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61 Cayley, Sir George
SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace[br]b. 27 December 1773 Scarborough, Englandd. 15 December 1857 Brompton Hall, Yorkshire, England[br]English pioneer who laid down the basic principles of the aeroplane in 1799 and built a manned glider in 1853.[br]Cayley was born into a well-to-do Yorkshire family living at Brompton Hall. He was encouraged to study mathematics, navigation and mechanics, particularly by his mother. In 1792 he succeeded to the baronetcy and took over the daunting task of revitalizing the run-down family estate.The first aeronautical device made by Cayley was a copy of the toy helicopter invented by the Frenchmen Launoy and Bienvenu in 1784. Cayley's version, made in 1796, convinced him that a machine could "rise in the air by mechanical means", as he later wrote. He studied the aerodynamics of flight and broke away from the unsuccessful ornithopters of his predecessors. In 1799 he scratched two sketches on a silver disc: one side of the disc showed the aerodynamic force on a wing resolved into lift and drag, and on the other side he illustrated his idea for a fixed-wing aeroplane; this disc is preserved in the Science Museum in London. In 1804 he tested a small wing on the end of a whirling arm to measure its lifting power. This led to the world's first model glider, which consisted of a simple kite (the wing) mounted on a pole with an adjustable cruciform tail. A full-size glider followed in 1809 and this flew successfully unmanned. By 1809 Cayley had also investigated the lifting properties of cambered wings and produced a low-drag aerofoil section. His aim was to produce a powered aeroplane, but no suitable engines were available. Steam-engines were too heavy, but he experimented with a gunpowder motor and invented the hot-air engine in 1807. He published details of some of his aeronautical researches in 1809–10 and in 1816 he wrote a paper on airships. Then for a period of some twenty-five years he was so busy with other activities that he largely neglected his aeronautical researches. It was not until 1843, at the age of 70, that he really had time to pursue his quest for flight. The Mechanics' Magazine of 8 April 1843 published drawings of "Sir George Cayley's Aerial Carriage", which consisted of a helicopter design with four circular lifting rotors—which could be adjusted to become wings—and two pusher propellers. In 1849 he built a full-size triplane glider which lifted a boy off the ground for a brief hop. Then in 1852 he proposed a monoplane glider which could be launched from a balloon. Late in 1853 Cayley built his "new flyer", another monoplane glider, which carried his coachman as a reluctant passenger across a dale at Brompton, Cayley became involved in public affairs and was MP for Scarborough in 1832. He also took a leading part in local scientific activities and was co-founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831 and of the Regent Street Polytechnic Institution in 1838.[br]BibliographyCayley wrote a number of articles and papers, the most significant being "On aerial navigation", Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy (November 1809—March 1810) (published in three numbers); and two further papers with the same title in Philosophical Magazine (1816 and 1817) (both describe semi-rigid airships).Further ReadingL.Pritchard, 1961, Sir George Cayley, London (the standard work on the life of Cayley).C.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1962, Sir George Cayley's Aeronautics 1796–1855, London (covers his aeronautical achievements in more detail).—1974, "Sir George Cayley, father of aerial navigation (1773–1857)", Aeronautical Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society) (April) (an updating paper).JDS -
62 Gurney, Sir Goldsworthy
SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 14 February 1793 Treator, near Padstow, Cornwall, Englandd. 28 February 1875 Reeds, near Bude, Cornwall, England[br]English pioneer of steam road transport.[br]Educated at Truro Grammar School, he then studied under Dr Avery at Wadebridge to become a doctor of medicine. He settled as a surgeon in Wadebridge, spending his leisure time in building an organ and in the study of chemistry and mechanical science. He married Elizabeth Symons in 1814, and in 1820 moved with his wife to London. He delivered a course of lectures at the Surrey Institution on the elements of chemical science, attended by, amongst others, the young Michael Faraday. While there, Gurney made his first invention, the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. For this he received the Gold Medal of the Society of Arts. He experimented with lime and magnesia for the production of an illuminant for lighthouses with some success. He invented a musical instrument of glasses played like a piano.In 1823 he started experiments related to steam and locomotion which necessitated taking a partner in to his medical practice, from which he resigned shortly after. His objective was to produce a steam-driven vehicle to run on common roads. His invention of the steam-jet of blast greatly improved the performance of the steam engine. In 1827 he took his steam carriage to Cyfarthfa at the request of Mr Crawshaw, and while there applied his steam-jet to the blast furnaces, greatly improving their performance in the manufacture of iron. Much of the success of George Stephenson's steam engine, the Rocket was due to Gurney's steam blast.In July 1829 Gurney made a historic trip with his road locomotive. This was from London to Bath and back, which was accomplished at a speed of 18 mph (29 km/h) and was made at the instigation of the Quartermaster-General of the Army. So successful was the carriage that Sir Charles Dance started to run a regular service with it between Gloucester and Cheltenham. This ran for three months without accident, until Parliament introduced prohibitive taxation on all self-propelled vehicles. A House of Commons committee proposed that these should be abolished as inhibiting progress, but this was not done. Sir Goldsworthy petitioned Parliament on the harm being done to him, but nothing was done and the coming of the railways put the matter beyond consideration. He devoted his time to finding other uses for the steam-jet: it was used for extinguishing fires in coal-mines, some of which had been burning for many years; he developed a stove for the production of gas from oil and other fatty substances, intended for lighthouses; he was responsible for the heating and the lighting of both the old and the new Houses of Parliament. His evidence after a colliery explosion resulted in an Act of Parliament requiring all mines to have two shafts. He was knighted in 1863, the same year that he suffered a stroke which incapacitated him. He retired to his house at Reeds, near Bude, where he was looked after by his daughter, Anna.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1863. Society of Arts Gold Medal.IMcNBiographical history of technology > Gurney, Sir Goldsworthy
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63 Halsted, William Stewart
SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology[br]b. 23 September 1852 Baltimore, Maryland, USAd. 7 September 1922 Baltimore, Maryland, USA[br]American surgeon, originator of the surgical use of rubber gloves and silk ligatures.[br]After education at Yale University, he studied at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, qualifying in 1877. Following internships in New York, he spent two postgraduate years in Germany and Austria, where he became acquainted with the German methods of surgical education. He returned to New York in 1880 to practise privately and also demonstrate anatomy at the College.In 1884, when experimenting with cocaine as an anaesthetic, he became addicted; he underwent treatment for his addiction in 1886–7 and there is also some evidence of treatment for morphine addiction in 1892. As a consequence of these problems he moved to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where he was appointed Surgeon-in-Chief in 1890 and Professor of Surgery in 1892. In this role he devoted considerable time to laboratory study and made important contributions in the treatment of breast carcinoma, thyroid disease and aneurism. A perfectionist, his technical advances were an outcome of his approach to surgery, which was methodical and painstaking in comparison with the cavalier methods of some contemporaries.[br]Bibliography1894, Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports, Baltimore (rubber gloves).1924, Surgical Papers by William Stewart Halsted, ed. W.C.Berket, Baltimore.Further ReadingW.G.McCallum, 1930, William Stewart Halsted, Surgeon, Baltimore.MGBiographical history of technology > Halsted, William Stewart
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64 Holland, John Philip
SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping[br]b. 29 February 1840 Liscanor, Co. Clare, Irelandd. 12 August 1915 Newark, New Jersey, USA[br]Irish/American inventor of the successful modern submarine[br]Holland was educated first in his native town and later in Limerick, a seaport bustling with coastal trade ships. His first job was that of schoolteacher, and as such he worked in various parts of Ireland until he was about 32 years old. A combination of his burning patriotic zeal for Ireland and his interest in undersea technology (then in its infancy) made him consider designs for underwater warships for use against the British Royal Navy in the fight for Irish independence. He studied all known works on the subject and commenced drawing plans, but he was unable to make real headway owing to a lack of finance.In 1873 he travelled to the United States, ultimately settling in New Jersey and continuing in the profession of teaching. His work on submarine design continued, but in 1875 he suffered a grave setback when the United States Navy turned down his designs. Help came from an unexpected source, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, or Fenian Society, which had been founded in Dublin and New York in 1858. Financial help enabled Holland to build a 4 m (13 ft) one-person craft, which was tested in 1878, and then a larger boat of 19 tonnes' displacement that was tested with a crew of three to depths of 20 m (65 ft) in New York's harbour in 1883. Known as the Fenian Ram, it embodied most of the principles of modern submarines, including weight compensation. The Fenians commandeered this boat, but they were unable to operate it satisfactorily and it was relegated to history.Holland continued work, at times independently and sometimes with others, and continuously advocated submarines to the United States Navy. In 1895 he was successful in winning a contract for US$150,000 to build the US Submarine Plunger at Baltimore. With too much outside interference, this proved an unsatisfactory venture. However, with only US$5,000 of his capital left, Holland started again and in 1898 he launched the Holland at Elizabeth, New Jersey. This 16 m (52 ft) vessel was successful, and in 1900 it was purchased by the United States Government.Six more boats were ordered by the Americans, and then some by the Russians and the Japanese. The British Royal Navy ordered five, which were built by Vickers Son and Maxim (now VSEL) at Barrow-in-Furness in the years up to 1903, commencing their long run of submarine building. They were licensed by another well-known name, the Electric Boat Company, which had formerly been the J.P.Holland Torpedo Boat Company.Holland now had some wealth and was well known. He continued to work, trying his hand at aeronautical research, and in 1904 he invented a respirator for use in submarine rescue work. It is pleasing to record that one of his ships can be seen to this day at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, Gosport: HM Submarine Holland No. 1, which was lost under tow in 1913 but salvaged and restored in the 1980s.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsOrder of the Rising Sun, Japan, 1910.Bibliography1900, "The submarine boat and its future", North American Review (December). Holland wrote several other articles of a similar nature.Further ReadingR.K.Morris, 1966 John P.Holland 1841–1914, Inventor of the Modern Submarine, Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute.F.W.Lipscomb, 1975, The British Submarine, London: Conway Maritime Press. A.N.Harrison, 1979, The Development of HM Submarines from Holland No. 1 (1901) toPorpoise (1930), Bath: MoD Ships Department (internal publication).FMW -
65 Inoue Masaru
[br]b. 1 August 1843 Hagi, Choshu, Japand. 2 August 1910 London, England[br]Japanese "Father of Japanese Railways".[br]In the early 1860s, most travel in Japan was still by foot and the Japanese were forbidden by their government to travel abroad. Inoue was one of a small group of students who left Japan illegally in 1863 for London. There he studied English, mathematics and science, and afterwards mineralogy and railways. Inoue returned to Japan in 1868, when the new Meiji Government reopened the country to the outside world after some 200 years of isolation. Part of its policy, despite opposition, was to build railways; at Inoue's suggestion, the gauge of 3 ft 6 in. (1.07 m) was adopted. Initially capital, engineers, skilled labour and materials ranging from locomotives to pencils and stationery were all imported from Britain; Edmund Morel was the first Chief Engineer. In 1871 Inoue was appointed Director of the Government Railway Bureau and he became the driving force behind railway development in Japan for more than two decades. The first line, from Tokyo to Yokohama, was opened in 1872, to be followed by others, some of them at first isolated. The number of foreigners employed, most of them British, peaked at 120 in 1877 and then rapidly declined as the Japanese learned to take over their tasks. In 1878, at Inoue's instance, construction of a line entirely by Japanese commenced for the first time, with British engineers as consultants only. It was ten years before Japanese Railways' total route was 70 miles (113 km) long; over the next ten years, this increased to 1,000 miles (1,600 km) and the system continued to grow rapidly. During 1892–3, a locomotive was built in Japan for the first time, under the guidance of Locomotive Superintendent R.F.Trevithick, grandson of the pioneer Richard Trevithick: it was a compound 2–4–2 tank engine, with many parts imported from Britain. Locomotive building in Japan then blossomed so rapidly that imports were discontinued, with rare exceptions, from 1911. Meanwhile Inoue had retired in 1893; he was on a visit to England at the time of his death.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsViscount 1887.Bibliography1909, "Japanese communications: railroads", in Count Shigenobu Okuma (ed.), Fifty Years of New Japan (English version ed. M.B.Huish), Smith, Elder, Ch. 18.Further ReadingT.Richards and K.C.Rudd, 1991 Japanese Railways in the Meiji Period 1868–1912, Uxbridge: Brunel University (one of the few readily available accounts in English of the origins of Japanese Railways).PJGR -
66 Jablochkoff, Paul
[br]b. 14 September 1847 Serdobsk, Russiad. April 1894 St Petersburg, Russia[br]Russian military engineer and inventor of an electric "candle", the invention of which gave an immense impetus to electric lighting in the 1870s.[br]Jablochkoff studied at the Military Engineering College in St Petersburg. Having a scientific bent, he was sent to the Military Galvano Technical School. At the end of his military service in 1871 he was appointed Director General of the Moscow-Kursk telegraph lines for the Midi Railway Company. At this time he began to develop an interest in electric lighting, and in 1875 he left the Imperial Telegraph Service to devote his time exclusively to scientific pursuits. He found employment at the workshop of M Bréguet in Paris, where Gramme dynamos and Serrin arc lamps were being constructed. After some experimentation he found a means of producing a carbon arc that regulated itself without any mechanism. This lamp, the Jablochkoff candle, with two carbon rods placed parallel to each other and so close that an arc formed at the ends, could continue to burn until the rods were consumed. Plaster of Paris was used to separate the two electrodes and crumbled away as the carbon burned, thus exposing fresh carbon. These lamps were used in May 1878 in Paris to illuminate the avenue de l'Opéra, and later in Rome and London, and in essence were the first practical electric street lighting. Since there was no regulating mechanism, several candles could be placed in a single circuit. Despite inherent defects, such as the inability to restart the lamps after they were extinguished by wind or interruption of supply, they remained in use for some purposes for several years on account of their simplicity and cheapness. In 1877 Jablochkoff obtained the earliest patent to employ transformers to distribute current in an alternating-current circuit.[br]Bibliography11 September 1876, British patent no. 3,552 (Jablochkoff's candle).22 May 1877, British patent no. 1,996 (transformer or induction coil distribution).Further ReadingW.J.King, 1962, The Development of Electrical Technology in the 19th Century, Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, Paper 30, pp. 393–407 (a detailed account). W.E.Langdon, 1877, "On a new form of electric light", Journal of the Society ofTelegraph Engineers 6:303–19 (an early report on Jablochkoffs system).Engineering (1878) 26:125–7.GW -
67 Johnson, Isaac Charles
[br]b. 28 January 1811 Vauxhall, London, Englandd. 29 November 1911 Gravesend (?), Kent, England[br]English contributor to the development of efficient hydraulic cements.[br]As a young man Johnson studied both chemistry and physics and gained some experience in the manufacture of cement before joining the firm of John Bazely White as Works Manager at Swanscombe in Kent in 1838. He spent some years investigating the production processes and left the firm to set up on his own in 1851 on the Limehouse Reach of the River Medway, moving later to Gateshead on the River Tyne. Johnson produced a cement that was a great improvement on that of Parker and of Frost: like William Aspdin (see Aspdin, Joseph), he made a true Portland cement by mixing chalk, clay and water, and then clinkering the mixture. He used local clay at Gateshead and had the chalk shipped from the Thames area. In 1872 Johnson patented an improved bottle kiln, called the Johnson Chamber Kiln; it was of horizontal design, which speeded up manufacturing processes.[br]Further ReadingA.J.Francis, The Cement Industry 1796–1914: A History, David \& Charles.DY -
68 Staudinger, Hermann
[br]b. 23 March 1881 Worms, Germanyd. 8 September 1965 Freiberg im Breisgau, Germany[br]German chemist, founder of polymer chemistry.[br]Staudinger studied chemistry at the universities of Halle, Darmstadt and Munich, originally as a preparation for botanical studies, but chemistry claimed his full attention. He followed an academic career, with professorships at Karlsruhe in 1908, Zurich in 1912 and Freiberg from 1926 until his retirement in 1951. Staudinger began his work as an organic chemist by following well-established lines of research, but from 1920 he struck out in a new direction. Until that time, rubber and other apparently non-crystalline materials with high molecular weight were supposed to consist of a disordered collection of small molecules. Staudinger investigated the structure of rubber and realized that it was made up of very large molecules with many basic groups of atoms held together by normal chemical bonds. Substances formed in this way are known as "polymers". Staudinger's views first met with opposition, but he developed methods of determining the molecular weights of these "high polymers". Finally, the introduction of X-ray crystallographic investigation of chemical structure confirmed his views. This discovery has proved to be the basis of a new branch of chemistry with momentous consequences for industry. From it stemmed the synthetic rubber, plastics, fibres, adhesives and other industries, with all their multifarious applications in everyday life. The Staudinger equation, linking viscosity with molecular weight, is still widely used, albeit with some reservations, in the polymer industry.During the 1930s, Staudinger turned his attention to biopolymers and foresaw the discovery some twenty years later that these macromolecules were the building blocks of life. In 1953 he belatedly received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsNobel Prize in Chemistry 1953.Bibliography1961, Arbeitserinnerungen, Heidelberg; pub. in English, 1970 as From Organic Chemistry to Macromolecules, New York (includes a comprehensive bibliography of 644 items).Further ReadingE.Farber, 1963, Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry, New York.R.C.Olby, 1970, "The macromolecular concept and the origins of molecular biology", J. Chem. Ed. 47:168–74.LRD -
69 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
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70 провинция
провинция
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[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
province
A geographic area of some considerable extent, smaller than a continent but larger than a region, which is unified by some or all of its characteristics and which can therefore be studied as a whole. A faunal province, for example, has a particular assemblage of animal species, which differs from assemblages in different contemporaneous environments elsewhere. (Source: WHIT)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
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Русско-немецкий словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > провинция
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71 province
провинция
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[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
province
A geographic area of some considerable extent, smaller than a continent but larger than a region, which is unified by some or all of its characteristics and which can therefore be studied as a whole. A faunal province, for example, has a particular assemblage of animal species, which differs from assemblages in different contemporaneous environments elsewhere. (Source: WHIT)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
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Франко-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > province
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72 Gebiet
- провинция
- зона (города, местности...)
зона
Определённая часть города, района или местности, выделяемая по какому-либо преобладающему признаку
[Терминологический словарь по строительству на 12 языках (ВНИИИС Госстроя СССР)]Тематики
- город, населенный пункт
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провинция
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province
A geographic area of some considerable extent, smaller than a continent but larger than a region, which is unified by some or all of its characteristics and which can therefore be studied as a whole. A faunal province, for example, has a particular assemblage of animal species, which differs from assemblages in different contemporaneous environments elsewhere. (Source: WHIT)
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Немецко-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > Gebiet
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73 провинция
провинция
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province
A geographic area of some considerable extent, smaller than a continent but larger than a region, which is unified by some or all of its characteristics and which can therefore be studied as a whole. A faunal province, for example, has a particular assemblage of animal species, which differs from assemblages in different contemporaneous environments elsewhere. (Source: WHIT)
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Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > провинция
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74 провинция
провинция
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province
A geographic area of some considerable extent, smaller than a continent but larger than a region, which is unified by some or all of its characteristics and which can therefore be studied as a whole. A faunal province, for example, has a particular assemblage of animal species, which differs from assemblages in different contemporaneous environments elsewhere. (Source: WHIT)
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Русско-французский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > провинция
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75 province
провинция
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
province
A geographic area of some considerable extent, smaller than a continent but larger than a region, which is unified by some or all of its characteristics and which can therefore be studied as a whole. A faunal province, for example, has a particular assemblage of animal species, which differs from assemblages in different contemporaneous environments elsewhere. (Source: WHIT)
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Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > province
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76 רמי
רְמֵי, רְמָאch. sam(רמי, רמה yarah), 1) to throw, swing; to put on; to impose. Targ. Ex. 15:1. Targ. Ez. 16:5. Targ. 2 Kings 18:14. Targ. Ps. 78:57 (h. text רְמִיָּח!); a. fr.Men.42a ר׳ חוטי threw (attached) threads as show fringes; ר׳ ארבע put four threads on. Sabb.10a, v. פּוּזְמְקֵי. Nidd.33b ר׳ ליה תורא threw an ox down (slaughtered an ox) in his honor. Men.42b רְמִינָן להו ביורה we cast them into the boiler.Part. pass, רְמֵי, רַמְיָא thrown down, lying. Targ. Deut. 21:1 (O. ed. Vien. רָמֵי). Targ. Jud. 19:27; a. e.Zeb.5a ר׳ ריש לקישוכ׳ Resh Laḳish was lying on his belly in the college hall and asked Shebu.34b כל מילתא דלאר׳ עליהוכ׳ a thing which does not rest upon a man (in which he is not interested), he will do unconsciously; ib. 41b, sq.; B. Bath.39a; a. fr.ר׳ לבני ( to put up bricks, to make bricks. Targ. Gen. 11:3. Targ. Ex. 5:7; a. e.ר׳ תיגרא to create discord; to dispute. Targ. Prov. 6:14; 19; a. e.Sabb.130a ליכא … דלא רָמוּ בה ת׳ there is no marriage contract at which the parties do not quarrel. 2) to lift, remove. Y.Snh.X, 29a bot. בעי מִירְמִיתֵיה wanted to lift it; a. e. 3) ( to pitch one thing against another, to show an incongruity; to object. Nidd. l. c. ר׳ … מתניתין אהדדי pointed out an incongruity between two Mishnahs. Taan.4b גברא אגברא קא רָמִית thou provest an incongruity between two authorities (why can they not differ in opinion)? B. Mets.22b רב פפאר׳ כתיבוכ׳ Rab Papa raised an objection: it is written (Lev. 11:38) ki yitten, and we read ki yuttan, how is this to be explained? Yeb.108b ורְמִינְהִיוכ׳ and we shall show an incongruity in it, i. e. this disagrees with the Mishnah, Succ.16a איכא דר׳ ליה מִירְמָא some put it in the shape of pointing out a contradiction (between a Mishnah and a Boraitha); a. v. fr. Af. אַרְמֵי 1) to cast. Targ. Jud. 20:16. Targ. Prov. 1:14; a. e.Sabb.156b הוה מַרְמִינָןוכ׳ we used to cast our bread together (into one basket) and eat. Ib. אנא קאים וארמינא I will stand up and put the bread into the basket; a. e. 2) to tear away, remove with force. Pes.10b אַרְמוּיֵי אַרְמַיה מיניה (not ארמוייה) it (the mouse) may have snatched it from the other mouse. Ḥag.15b אי … מאן מַרְמֵי ליה מאן if I take him by the hand, who will tear him away from me? who? 3) to lift up. Ab. Zar.34b תַּרְמִינָךְ שעתך (Ms. M. תור מינך, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note) may thy hour lift thee up (i. e. may thy luck be high)! Pa. רַמֵּי to impose, deceive. Targ. Y. Num. 25:18. Targ. Prov. 26:19.Lev. R. s. 5 הוה מְרַמֵּי במצוותה, v. preced.; a. e. Ithpe. אִתְרְמֵי, אִתְרְמָא 1) to throw ones self, be thrown. Targ. 1 Chr. 10:4, sq. Targ. Josh. 10:11.Targ. Prov. 6:6 אתרמי some ed., read: אתד׳, v. דְּמֵי l. 2) (cmp. קְלַע I) to happen, chance. Ḥull.13a מקום … איתרמי ליה (not איתרמו) because no suitable place (for slaughtering) offered itself there. Shebu.41b עד דמִתְרְמוּ בי תריוכ׳ until two persons shall happen to come that have studied ; a. e. -
77 רמא
רְמֵי, רְמָאch. sam(רמי, רמה yarah), 1) to throw, swing; to put on; to impose. Targ. Ex. 15:1. Targ. Ez. 16:5. Targ. 2 Kings 18:14. Targ. Ps. 78:57 (h. text רְמִיָּח!); a. fr.Men.42a ר׳ חוטי threw (attached) threads as show fringes; ר׳ ארבע put four threads on. Sabb.10a, v. פּוּזְמְקֵי. Nidd.33b ר׳ ליה תורא threw an ox down (slaughtered an ox) in his honor. Men.42b רְמִינָן להו ביורה we cast them into the boiler.Part. pass, רְמֵי, רַמְיָא thrown down, lying. Targ. Deut. 21:1 (O. ed. Vien. רָמֵי). Targ. Jud. 19:27; a. e.Zeb.5a ר׳ ריש לקישוכ׳ Resh Laḳish was lying on his belly in the college hall and asked Shebu.34b כל מילתא דלאר׳ עליהוכ׳ a thing which does not rest upon a man (in which he is not interested), he will do unconsciously; ib. 41b, sq.; B. Bath.39a; a. fr.ר׳ לבני ( to put up bricks, to make bricks. Targ. Gen. 11:3. Targ. Ex. 5:7; a. e.ר׳ תיגרא to create discord; to dispute. Targ. Prov. 6:14; 19; a. e.Sabb.130a ליכא … דלא רָמוּ בה ת׳ there is no marriage contract at which the parties do not quarrel. 2) to lift, remove. Y.Snh.X, 29a bot. בעי מִירְמִיתֵיה wanted to lift it; a. e. 3) ( to pitch one thing against another, to show an incongruity; to object. Nidd. l. c. ר׳ … מתניתין אהדדי pointed out an incongruity between two Mishnahs. Taan.4b גברא אגברא קא רָמִית thou provest an incongruity between two authorities (why can they not differ in opinion)? B. Mets.22b רב פפאר׳ כתיבוכ׳ Rab Papa raised an objection: it is written (Lev. 11:38) ki yitten, and we read ki yuttan, how is this to be explained? Yeb.108b ורְמִינְהִיוכ׳ and we shall show an incongruity in it, i. e. this disagrees with the Mishnah, Succ.16a איכא דר׳ ליה מִירְמָא some put it in the shape of pointing out a contradiction (between a Mishnah and a Boraitha); a. v. fr. Af. אַרְמֵי 1) to cast. Targ. Jud. 20:16. Targ. Prov. 1:14; a. e.Sabb.156b הוה מַרְמִינָןוכ׳ we used to cast our bread together (into one basket) and eat. Ib. אנא קאים וארמינא I will stand up and put the bread into the basket; a. e. 2) to tear away, remove with force. Pes.10b אַרְמוּיֵי אַרְמַיה מיניה (not ארמוייה) it (the mouse) may have snatched it from the other mouse. Ḥag.15b אי … מאן מַרְמֵי ליה מאן if I take him by the hand, who will tear him away from me? who? 3) to lift up. Ab. Zar.34b תַּרְמִינָךְ שעתך (Ms. M. תור מינך, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note) may thy hour lift thee up (i. e. may thy luck be high)! Pa. רַמֵּי to impose, deceive. Targ. Y. Num. 25:18. Targ. Prov. 26:19.Lev. R. s. 5 הוה מְרַמֵּי במצוותה, v. preced.; a. e. Ithpe. אִתְרְמֵי, אִתְרְמָא 1) to throw ones self, be thrown. Targ. 1 Chr. 10:4, sq. Targ. Josh. 10:11.Targ. Prov. 6:6 אתרמי some ed., read: אתד׳, v. דְּמֵי l. 2) (cmp. קְלַע I) to happen, chance. Ḥull.13a מקום … איתרמי ליה (not איתרמו) because no suitable place (for slaughtering) offered itself there. Shebu.41b עד דמִתְרְמוּ בי תריוכ׳ until two persons shall happen to come that have studied ; a. e. -
78 רְמֵי
רְמֵי, רְמָאch. sam(רמי, רמה yarah), 1) to throw, swing; to put on; to impose. Targ. Ex. 15:1. Targ. Ez. 16:5. Targ. 2 Kings 18:14. Targ. Ps. 78:57 (h. text רְמִיָּח!); a. fr.Men.42a ר׳ חוטי threw (attached) threads as show fringes; ר׳ ארבע put four threads on. Sabb.10a, v. פּוּזְמְקֵי. Nidd.33b ר׳ ליה תורא threw an ox down (slaughtered an ox) in his honor. Men.42b רְמִינָן להו ביורה we cast them into the boiler.Part. pass, רְמֵי, רַמְיָא thrown down, lying. Targ. Deut. 21:1 (O. ed. Vien. רָמֵי). Targ. Jud. 19:27; a. e.Zeb.5a ר׳ ריש לקישוכ׳ Resh Laḳish was lying on his belly in the college hall and asked Shebu.34b כל מילתא דלאר׳ עליהוכ׳ a thing which does not rest upon a man (in which he is not interested), he will do unconsciously; ib. 41b, sq.; B. Bath.39a; a. fr.ר׳ לבני ( to put up bricks, to make bricks. Targ. Gen. 11:3. Targ. Ex. 5:7; a. e.ר׳ תיגרא to create discord; to dispute. Targ. Prov. 6:14; 19; a. e.Sabb.130a ליכא … דלא רָמוּ בה ת׳ there is no marriage contract at which the parties do not quarrel. 2) to lift, remove. Y.Snh.X, 29a bot. בעי מִירְמִיתֵיה wanted to lift it; a. e. 3) ( to pitch one thing against another, to show an incongruity; to object. Nidd. l. c. ר׳ … מתניתין אהדדי pointed out an incongruity between two Mishnahs. Taan.4b גברא אגברא קא רָמִית thou provest an incongruity between two authorities (why can they not differ in opinion)? B. Mets.22b רב פפאר׳ כתיבוכ׳ Rab Papa raised an objection: it is written (Lev. 11:38) ki yitten, and we read ki yuttan, how is this to be explained? Yeb.108b ורְמִינְהִיוכ׳ and we shall show an incongruity in it, i. e. this disagrees with the Mishnah, Succ.16a איכא דר׳ ליה מִירְמָא some put it in the shape of pointing out a contradiction (between a Mishnah and a Boraitha); a. v. fr. Af. אַרְמֵי 1) to cast. Targ. Jud. 20:16. Targ. Prov. 1:14; a. e.Sabb.156b הוה מַרְמִינָןוכ׳ we used to cast our bread together (into one basket) and eat. Ib. אנא קאים וארמינא I will stand up and put the bread into the basket; a. e. 2) to tear away, remove with force. Pes.10b אַרְמוּיֵי אַרְמַיה מיניה (not ארמוייה) it (the mouse) may have snatched it from the other mouse. Ḥag.15b אי … מאן מַרְמֵי ליה מאן if I take him by the hand, who will tear him away from me? who? 3) to lift up. Ab. Zar.34b תַּרְמִינָךְ שעתך (Ms. M. תור מינך, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note) may thy hour lift thee up (i. e. may thy luck be high)! Pa. רַמֵּי to impose, deceive. Targ. Y. Num. 25:18. Targ. Prov. 26:19.Lev. R. s. 5 הוה מְרַמֵּי במצוותה, v. preced.; a. e. Ithpe. אִתְרְמֵי, אִתְרְמָא 1) to throw ones self, be thrown. Targ. 1 Chr. 10:4, sq. Targ. Josh. 10:11.Targ. Prov. 6:6 אתרמי some ed., read: אתד׳, v. דְּמֵי l. 2) (cmp. קְלַע I) to happen, chance. Ḥull.13a מקום … איתרמי ליה (not איתרמו) because no suitable place (for slaughtering) offered itself there. Shebu.41b עד דמִתְרְמוּ בי תריוכ׳ until two persons shall happen to come that have studied ; a. e. -
79 רְמָא
רְמֵי, רְמָאch. sam(רמי, רמה yarah), 1) to throw, swing; to put on; to impose. Targ. Ex. 15:1. Targ. Ez. 16:5. Targ. 2 Kings 18:14. Targ. Ps. 78:57 (h. text רְמִיָּח!); a. fr.Men.42a ר׳ חוטי threw (attached) threads as show fringes; ר׳ ארבע put four threads on. Sabb.10a, v. פּוּזְמְקֵי. Nidd.33b ר׳ ליה תורא threw an ox down (slaughtered an ox) in his honor. Men.42b רְמִינָן להו ביורה we cast them into the boiler.Part. pass, רְמֵי, רַמְיָא thrown down, lying. Targ. Deut. 21:1 (O. ed. Vien. רָמֵי). Targ. Jud. 19:27; a. e.Zeb.5a ר׳ ריש לקישוכ׳ Resh Laḳish was lying on his belly in the college hall and asked Shebu.34b כל מילתא דלאר׳ עליהוכ׳ a thing which does not rest upon a man (in which he is not interested), he will do unconsciously; ib. 41b, sq.; B. Bath.39a; a. fr.ר׳ לבני ( to put up bricks, to make bricks. Targ. Gen. 11:3. Targ. Ex. 5:7; a. e.ר׳ תיגרא to create discord; to dispute. Targ. Prov. 6:14; 19; a. e.Sabb.130a ליכא … דלא רָמוּ בה ת׳ there is no marriage contract at which the parties do not quarrel. 2) to lift, remove. Y.Snh.X, 29a bot. בעי מִירְמִיתֵיה wanted to lift it; a. e. 3) ( to pitch one thing against another, to show an incongruity; to object. Nidd. l. c. ר׳ … מתניתין אהדדי pointed out an incongruity between two Mishnahs. Taan.4b גברא אגברא קא רָמִית thou provest an incongruity between two authorities (why can they not differ in opinion)? B. Mets.22b רב פפאר׳ כתיבוכ׳ Rab Papa raised an objection: it is written (Lev. 11:38) ki yitten, and we read ki yuttan, how is this to be explained? Yeb.108b ורְמִינְהִיוכ׳ and we shall show an incongruity in it, i. e. this disagrees with the Mishnah, Succ.16a איכא דר׳ ליה מִירְמָא some put it in the shape of pointing out a contradiction (between a Mishnah and a Boraitha); a. v. fr. Af. אַרְמֵי 1) to cast. Targ. Jud. 20:16. Targ. Prov. 1:14; a. e.Sabb.156b הוה מַרְמִינָןוכ׳ we used to cast our bread together (into one basket) and eat. Ib. אנא קאים וארמינא I will stand up and put the bread into the basket; a. e. 2) to tear away, remove with force. Pes.10b אַרְמוּיֵי אַרְמַיה מיניה (not ארמוייה) it (the mouse) may have snatched it from the other mouse. Ḥag.15b אי … מאן מַרְמֵי ליה מאן if I take him by the hand, who will tear him away from me? who? 3) to lift up. Ab. Zar.34b תַּרְמִינָךְ שעתך (Ms. M. תור מינך, v. Rabb. D. S. a. l. note) may thy hour lift thee up (i. e. may thy luck be high)! Pa. רַמֵּי to impose, deceive. Targ. Y. Num. 25:18. Targ. Prov. 26:19.Lev. R. s. 5 הוה מְרַמֵּי במצוותה, v. preced.; a. e. Ithpe. אִתְרְמֵי, אִתְרְמָא 1) to throw ones self, be thrown. Targ. 1 Chr. 10:4, sq. Targ. Josh. 10:11.Targ. Prov. 6:6 אתרמי some ed., read: אתד׳, v. דְּמֵי l. 2) (cmp. קְלַע I) to happen, chance. Ḥull.13a מקום … איתרמי ליה (not איתרמו) because no suitable place (for slaughtering) offered itself there. Shebu.41b עד דמִתְרְמוּ בי תריוכ׳ until two persons shall happen to come that have studied ; a. e. -
80 that
̘. ̈pron. ̆̈pl. thosẽ ̘ˑðæt
1. мест.
1) указ. тот, та, то (иногда этот и пр.) а) указывает на лицо, понятие, событие, предмет, действие, отдаленные по месту или времени б) противополагается this в) указывает на что-л. уже известное говорящему г) заменяет сущ. во избежание его повторения This wine is better than that. ≈ Это вино лучше того. The climate here is like that of France. ≈ Здешний климат похож на климат Франции.
2) (полная форма) ;
(редуцированные формы) относ. а) который, кто, тот который и т. п. б) часто равно in which, on which, at which, for which и т. д. ∙ by that ≈ тем самым, этим like that ≈ таким образом that's that ≈ ничего не поделаешь;
так-то вот that is ≈ то есть now that ≈ теперь, когда with that ≈ вместе с тем
2. нареч.
1) так, до такой степени He was that angry he couldn't say a word. ≈ Он был до того рассержен, что слова не мог вымолвить. The hair was about that long. ≈ Волосы были примерно такой длины.
2) очень, чрезвычайно, в высшей степени I did not take him that seriously. ≈ Я не воспринимала его всерьез. Syn: very
2., extremely
3. (полная форма) ;
(редуцированная форма) союз что, чтобы (служит для введения придаточных предложений дополнительных, цели, следствия и др.) I know all that is necessary. ≈ Я знаю все, что нужно. She knew that he was there. ≈ Она знала, что он был там. это - what is *? что это такое? - who is *? кто это? - is * you, John?, (разговорное) * you, John? это ты, Джон? - are those your children? это ваши дети? - is * all the luggage you are taking? это весь ваш багаж? - those are my orders таковы мои распоряжения это, этого и т. д.;
вот что - *'s not fair это несправедливо - *'s just like her это так на нее похоже, в этом она вся - * is what he told me вот что она мне сказал;
это то, что он мне сказал - *'s how I happened to be here вот как я здесь очутился - they all think * они все так думают - have things come to *? неужели до этого дошло? - and so * is setteled итак, это решено - *'s where he lives вот где он живет, он живет здесь ( эмоционально-усилительно) (разговорное) вот - those are something like shoes вот это туфли - good stuff *! вот это правильно!;
вот это да!, вот это я понимаю! в противопоставлении: - this то - this is new and * is old это новое, а то старое - I prefer these to those я предпочитаю эти тем употр. вместо другого слова или словосочетания, упомянутых выше, во избежание повторения: заменяет группу существительного - the climate there is like * of France климат там похож на климат Франции - her eyes were those of a frightened child у нее были глаза испуганного ребенка - a house like * is described here дом, подобный этому, описан здесь - I have only two pairs of shoes and those are old у меня только две пары ботинок, да и те поношенные заменяет группу глагола, эмоц. - усил. - they must be very curious creatures. - They are * это, должно быть, очень странные создания. - Так оно и есть - it was necessary to act and * promptly нужно было действовать и (действовать) быстро - they are fine chaps. - They are * славные это ребята. - Да, правда - he studied Greek and Latin when he was young, and * at Oxford он учил греческий и латынь, когда он был молодым, и учил их он в Оксфорде - will you help me? - T. I will! ты мне поможешь? - Всенепременно! в коррелятивных местоименных сочетаниях: тот (который) - those that I saw те, кого я видел - Fine Art is * in which the hand, the head, and the heart go together искусство - это такая область, где руки, мысли и душа едины - there was * in her which commanded respect в ней было нечто такое, что вызывало невольное уважение - those who wish to go may do so кто хочет, может уйти - one of those who were present один из присутствовавших (эллиптически) тот который - be * thou know'st thou art будь самим собой первое( из вышеупомянутых) - work and play are both necessary to health;
this gives us rest and * gives us energy и труд и развлечение необходимы для здоровья - одно развивает энергию, другое дает отдых который, которая, которые ((обыкн.) следует непосредственно за определяемым словом;
часто может быть опущено) - this is about all * he has to say это в основном все, что он может сказать - the letter * came yesterday то письмо, которое пришло вчера - this is the house * Jack built вот дом, который построил Джек - the man ( *) you were looking for has come (тот) человек, которого вы искали, пришел - during the years ( *) he had spent abroad в течение (тех) лет, что он провел за границей - the envelope ( *) I put it in (тот) конверт, в который я это положил - the man ( *) we are speaking about (тот) человек, о котором мы говорим - this is he * brought the news (книжное) вот тот, кто принес это известие в сочетании со словами, обозначающими время: когда - the night ( *) we went to the theatre в тот вечер, когда мы ходили в театр - it was the year * we went to England это случилось в тот год, когда мы поехали в Англию ( устаревшее) то что, все что, тот кто, всякий кто (определяемое слово подразумевается) - I earn * I eat, get * I wear я сам зарабатываю то, что я ем и что ношу, я сам добываю себе пищу и одежду - I am * I am я остаюсь самим собой во вводных предложениях: как ни, хоть и - wicked man * he was he would not consent to it как ни был он низок, он не соглашался на это в восклицательных предложениях: - wretch * I am! о я несчастный!, несчастный я! - fool * he is! ну и дурак же он!, дурак он несчастный! в грам. знач. прил.: этот, эта, это;
тот, та, то - everybody is agreed on * point по тому вопросу разногласий нет - since * time с того времени - in those days в те времена - who are those people? кто эти люди? - I only saw him * once я его только один раз и видел - * man will get on! этот человек своего добьется! в противопоставлении this: тот, та, то - this book is interesting and * one is not эта книга интересна(я), а та нет в сочетании с here, there: (просторечие) вон - * here chair and * there table вот этот стул и вон тот стол( эмоционально-усилительно) (разговорное) часто в сочетании с собственным именем: этот, эта, это - when you will have done thumping * piano? когда ты кончишь барабанить на этом (твоем) рояле? - he has * confidence in his theory он непоколебимо уверен в правильности своей теории - what is it about * Mrs. Bellew? I never liked her что там с этой миссис Белью? Она никогда мне не нравилась - * fool of a porter! этот дурак носильщик! - how is * leg of yours? ну, как ваша нога? - it's * wife of his who is to blame винить надо (эту) его жену - I don't like * house of here не нравится мне (этот) ее дом (просторечие) эти - * ill manners эти мои дурные манеры (устаревшее) такой, в такой степени - he blushed to * degree that I felt ill at ease он так покраснел, что мне стало неловко в грам. знач. нареч.: (разговорное) так, до такой степени - if he wanted is * much если он так уж сильно хотел этого - I can't walk * far я не могу идти так далеко - when I was * tall когда я был вот такого роста - he was * angry he couldn't say a word он был до того рассержен, что слова не мог вымолвить (диалектизм) (американизм) столько, так - he talk * much! он столько говорит! - he is * sleepy он такой сонный - he was * tall! он был такого огромного роста в грам. знач. определенного артикля: тот, та, то;
этот, эта, это - he lives in * house across the street он живет в (том) доме через дорогу - what was * noise? что это был за шум? в коррелятивных местоименных сочетаниях: тот (который), та (которая), то (которое) - * part which concerns us (та) часть, которая нас касается - * man we are speaking of has come (тот) человек, о котором мы говорим, уже здесь > (and) *'s * так-то вот;
такие-то дела;
ничего не поделаешь;
так вот, значит > (and) *'s * дело с концом;
на этом точка > all * все это, все такое > and all * и все (такое) прочее;
и так далее > it is not so cold as all * и не так уж холодно > after * после того, что;
после того, как > at * после этого;
затем;
(американизм) при всем при том;
к тому же;
сверх того;
на этом > it is only a snapshot and a poor one at * это всего лишь любительский снимок, да еще и плохой к тому же > and usually I leave it at * и на этом я обычно прекращаю разговор > by * к тому времени;
(под) этим > what do you mean by *? что вы этим хотите сказать?, что вы подразумеваете под этим? > upon * когда;
как (только) ;
после этого;
при этом;
с этими словами > with * she took out her handkerchief с этими словами она вынула носовой платок > *'s all вот и все > *'s it это как раз то, что нам надо;
вот именно, правильно > *'s right! правильно! > *'s more like it это другой разговор, это другое дело > *'s * все, решено > well *'s *;
at least I know where I am going ну что ж, решено;
по крайне мере, я знаю, куда еду > *'ll do довольно, хватит;
этого будет достаточно > *'s done it это решило дело;
это переполнило чашу > *'s a good boy!, *'s a dear! вот и хорошо!, правильно!, молодец!, умник! > like * так;
таким образом > why are you crying like *? чего ты так плачешь? > a man like * подобный человек > o *!, would *! о если бы!, хотелось бы мне, чтобы > come out of *! (сленг) убирайся!, выметайся! > take *! на, получай!, вот тебе! (при ударе) > I wouldn't give * for it я даже вот столечко не дал бы за это вводит сказуемое, дополнительные и аппозитивные придаточные предложения: (то) что - * they were brothers was clear то, что они братья, было ясно - it seems * you have forgotten me вы, кажется, забыли меня - I know * it is unjust я знаю, что это несправедливо - I fear * I cannot come боюсь, что не смогу прийти - he made it clear * he did not agree он дал понять, что не согласен - there is no doubt * we were wrong from the start несомненно, мы были не правы с с самого начала - the fact * I am here non факт, что я здесь - the thought * he would be late oppressed him мысль, что он опоздает, угнетала его вводит придаточные дополнительные предложения и сказуемые с причинным оттенком значения: что, так как;
потому что - I'm sorry * this has happened мне очень жаль, что так случилось - if I complain it is * I want you to do better in future если я и жалуюсь, то потому, что хочу, чтобы вы поступали лучше в будущем вводит придаточные цели (часто so *, in order *): так (чтобы) - let's finish now (so) * we can rest tomorrow давайте закончим сейчас, (так) чтобы завтра можно было отдохнуть - come nearer * I may see you подойдите поближе, чтобы я мог увидеть вас - put it there so * it won't be forgotten положи это туда, чтобы не забыть - they kept quiet so * he might sleep они сидели тихо, чтобы дать ему поспать - study * you may learn учись, а то знать ничего не будешь вводит придаточные: результата: что - I am so tired * I can hardly stand я так устал, что еле стою - the light was so bright * it hurt our eyes свет был такой яркий, ято было больно смотреть основания( обыкн. после вопросительного или отрицательного главного предложения): что - who is he * everybody supports him? кто он такой, что все поддерживают его? пояснительные: что - you have well done * you have come вы хорошо сделали, что пришли необходимого следствия или сопровождения (обыкн. после отрицательного главного предложения): (без того) чтобы - never a month goes by * he does not write to us не проходит и месяца, чтобы он не написал нам - I can't speak but * you try to interrupt me как только я начинаю говорить, вы перебиваете меня вводит придаточные предложения в составе эмфатических сложных предложений: - it was there * I first me her здесь я встретил ее впервые - it was because he didn't work * he failed он потерпел неудачу, потому что не работал вводит восклицательные предложения, выражающие удивление, негодование, сильное желание и т. п.: чтобы, что - * he should behave like that! чтобы он себя так вел! - oh * I migth see you once more! о если бы я мог еще раз увидеть вас! - to think * I knew nothing about it! подумать только, (что) я ничего об этом не знал! - * I should live to see such things! дожил, нечего сказать! - * one so fair should be so false! такая краасивая, и такая лгунья! (устаревшее) вводит придаточное предложение, параллельное предшествующему придаточному, употребленному с другим союзом;
переводится как союз первого придаточного - although the rear was attacked and * fifty men were captured несмотря на то, что нападение было произведено с тыла и несмотря на то, что пятьдесят солдат были захвачены в плен( устаревшее) следует за рядом союзов, не изменяя их значения: - because * так как, потому что - if * если - lest * чтобы не - though * хотя в сочетаниях: - not * не то чтобы;
насколько - I wondrr what happened, not * I care хоть мне и все равно, а все-таки интересно, что там случилось - not * it matters, but the letter has not been sent yet я не хочу сказать, что это так уж важно, но письмо все еще не отправлено - in * тем что;
поскольку;
так как - some of his books have become classics in * they are read by most students interested in anthropology некоторые из его книг стали классическими, их читают почти все студенты, интересующиеся антропологией - but * если бы не - I would have gone with you but * I am so busy я бы пошел с вами, если бы не - he is not such a fool but * he can see it он не так глуп, чтобы не видеть этого после отрацательных предложений: что - I don't deny but * he is right я не отрицаю, что он прав не то чтобы - not but * he believed it himself не то чтобы он верил этому сам - except * кроме того, что;
не считая того, что - it is right except * the accents are omitted это правильно, если не считать того, что пропущены ударения - notwithstanding * (устаревшее) хотя, несмотря на то, что and all ~ и тому подобное, и все такое прочее;
by that тем самым, этим;
like that таким образом assumed ~ при допущении, что assumed ~ при предположении, что assuming ~ допуская, что assuming ~ полагая, что believing ~ полагая, что the book ~ I'm reading книга, которую я читаю and all ~ и тому подобное, и все такое прочее;
by that тем самым, этим;
like that таким образом the explosion was so loud ~ he was deafened взрыв был настолько силен, что оглушил его;
oh, that I knew the truth! о, если бы я знал правду! he was ~ angry he couldn't say a word он был до того рассержен, что слова не мог вымолвить I know ~ it was so я знаю, что это было так;
we eat that we may live мы едим, чтобы поддерживать жизнь I went to this doctor and ~ я обращался к разным врачам;
now that теперь, когда;
with that вместе с тем and all ~ и тому подобное, и все такое прочее;
by that тем самым, этим;
like that таким образом that pron rel. который, кто, тот, который;
the members that were present те из членов, которые присутствовали move ~ предлагать ~'s ~ разг. ничего не поделаешь;
так-то вот;
that is то есть;
not that не потому (или не то), чтобы I went to this doctor and ~ я обращался к разным врачам;
now that теперь, когда;
with that вместе с тем on ground ~ на том основании, что provided ~ в том случае, если provided ~ если только provided ~ однако provided ~ при условии, что that pron rel. который, кто, тот, который;
the members that were present те из членов, которые присутствовали ~ так, до такой степени;
that far настолько далеко;
на такое расстояние;
that much столько ~ pron demonstr. тот, та, то (иногда этот и пр.) ;
this: this wine is better than that это вино лучше того ~ pron (pl those) demonstr. тот, та, то (иногда этот и пр.) ~ cj что, чтобы (служит для введения придаточных предложений дополнительных, цели, следствия и др.) this: ~ pron demonstr. (pl these) этот, эта, это that: take this book and I'll take that one возьмите эту книгу, а я возьму ту ~ day тот день;
that man тот человек ~ так, до такой степени;
that far настолько далеко;
на такое расстояние;
that much столько the explosion was so loud ~ he was deafened взрыв был настолько силен, что оглушил его;
oh, that I knew the truth! о, если бы я знал правду! ~'s ~ разг. ничего не поделаешь;
так-то вот;
that is то есть;
not that не потому (или не то), чтобы ~ day тот день;
that man тот человек ~ так, до такой степени;
that far настолько далеко;
на такое расстояние;
that much столько ~'s it! вот именно!, правильно!;
that's all there is to it ну, вот и все;
this and that разные ~'s ~ разг. ничего не поделаешь;
так-то вот;
that is то есть;
not that не потому (или не то), чтобы ~'s it! вот именно!, правильно!;
that's all there is to it ну, вот и все;
this and that разные ~ pron demonstr. тот, та, то (иногда этот и пр.) ;
this: this wine is better than that это вино лучше того I know ~ it was so я знаю, что это было так;
we eat that we may live мы едим, чтобы поддерживать жизнь I went to this doctor and ~ я обращался к разным врачам;
now that теперь, когда;
with that вместе с тем
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