via o strada; (be ahead, winning) essere in testa

    III 1. [led]
    1) (metal) piombo m.
    2) colloq. fig. (bullets) piombo m.
    3) (anche blacklead) (graphite) grafite f.; (in pencil) mina f.
    4) mar. (for sounding) piombo m., scandaglio m.
    5) BE (for roofing) piombo m.
    2.

    lead poisoning — avvelenamento da piombo, saturnismo

    ••

    to fill o pump sb. full of lead colloq. riempire qcn. di piombo; to get the lead out AE colloq. (stop loafing) darsi una mossa; (speed up) liberarsi della zavorra; to go over AE o down BE like a lead balloon — colloq. fallire miseramente

    English-Italian dictionary > lead

  • 6 extend

    1. transitive verb
    1) (stretch out) ausstrecken [Arm, Bein, Hand]; ausziehen [Leiter, Teleskop]; ausbreiten [Flügel]
    2) (make longer) (in space) verlängern; ausdehnen [Grenze]; ausbauen [Bahnlinie, Straße]; (in time) verlängern; verlängern lassen [Leihbuch, Visum]

    extend the time limit — den Termin hinausschieben

    3) (enlarge) ausdehnen [Einfluss, Macht]; erweitern [Wissen, Wortschatz, Bedeutung, Freundeskreis, Besitz, Geschäft]; ausbauen, vergrößern [Haus, Geschäft]
    4) (offer) gewähren, zuteil werden lassen [[Gast]freundschaft, Schutz, Hilfe, Kredit] (to Dat.); (accord) aussprechen [Dank, Einladung, Glückwunsch] (to Dat.); ausrichten [Gruß] (to Dat.)
    2. intransitive verb
    * * *
    [ik'stend]
    1) (to make longer or larger: He extended his vegetable garden.) ausdehnen
    2) (to reach or stretch: The school grounds extend as far as this fence.) sich erstrecken
    3) (to hold out or stretch out (a limb etc): He extended his hand to her.) ausstrecken
    4) (to offer: May I extend a welcome to you all?) anbieten
    •
    - academic.ru/25901/extension">extension
    - extensive
    * * *
    ex·tend
    [ɪkˈstend, ekˈ-]
    I. vt
    1. (stretch out)
    ▪ to \extend sth etw ausstrecken
    to \extend one's fingers seine Finger ausstrecken
    to \extend one's hand to sb jdm die Hand entgegenstrecken [o geh reichen]
    to \extend a line/rope eine Leine/ein Seil spannen
    2. (prolong)
    ▪ to \extend sth credit, visa etw verlängern
    ▪ to \extend sth etw verlängern; ladder, table etw ausziehen; landing gear etw ausfahren; sofa etw ausklappen
    4. (expand)
    ▪ to \extend sth etw erweitern [o vergrößern]; influence, business etw ausdehnen [o ausbauen
    ▪ to \extend sth etw vergrößern [o verstärken]
    to \extend public awareness of sth die Öffentlichkeit für etw akk sensibilisieren
    to \extend one's commitment seine Bemühungen verstärken, sich akk stärker engagieren
    6. (build)
    ▪ to \extend sth [to sth] etw [an etw akk] anbauen
    to \extend one's house sein Haus ausbauen
    to \extend a road/track eine Straße/Fahrspur ausbauen
    ▪ to \extend sth to sb jdm etw erweisen [o zuteilwerden lassen]; credit, protection jdm etw gewähren [o SCHWEIZ a. zusprechen]
    to \extend money to sb FIN jdm Geld zur Verfügung stellen
    to \extend one's thanks to sb jdm seinen Dank aussprechen
    to \extend a welcome to sb jdn willkommen heißen
    8. (strain)
    ▪ to \extend sb jdn [bis an seine Leistungsgrenze] fordern
    ▪ to \extend oneself sich akk verausgaben
    II. vi
    1. (stretch) sich akk erstrecken, sich akk ausdehnen; over period of time sich akk hinziehen pej, dauern
    the fields \extend into the distance die Felder dehnen sich bis in die Ferne aus
    rain is expected to \extend to all parts of the country by this evening bis heute Abend soll der Regen alle Landesteile erreicht haben
    the last party \extended throughout the night die letzte Party dauerte die ganze Nacht
    ▪ to \extend beyond sth über etw akk hinausgehen
    to \extend for miles sich akk meilenweit hinziehen
    2. (include) sich erstrecken
    ▪ to \extend to sb/sth restrictions für jdn/etw gelten
    his concern doesn't \extend as far as actually doing something seine Besorgnis geht nicht so weit, dass er tatsächlich etwas unternimmt
    * * *
    [ɪk'stend]
    1. vt
    1) (= stretch out) arms ausstrecken
    2) (= prolong) street, line, visit, passport, holidays, deadline, lease verlängern
    3) (= enlarge) research, powers, franchise ausdehnen, erweitern; knowledge erweitern, vergrößern; influence ausbauen; scheme ausweiten; house anbauen an (+acc); property vergrößern, erweitern; limits erweitern; frontiers of a country ausdehnen

    in an extended sense of the term — im weiteren Sinne des Wortes

    4) (= offer) (to sb jdm) help gewähren; hospitality, friendship erweisen; invitation, thanks, condolences, congratulations aussprechen
    5) (usu pass = make demands on) person, pupil, athlete fordern
    2. vi
    1) (wall, estate, garden) sich erstrecken, sich ausdehnen (to, as far as bis); (ladder, table) sich ausziehen lassen; (meetings etc over period of time) sich ausdehnen or hinziehen

    a career that extended from 1974 to 1990 — eine Laufbahn, die sich von 1974 bis 1990 erstreckte

    2)

    (= reach to) enthusiasm which extends even to the children — Begeisterung, die sich sogar auf die Kinder überträgt

    * * *
    extend [ıkˈstend]
    A v/t
    1. (aus)dehnen, (-)weiten
    2. a) verlängern
    b) eine Leiter etc ausziehen
    3. eine Produktionsanlage etc vergrößern, erweitern, ausbauen:
    extend one’s horizons seinen Horizont erweitern;
    extend one’s lead SPORT seinen Vorsprung ausbauen
    4. ein Seil etc ziehen, führen, spannen ( alle:
    round um)
    5. ausstrecken (one’s hand die Hand)
    6. Nahrungsmittel etc strecken ( with mit)
    7. fig fort-, weiterführen, einen Besuch, seine Macht ausdehnen (to auf akk), eine Frist, einen Pass, einen Vertrag etc verlängern, WIRTSCH auch prolongieren, ein Angebot etc aufrechterhalten:
    have one’s passport extended seinen Pass verlängern lassen; → bedtime
    8. (to, toward[s] dat)
    a) eine Gunst, Hilfe gewähren, Gutes erweisen
    b) seinen Dank, Glückwunsch etc aussprechen:
    extend an invitation to(wards) sb jemandem eine Einladung schicken, jemanden einladen
    c) einen Gruß entbieten
    a) gerichtlich abschätzen
    b) pfänden
    10. Abkürzungen (voll) ausschreiben, Kurzschrift (in Langschrift) übertragen
    11. SPORT das Letzte aus einem Pferd herausholen, voll ausreiten:
    extend o.s. sich völlig ausgeben oder verausgaben
    12. FLUG das Fahrgestell ausfahren
    13. MIL ausschwärmen lassen
    14. Buchhaltung: übertragen
    B v/i
    1. sich ausdehnen, sich erstrecken, reichen ( alle:
    over über akk;
    to bis zu)
    2. sich (zeitlich) erstrecken oder hinziehen ( for über akk)
    3. a) hinausgehen ( beyond über akk)
    b) (heraus)ragen
    4. MIL ausschwärmen
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (stretch out) ausstrecken [Arm, Bein, Hand]; ausziehen [Leiter, Teleskop]; ausbreiten [Flügel]
    2) (make longer) (in space) verlängern; ausdehnen [Grenze]; ausbauen [Bahnlinie, Straße]; (in time) verlängern; verlängern lassen [Leihbuch, Visum]
    3) (enlarge) ausdehnen [Einfluss, Macht]; erweitern [Wissen, Wortschatz, Bedeutung, Freundeskreis, Besitz, Geschäft]; ausbauen, vergrößern [Haus, Geschäft]
    4) (offer) gewähren, zuteil werden lassen [[Gast]freundschaft, Schutz, Hilfe, Kredit] (to Dat.); (accord) aussprechen [Dank, Einladung, Glückwunsch] (to Dat.); ausrichten [Gruß] (to Dat.)
    2. intransitive verb
    * * *
    v.
    ausdehnen v.
    ausfahren (Leiter, Antenne) v.
    ausweiten v.
    erweitern v.
    vergrößern v.
    verlängern v.

    English-german dictionary > extend

  • 7 stretch

    1. transitive verb
    1) (lengthen, extend) strecken [Arm, Hand]; recken [Hals]; dehnen [Gummiband]; (spread) ausbreiten [Decke]; (tighten) spannen

    he lay stretched out on the ground — er lag ausgestreckt auf dem Boden

    stretch one's legs — (by walking) sich (Dat.) die Beine vertreten

    2) (widen) dehnen

    stretch [out of shape] — ausweiten [Schuhe, Jacke]

    3) (fig.): (make the most of) ausschöpfen [Reserve]; fordern [Person, Begabung]
    4) (fig.): (extend beyond proper limit) überschreiten [Befugnis, Grenzen des Anstands]; strapazieren (ugs.) [Geduld]; es nicht so genau nehmen mit [Gesetz, Bestimmung, Begriff, Grundsätzen]

    stretch the truth — [Aussage:] nicht ganz der Wahrheit entsprechen

    stretch it/things — den Bogen überspannen

    2. intransitive verb
    1) (extend in length) sich dehnen; [Person, Tier:] sich strecken
    2) (have specified length) sich ausdehnen
    3)

    stretch to something — (be sufficient for) für etwas reichen

    could you stretch to £10? — hast du vielleicht sogar 10 Pfund?

    3. reflexive verb 4. noun

    at a stretch — (fig.) wenn es sein muss (see also academic.ru/18217/d">d)

    3) (expanse, length) Abschnitt, der

    a stretch of road/open country — ein Stück Straße/freies Gelände

    4) (period)

    a four-hour stretch — eine [Zeit]spanne von vier Stunden

    5. adjective
    dehnbar; Stretch[hose, -gewebe]
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    [stre ] 1. verb
    1) (to make or become longer or wider especially by pulling or by being pulled: She stretched the piece of elastic to its fullest extent; His scarf was so long that it could stretch right across the room; This material stretches; The dog yawned and stretched (itself); He stretched (his arm/hand) up as far as he could, but still could not reach the shelf; Ask someone to pass you the jam instead of stretching across the table for it.) (sich) strecken
    2) ((of land etc) to extend: The plain stretched ahead of them for miles.) sich erstrecken
    2. noun
    1) (an act of stretching or state of being stretched: He got out of bed and had a good stretch.) das Strecken
    2) (a continuous extent, of eg a type of country, or of time: a pretty stretch of country; a stretch of bad road; a stretch of twenty years.) die Strecke, die Spanne
    •
    - stretcher
    - stretchy
    - at a stretch
    - be at full stretch
    - stretch one's legs
    - stretch out
    * * *
    [stretʃ]
    I. n
    <pl -es>
    1. no pl (elasticity) Dehnbarkeit f; of fabric Elastizität f
    2. (muscle extension) Dehnungsübungen pl, Strecken nt kein pl; (gymnastic exercise) Stretching nt kein pl; (extension of muscles) Dehnung f
    to have a \stretch sich akk [recken und] strecken
    3. (an extended area) Stück nt; (section of road) Streckenabschnitt m, Wegstrecke f
    traffic is at a standstill along a five-mile \stretch of the M11 auf der M11 gibt es einen fünf Meilen langen Stau
    \stretch of coast Küstenabschnitt m
    \stretch of land Stück nt Land
    \stretch of railway Bahnstrecke f
    \stretch of road Strecke f
    vast \stretches of wasteland ausgedehnte Flächen Ödland
    \stretch of water Wasserfläche f
    4. SPORT (stage of a race) Abschnitt m
    to enter the final \stretch in die Zielgerade einlaufen
    the home \stretch die Zielgerade
    the last \stretch of an election campaign ( fig) die [letzte] heiße Phase eines Wahlkampfs
    5. AM (straight part of a race track) Gerade f
    6. (period of time) Zeitraum m, Zeitspanne f; (time in jail) Knastzeit f fam
    short \stretches kurze Zeitabschnitte
    at a \stretch am Stück, ohne Unterbrechung
    there's no way I could work for ten hours at a \stretch ich könnte nie zehn Stunden am Stück arbeiten
    to do a \stretch eine Haftstrafe absitzen fam
    7. (exertion) Bemühung f, Einsatz m
    by every \stretch of the imagination unter Aufbietung aller Fantasie
    not by any [or by no] \stretch beim besten Willen nicht, nie im Leben fam
    by no \stretch of the imagination could he be seriously described as an artist man konnte ihn beim besten Willen nicht als Künstler bezeichnen
    at full \stretch mit Volldampf [o voller Kraft] fam
    to work at full \stretch auf Hochtouren arbeiten
    8.
    ▶ down the \stretch AM kurz vor Ablauf der Zeit
    II. adj attr, inv Stretch-
    \stretch nylon stockings elastische Nylonstrümpfe
    III. vi
    1. (become longer, wider) rubber, elastic sich akk dehnen; clothes weiter werden
    my T-shirt's \stretched in the wash mein T-Shirt ist beim Waschen völlig ausgeleiert
    2. (extend the muscles) Dehnungsübungen machen, sich akk recken [und strecken]
    3. (take time) sich akk hinziehen
    the restoration work could \stretch from months into years die Renovierungsarbeiten könnten sich statt über Monate sogar noch über Jahre hinziehen
    the dispute \stretches back over many years diese Streitereien dauern nun schon viele Jahre
    this ancient tradition \stretches back hundreds of years diese alte Tradition reicht Hunderte von Jahren zurück
    4. (cover an area) sich akk erstrecken
    the refugee camps \stretch as far as the eye can see soweit das Auge reicht sieht man Flüchtlingslager
    the mountains \stretch the entire length of the country die Berge ziehen sich über die gesamte Länge des Landes hin
    IV. vt
    ▪ to \stretch sth etw [aus]dehnen [o strecken]; (extend by pulling) etw dehnen; (tighten) etw straff ziehen [o straffen]
    that elastic band will snap if you \stretch it too far dieses Gummi[band] wird reißen, wenn du es überdehnst
    they \stretched a rope across the river sie spannten ein Seil über den Fluss
    to \stretch one's legs sich dat die Beine vertreten
    2. (increase number of portions)
    ▪ to \stretch sth etw strecken; sauce, soup etw verlängern
    3. (demand a lot of)
    ▪ to \stretch sb/sth jdn/etw bis zum Äußersten fordern
    we're already fully \stretched wir sind schon voll ausgelastet
    my job doesn't \stretch me as much as I'd like mein Beruf fordert mich nicht so, wie ich es mir wünschen würde
    to \stretch sb's budget jds Budget strapazieren
    to \stretch sb's patience jds Geduld auf eine harte Probe stellen [o geh strapazieren]
    to \stretch sth to breaking point etw bis zum Äußersten belasten
    many families' budgets are already \stretched to breaking point viele Familien kommen mit dem Haushaltsgeld kaum noch über die Runden
    4. SPORT (to improve)
    to \stretch one's lead seinen Vorsprung ausbauen; football, rugby mit noch mehr Toren in Führung gehen
    ▪ to \stretch sth über etw akk hinausgehen
    that is \stretching the definition of negotiation das hat mit dem, was man unter einer Verhandlung versteht, nichts mehr zu tun
    to \stretch a point [or the rules] ausnahmsweise ein Auge zudrücken fam
    to \stretch a point (exaggerate) übertreiben
    to \stretch it a bit [or the truth] ein wenig zu weit gehen, übertreiben
    * * *
    [stretʃ]
    1. n
    1) (= act of stretching) Strecken nt, Dehnen nt

    to have a stretch — sich strecken or dehnen; (person also) sich recken

    to be at full stretch ( lit : material ) — bis zum Äußersten gedehnt sein; ( fig, person ) mit aller Kraft arbeiten; (factory etc) auf Hochtouren arbeiten (inf); (engine, production, work) auf Hochtouren laufen

    2) (= elasticity) Elastizität f, Dehnbarkeit f

    a fabric with plenty of stretch — ein stark dehnbares or sehr elastisches Material

    3) (= expanse of road etc) Strecke f, Stück nt; (on racecourse) Gerade f; (of wood, river, countryside etc) Stück nt; (of journey) Abschnitt m, Teil m

    that stretch of water is called... — dieser Gewässerlauf heißt...

    4) (= stretch of time) Zeit f, Zeitraum m, Zeitspanne f

    for a long stretch of time — für (eine) lange Zeit, lange Zeit

    to do a stretch ( inf, in prison ) — im Knast sein (inf)

    2. adj attr
    dehnbar, elastisch
    3. vt
    1) (= extend, lengthen) strecken; (= widen) jumper, gloves also, elastic, shoes dehnen; (= spread) wings, blanket etc ausbreiten; (= tighten) rope, canvas spannen

    a curtain was stretched across the room —

    to stretch sth tight — etw straffen, etw straff ziehen; cover etw stramm ziehen

    2) (= make go further) meal, money strecken; (= use fully) resources voll (aus)nutzen; credit voll beanspruchen; athlete, student etc fordern; one's abilities bis zum Äußersten fordern

    to stretch one's imagination — seine Fantasie anstrengen

    to stretch sb/sth to the limit(s) — jdn/etw bis zum äußersten belasten

    3) (= strain) meaning, word äußerst weit fassen; truth, law, rules es nicht so genau nehmen mit

    this clause/law could be stretched to allow... — diese Klausel/dieses Gesetz könnte so weit gedehnt werden, dass sie/es... zulässt

    to stretch a point — ein Auge zudrücken, großzügig sein

    that's stretching it too far/a bit (far) — das geht zu weit/fast zu weit

    4. vi
    (after sleep etc) sich strecken; (= be elastic) sich dehnen, dehnbar sein; (= extend time, area, authority, influence) sich erstrecken (to bis, over über +acc = be enough food, money, material) reichen (to für); (= become looser) weiter werden; (= become longer) länger werden

    to stretch to reach sth — sich recken, um etw zu erreichen

    a life of misery stretched (out) before her — vor ihr breitete sich ein Leben voll Kummer und Leid aus

    5. vr
    1) (after sleep etc) sich strecken
    2) (= strain oneself) sich verausgaben
    * * *
    stretch [stretʃ]
    A v/t
    1. oft stretch out (aus-)strecken, bes den Kopf od Hals recken:
    stretch o.s. (out) → B 1; → leg Bes Redew, wing A 1
    2. jemanden niederstrecken
    3. sl jemanden (auf)hängen
    4. stretch out die Hand etc aus-, hinstrecken
    5. ein Tuch, Seil, eine Saite etc spannen ( over über dat oder akk), straff ziehen, einen Teppich etc ausbreiten:
    a) er wurde richtig oder voll gefordert ( auch SPORT),
    b) er war voll ausgelastet
    6. strecken, (Hand)Schuhe etc (aus)weiten, besonders Hosen spannen, SPORT die Führung etc ausdehnen (to auf akk), SPORT die Verteidigung auseinanderziehen
    7. PHYS, TECH spannen, dehnen, (st)recken
    8. die Nerven, Muskeln anspannen
    9. aus-, überdehnen, ausbeulen
    10. fig überspannen, -treiben
    11. fig es mit der Wahrheit, einer Vorschrift etc nicht allzu genau nehmen, Regeln etc großzügig auslegen:
    stretch the imagination ziemlich unglaubwürdig sein;
    a) ein wenig zu weit gehen,
    b) es nicht allzu genau nehmen, ein Auge zudrücken umg;
    stretch a word, etc einen Begriff dehnen, einem Wort etc eine weite Auslegung geben
    12. überbeanspruchen, seine Befugnisse, einen Kredit etc überschreiten
    13. auch stretch out einen Vorrat etc strecken
    B v/i
    1. oft stretch out sich (aus)strecken, sich dehnen oder rekeln
    2. stretch for langen nach
    3. sich erstrecken, sich hinziehen (to [bis] zu) (Gebirge etc, auch Zeit):
    stretch down to fig zurückreichen oder -gehen (bis) zu oder in (akk) (Zeitalter, Erinnerung etc)
    4. a) sich dehnen (lassen)
    b) länger oder weiter werden
    a) ausschreiten,
    b) SPORT im gestreckten Galopp reiten,
    c) SPORT sich auseinanderziehen (Feld)
    6. umg sich ins Zeug legen
    7. sl baumeln, hängen
    8. auch stretch out reichen (Vorrat etc)
    C s
    1. Dehnen n, Strecken n, Rekeln n:
    give o.s. a stretch, have a stretch → B 1
    2. Strecken n, (Aus)Dehnen n, (-)Weiten n
    3. Spannen n
    4. Anspannung f, (Über)Anstrengung f:
    by any stretch of the English language bei großzügiger Auslegung der englischen Sprache;
    by every stretch of the imagination unter Aufbietung aller Fantasie;
    by no stretch of the imagination … es ist völlig unvorstellbar, dass …;
    on ( oder at) the stretch angespannt, angestrengt;
    at full stretch mit aller Kraft
    5. fig Überspannen n, -treiben n
    6. Überschreiten n (von Befugnissen etc)
    7. (Weg)Strecke f, Fläche f, Ausdehnung f
    8. SPORT (Ziel- etc) Gerade f
    9. have a stretch sich die Beine vertreten
    10. Zeit(raum) f(m), -spanne f:
    8 hours at a stretch 8 Stunden hintereinander;
    for long stretches of the game SPORT über weite Strecken des Spiels
    11. do a stretch sl Knast schieben
    D adj dehnbar, Stretch…:
    stretch cover Spannbezug m;
    stretch nylon Stretchnylon n
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (lengthen, extend) strecken [Arm, Hand]; recken [Hals]; dehnen [Gummiband]; (spread) ausbreiten [Decke]; (tighten) spannen

    stretch one's legs — (by walking) sich (Dat.) die Beine vertreten

    2) (widen) dehnen

    stretch [out of shape] — ausweiten [Schuhe, Jacke]

    3) (fig.): (make the most of) ausschöpfen [Reserve]; fordern [Person, Begabung]
    4) (fig.): (extend beyond proper limit) überschreiten [Befugnis, Grenzen des Anstands]; strapazieren (ugs.) [Geduld]; es nicht so genau nehmen mit [Gesetz, Bestimmung, Begriff, Grundsätzen]

    stretch the truth — [Aussage:] nicht ganz der Wahrheit entsprechen

    stretch it/things — den Bogen überspannen

    2. intransitive verb
    1) (extend in length) sich dehnen; [Person, Tier:] sich strecken
    2) (have specified length) sich ausdehnen
    3)

    could you stretch to £10? — hast du vielleicht sogar 10 Pfund?

    3. reflexive verb 4. noun
    1) (lengthening, drawing out)

    at a stretch — (fig.) wenn es sein muss (see also d)

    3) (expanse, length) Abschnitt, der

    a stretch of road/open country — ein Stück Straße/freies Gelände

    a four-hour stretch — eine [Zeit]spanne von vier Stunden

    5. adjective
    dehnbar; Stretch[hose, -gewebe]
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    n.
    Ausdehnung f.
    Strecke -n f. v.
    aufspannen v.
    ausstrecken v.
    ausweiten v.
    dehnen v.
    sich erstrecken v.
    sich weiten v.
    spannen v.
    strecken v.
    weiten v.

    English-german dictionary > stretch

  • 8 mark

    mark [mα:k]
    1. noun
       a. ( = physical marking) marque f ; ( = stain) tache f
    • he was found without a mark on his body quand on l'a trouvé, son corps ne portait aucune trace de blessure
       b. ( = sign) signe m
       c. ( = hallmark) marque f
       d. ( = grade) note f
    • good/bad mark bonne/mauvaise note f
       e. on your marks! (get) set! go! à vos marques ! prêts ! partez !
       f. ( = level) barre f
       g. ( = brand name) marque f
       h. ( = oven temperature) (gas) mark 6 thermostat m 6
       i. ( = currency) mark m
    • to be quick off the mark ( = quick on the uptake) avoir l'esprit vif ; ( = quick in reacting) avoir des réactions rapides
       a. marquer ; ( = stain) tacher
       b. [+ essay, exam] corriger
    • to mark sth right/wrong marquer qch juste/faux
       c. [+ price] indiquer
    ► mark-up noun ( = increase) majoration f de prix ; ( = profit margin) bénéfice m
       a. ( = write down) noter
       b. [+ goods] démarquer
       c. [+ pupil] baisser la note de
       a. ( = separate) [+ section of text] délimiter
       b. ( = divide by boundary) délimiter ; [+ distance] mesurer ; [+ road, boundary] tracer
       c. [+ items on list] cocher
       a. [+ zone] délimiter ; [+ field] borner ; [+ route] baliser
       b. ( = single out) désigner
       a. ( = put a price on) indiquer le prix de
       b. ( = increase) [+ price] majorer ; [+ goods] majorer le prix de
       c. [+ pupil] gonfler la note de
    * * *
    [mɑːk] 1.
    1) (stain, animal marking) tache f; ( from injury) marque f

    to make one's mark — lit signer d'une croix; fig faire ses preuves

    to leave one's mark on something — [person] marquer quelque chose de son influence [company]; [recession] marquer quelque chose [country]

    3) ( symbol)
    4) School, University note f

    he gets no marks for effort — fig pour l'effort, il mérite zéro

    6) Sport ( starting line) marque f

    he's very quick/a bit slow off the mark — fig il a l'esprit vif/un peu lent

    you were quick off the mark! — fig tu n'as pas perdu de temps!

    7) ( target) ( in archery etc) but m

    to find its mark — [arrow] atteindre son but; fig [remark] mettre dans le mille

    to be (way) off the mark —

    to be wide of the mark — fig être à côté de la plaque (colloq)

    8) Sport ( in rugby) arrêt m de volée
    9) (also Mark) ( model in series) Mark
    10) (also Deutschmark) deutschmark m
    2.
    1) ( make visible impression on) ( stain) tacher [clothes]; [bruise, scar] marquer [skin]; ( with pen) marquer [map, belongings]

    to mark somebody for life — ( physically) défigurer quelqu'un à vie; ( mentally) marquer quelqu'un à vie

    2) (indicate, label) [person] marquer [name, price] (on sur); [arrow, sign, label] indiquer [position, road]; fig [event] marquer [end, change]

    to mark the occasion with — marquer l'occasion par [firework display, party]

    to mark one's place — ( in book) marquer la page

    3) ( characterize) caractériser
    4) School, University corriger
    5) ( pay attention to) noter (bien)

    he'll not live long, mark my words! — tu verras, il ne vivra pas longtemps!

    6) Sport marquer
    3.
    1) School, University faire des corrections
    2) ( stain) se tacher
    3) Sport marquer
    4.
    mark you conjunctional phrase n'empêche que (+ indic)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    ••

    to mark time — Military marquer le pas

    I'm marking time working as a waitress until I go to France — fig je travaille comme serveuse en attendant d'aller en France

    English-French dictionary > mark

  • 9 mark

    A n
    1 ( visible patch) ( stain) tache f ; ( spot on animal) tache f ; ( from injury) marque f ; to make one's mark ( on document) signer d'une croix ; fig faire ses preuves ;
    2 fig ( lasting impression) to bear the mark of [person] porter l'empreinte de [genius, greatness] ; [face] porter les marques de [pain, grief] ; to leave one's mark on sth [person] marquer qch de son influence [company, project] ; [recession] marquer qch [country] ;
    3 ( symbol) as a mark of en signe de [appreciation, esteem] ;
    4 Sch, Univ, gen ( assessment of work) note f ; what mark has she given you? quelle note t'a-t-elle mise? ; he gets no marks for effort/ originality fig pour l'effort/l'originalité, il mérite zéro ; ⇒ full, top ;
    5 ( number on scale) the 3-mile mark la borne de trois miles ; unemployment has reached/passed the two million mark le chômage a atteint/dépassé la barre des deux millions ; his earnings are above/below the £20,000 mark son salaire est supérieur/inférieur à 20 000 livres sterling ; the timer had reached the one-minute mark cela faisait une minute au chronomètre ; the high-tide mark le maximum de la marée haute ; at gas mark 7 à thermostat 7 ; he/his work is not up to the mark fig il/son travail n'est pas à la hauteur ;
    6 Sport ( starting line) ( in athletics) marque f ; on your marks, (get) set, go! à vos marques! prêts! partez! ; to get off the mark prendre le départ ; we haven't even got off the mark yet fig nous n'avons même pas commencé ; he's a bit slow off the mark fig il a l'esprit un peu lent ; you were a bit slow off the mark in not noticing the mistake sooner tu as été un peu lent à remarquer cette erreur ; he's very quick off the mark il a l'esprit vif ; you were a bit quick off the mark (in) blaming her tu l'as blâmée un peu trop vite ; he's always very quick off the mark when it comes to money il n'est jamais le dernier quand il s'agit d'argent ; you were quick off the mark! ( to do sth) tu n'as pas perdu de temps! ;
    7 ( target) ( in archery etc) but m ; to find its mark [arrow] atteindre son but ; fig [criticism, remark] mettre dans le mille ; to be (way) off the mark, to be wide of the mark [person, calculation] être à côté de la plaque ○ ; on the mark absolument exact ;
    8 Sport ( in rugby) arrêt m de volée ;
    9 ( also Mark) ( model in series) Mark ; Jaguar Mark II Jaguar Mark II ;
    10 ( also Deutschmark) deutschmark m.
    B vtr
    1 ( make visible impression on) ( stain) tacher [clothes, material, paper] ; [bruise, scar] marquer [skin, face] ; ( with pen etc) marquer [map, belongings] (with avec) ; to mark sb for life ( physically) défigurer qn à vie ; ( mentally) marquer qn à vie ;
    2 (indicate, label) [person] marquer [name, initials, price, directions] (on sur) ; [cross, arrow, sign, label] indiquer [position, place, road] ; fig [death, event, announcement] marquer [end, change, turning point] ; to be marked as être considéré comme [future champion, criminal] ; to mark the occasion/sb's birthday with marquer l'occasion/l'anniversaire de qn par [firework display, party] ; X marks the spot l'endroit est indiqué par une croix ; to mark one's place ( in book) marquer la page ;
    3 ( characterize) caractériser [style, remark, behaviour, era] ; to be marked by être caractérisé par [violence, envy, humour, generosity] ;
    4 Sch, Univ ( tick) corriger [essay, homework, examination paper] ; to mark sb absent/present noter qn absent/présent ; to mark sth right/wrong indiquer que qch est juste/faux ;
    5 ( pay attention to) noter (bien) [warning, comment] ; mark him well, he will be a great man sout souvenez-vous de lui, ce sera un grand homme ;
    6 Sport marquer [player].
    C vi
    1 Sch, Univ [teacher] faire des corrections ;
    2 ( stain) [dress, material etc] se tacher ;
    3 Sport marquer.
    D mark you conj phr n'empêche que (+ indic) ; mark you it won't be easy n'empêche que ça ne va pas être facile.
    mark my words crois-moi ; he'll not live long, mark my words! crois-moi, il ne vivra pas longtemps! ; to be an easy mark être une poire ○ ; to mark time Mil marquer le pas ; I'm marking time working as a waitress until I go to France fig je travaille comme serveuse en attendant d'aller en France ; the company is marking time at the moment fig la compagnie ne fait que piétiner en ce moment.
    ■ mark down:
    ▶ mark [sth] down, mark down [sth] ( reduce price of) démarquer [product] ;
    ▶ mark [sb] down ( lower grade of) baisser les notes de [person] ; baisser la note de [work, essay] ; to mark sb down as (being) sth ( consider to be) considérer qn comme [troublemaker, asset].
    ■ mark off:
    ▶ mark [sth] off, mark off [sth]
    1 ( separate off) délimiter [area] ;
    2 ( tick off) pointer [items, names].
    ■ mark out:
    ▶ mark [sb] out, mark out [sb]
    1 ( distinguish) distinguer (from de) ;
    2 ( select) désigner [person] (for pour) ;
    ▶ mark [sth] out, mark out [sth] marquer les limites de [court, area].
    ■ mark up:
    ▶ mark [sth] up, mark up [sth] ( add percentage to price) [company] majorer le prix de [product] (by de) ; ( increase price) [shopkeeper] augmenter le prix de [product] (by de) ;
    ▶ mark [sb/sth] up Sch, Univ ( increase grade of) remonter les notes de [person] ; remonter la note de [work, essay].

    Big English-French dictionary > mark

  • 10 Coimbra, University of

       Portugal's oldest and once its most prestigious university. As one of Europe's oldest seats of learning, the University of Coimbra and its various roles have a historic importance that supersedes merely the educational. For centuries, the university formed and trained the principal elites and professions that dominated Portugal. For more than a century, certain members of its faculty entered the central government in Lisbon. A few, such as law professor Afonso Costa, mathematics instructor Sidônio Pais, anthropology professor Bernardino Machado, and economics professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, became prime ministers and presidents of the republic. In such a small country, with relatively few universities until recently, Portugal counted Coimbra's university as the educational cradle of its leaders and knew its academic traditions as an intimate part of national life.
       Established in 1290 by King Dinis, the university first opened in Lisbon but was moved to Coimbra in 1308, and there it remained. University buildings were placed high on a hill, in a position that
       physically dominates Portugal's third city. While sections of the medieval university buildings are present, much of what today remains of the old University of Coimbra dates from the Manueline era (1495-1521) and the 17th and 18th centuries. The main administration building along the so-called Via Latina is baroque, in the style of the 17th and 18th centuries. Most prominent among buildings adjacent to the central core structures are the Chapel of São Miguel, built in the 17th century, and the magnificent University Library, of the era of wealthy King João V, built between 1717 and 1723. Created entirely by Portuguese artists and architects, the library is unique among historic monuments in Portugal. Its rare book collection, a monument in itself, is complemented by exquisite gilt wood decorations and beautiful doors, windows, and furniture. Among visitors and tourists, the chapel and library are the prime attractions to this day.
       The University underwent important reforms under the Pombaline administration (1750-77). Efforts to strengthen Coimbra's position in advanced learning and teaching by means of a new curriculum, including new courses in new fields and new degrees and colleges (in Portugal, major university divisions are usually called "faculties") often met strong resistance. In the Age of the Discoveries, efforts were made to introduce the useful study of mathematics, which was part of astronomy in that day, and to move beyond traditional medieval study only of theology, canon law, civil law, and medicine. Regarding even the advanced work of the Portuguese astronomer and mathematician Pedro Nunes, however, Coimbra University was lamentably slow in introducing mathematics or a school of arts and general studies. After some earlier efforts, the 1772 Pombaline Statutes, the core of the Pombaline reforms at Coimbra, had an impact that lasted more than a century. These reforms remained in effect to the end of the monarchy, when, in 1911, the First Republic instituted changes that stressed the secularization of learning. This included the abolition of the Faculty of Theology.
       Elaborate, ancient traditions and customs inform the faculty and student body of Coimbra University. Tradition flourishes, although some customs are more popular than others. Instead of residing in common residences or dormitories as in other countries, in Coimbra until recently students lived in the city in "Republics," private houses with domestic help hired by the students. Students wore typical black academic gowns. Efforts during the Revolution of 25 April 1974 and aftermath to abolish the wearing of the gowns, a powerful student image symbol, met resistance and generated controversy. In romantic Coimbra tradition, students with guitars sang characteristic songs, including Coimbra fado, a more cheerful song than Lisbon fado, and serenaded other students at special locations. Tradition also decreed that at graduation graduates wore their gowns but burned their school (or college or subject) ribbons ( fitas), an important ceremonial rite of passage.
       The University of Coimbra, while it underwent a revival in the 1980s and 1990s, no longer has a virtual monopoly over higher education in Portugal. By 1970, for example, the country had only four public and one private university, and the University of Lisbon had become more significant than ancient Coimbra. At present, diversity in higher education is even more pronounced: 12 private universities and 14 autonomous public universities are listed, not only in Lisbon and Oporto, but at provincial locations. Still, Coimbra retains an influence as the senior university, some of whose graduates still enter national government and distinguished themselves in various professions.
       An important student concern at all institutions of higher learning, and one that marked the last half of the 1990s and continued into the next century, was the question of increased student fees and tuition payments (in Portuguese, propinas). Due to the expansion of the national universities in function as well as in the size of student bodies, national budget constraints, and the rising cost of education, the central government began to increase student fees. The student movement protested this change by means of various tactics, including student strikes, boycotts, and demonstrations. At the same time, a growing number of private universities began to attract larger numbers of students who could afford the higher fees in private institutions, but who had been denied places in the increasingly competitive and pressured public universities.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Coimbra, University of

  • 11 extend

    ex·tend [ɪkʼstend, ekʼ-] vt
    to \extend sth etw ausstrecken;
    to \extend one's fingers seine Finger ausstrecken;
    to \extend one's hand to sb jdm die Hand entgegenstrecken [o ( geh) reichen];
    to \extend a line/ rope eine Leine/ein Seil spannen
    2) ( prolong)
    to \extend sth credit, visa etw verlängern
    3) ( pull out)
    to \extend sth etw verlängern; ladder, table etw ausziehen; landing gear etw ausfahren; sofa etw ausklappen
    4) ( expand)
    to \extend sth etw erweitern [o vergrößern]; influence, business etw ausdehnen [o ausbauen];
    5) ( increase)
    to \extend sth etw vergrößern [o verstärken];
    to \extend public awareness of sth die Öffentlichkeit für etw akk sensibilisieren;
    to \extend one's commitment seine Bemühungen fpl verstärken sich akk stärker engagieren
    6) ( build)
    to \extend sth [to sth] etw [an etw akk] anbauen;
    to \extend one's house sein Haus ausbauen;
    to \extend a road/ track eine Straße/Fahrspur ausbauen
    7) ( offer)
    to \extend sth to sb jdm etw erweisen [o zuteilwerden lassen]; credit, protection jdm etw gewähren;
    to \extend money to sb fin jdm Geld zur Verfügung stellen;
    to \extend one's thanks to sb jdm seinen Dank aussprechen;
    to \extend a welcome to sb jdn willkommen heißen
    8) ( strain)
    to \extend sb jdn [bis an seine Leistungsgrenze] fordern;
    to \extend oneself sich akk verausgaben vi
    1) ( stretch) sich akk erstrecken, sich akk ausdehnen; over period of time sich akk hinziehen ( pej), dauern;
    the fields \extend into the distance die Felder dehnen sich bis in die Ferne aus;
    rain is expected to \extend to all parts of the country by this evening bis heute Abend soll der Regen alle Landesteile erreicht haben;
    the last party \extended throughout the night die letzte Party dauerte die ganze Nacht;
    to \extend beyond sth über etw akk hinausgehen;
    to \extend for miles sich akk meilenweit hinziehen
    2) ( include) sich erstrecken;
    to \extend to sb/ sth restrictions für jdn/etw gelten;
    his concern doesn't \extend as far as actually doing something seine Besorgnis geht nicht so weit, dass er tatsächlich etwas unternimmt

    English-German students dictionary > extend

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