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need+theories

  • 1 need theories

    упр., псих., соц. = content theories of motivation

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > need theories

  • 2 need theories of motivation

    упр., псих., соц. = content theories of motivation

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > need theories of motivation

  • 3 need

    1. сущ.
    1) общ. потребность, нужда (нужда или недостаток в чем-л. необходимом для поддержания жизнедеятельности организма, человеческой личности, социальной группы, общества в целом; внутренний побудитель активности)

    They don't have enough food to meet their needs. — У них не достаточно пищи для удовлетворения своих потребностей.

    Housing, enough money to live on and education are basic needs. — Жилье, достаточное для проживания количество денег и образование являются основными потребностями.

    Syn:
    want 1. 2)
    See:
    2) общ. недостаток, нехватка

    for need of — вследствие недостатка (чего-л.)

    Syn:
    want 1. 1)
    3) общ. бедность, нужда, нищета

    A general state of need exists among the homeless. — Бездомные обычно живут в нищете.

    2. гл.
    1) общ. нуждаться, иметь надобность [потребность\]; требоваться, быть необходимым
    2) общ. нуждаться, бедствовать

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > need

  • 4 content theories of motivation

    упр., псих., соц. содержательные теории мотивации (теории мотивации, базирующиеся на идентификации потребностей, которые заставляют людей действовать так, а не иначе; определяющими являются внутренние потребности, побуждающие людей к действию, напр., потребность в достижении цели, безопасности, статусе и т. д.; в отличие от процессуальных теорий мотивации акцент ставится на том, что является мотиватором)
    Syn:
    See:

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > content theories of motivation

  • 5 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 6 round

    round [raʊnd]
    rond ⇒ 1 (a)-(c), 4 (a) autour (de) ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (c), 2 (e), 3 (a) environ ⇒ 2 (g), 6 série ⇒ 4 (c) tournée ⇒ 4 (d), 4 (h) tour ⇒ 4 (f) partie ⇒ 4 (g)
    (a) (circular) rond, circulaire; (spherical) rond, sphérique;
    ∎ to become round s'arrondir;
    ∎ the earth is round la terre est ronde;
    ∎ to have a round face avoir la figure ronde;
    ∎ she looked up, her eyes round with surprise elle leva des yeux écarquillés de surprise;
    ∎ round hand or handwriting écriture f ronde
    (b) (curved → belly, cheeks) rond;
    ∎ to have round shoulders avoir le dos rond ou voûté
    (c) (figures) rond;
    ∎ in round figures en chiffres ronds;
    ∎ that's 500, in round figures ça fait 500 tout rond;
    ∎ a round dozen une douzaine tout rond
    ∎ a round sum une somme rondelette
    (e) literary (candid) net, franc (franche);
    ∎ they gave a round denial ils ont nié tout net
    (f) (rich, sonorous → tone, voice) sonore
    (a) (on all sides of) autour de;
    ∎ sitting round the fire/table assis autour du feu/de la table;
    ∎ the village is built round a green le village est construit autour d'un jardin public;
    ∎ they were all grouped round the teacher ils étaient tous rassemblés autour du professeur;
    ∎ the story centres round one particular family l'histoire est surtout centrée autour d'une famille
    ∎ the pillar is three feet round the base la base du pilier fait trois pieds de circonférence;
    ∎ he's 95 cm round the chest il fait 95 cm de tour de poitrine
    (c) (in the vicinity of, near) autour de;
    ∎ the countryside round Bath is lovely la campagne autour de Bath est très belle;
    ∎ they live somewhere round here ils habitent quelque part par ici
    ∎ the nearest garage is just round the corner le garage le plus proche est juste au coin de la rue;
    ∎ the grocer round the corner l'épicier du coin;
    ∎ she disappeared round the back of the house elle a disparu derrière la maison;
    ∎ the orchard is round the back le verger est derrière;
    ∎ to go round the corner passer le coin, tourner au coin;
    ∎ to go round an obstacle contourner un obstacle;
    ∎ there must be a way round the problem il doit y avoir un moyen de contourner ce problème
    ∎ he put his arm round her shoulders/waist il a passé son bras autour de ses épaules/de sa taille;
    ∎ she wears a scarf round her neck elle porte une écharpe autour du cou;
    ∎ he put a blanket round her legs il lui enveloppa les jambes d'une couverture;
    ∎ the shark swam round the boat le requin faisait des cercles autour du bateau;
    ∎ Drake sailed round the world Drake a fait le tour du monde en bateau;
    ∎ the earth goes or moves round the sun la terre tourne autour du soleil;
    ∎ they were dancing round a fire ils dansaient autour d'un feu
    (f) (all over, everywhere in)
    ∎ all round the world dans le monde entier, partout dans le monde;
    ∎ to travel round the world/country faire le tour du monde/du pays;
    ∎ she looked round the room elle a promené son regard autour de la pièce;
    ∎ to walk round the town faire le tour de la ville (à pied);
    ∎ we went for a stroll round the garden nous avons fait une balade dans le jardin;
    ∎ there's a rumour going round the school une rumeur circule dans l'école
    (g) (approximately) environ, aux environs de;
    ∎ round six o'clock aux environs de ou vers les six heures;
    ∎ round Christmas aux environs de Noël
    ∎ round the clock 24 heures sur 24;
    ∎ we worked round the clock nous avons travaillé 24 heures d'affilée;
    ∎ he slept round the clock il a fait le tour du cadran
    ∎ there's a fence all round il y a une clôture tout autour;
    ∎ there are trees all the way round il y a des arbres tout autour;
    ∎ taking things all round, taken all round à tout prendre, tout compte fait;
    ∎ all round, it was a good result dans l'ensemble, c'était un bon résultat
    ∎ you'll have to go round, the door's locked il faudra faire le tour, la porte est fermée à clé;
    ∎ we drove round to the back nous avons fait le tour (par derrière)
    ∎ turn the wheel right round or all the way round faites faire un tour complet à la roue;
    ∎ the shark swam round in circles le requin tournait en rond;
    ∎ all year round tout au long de ou toute l'année;
    ∎ summer will soon be or come round again l'été reviendra vite
    ∎ turn round and look at me retournez-vous et regardez-moi;
    ∎ she looked round at us elle se retourna pour nous regarder;
    ∎ we'll have to turn the car round on va devoir faire demi-tour;
    ∎ to have one's hat/jumper on the wrong way round avoir son chapeau/son pull à l'envers;
    ∎ to do sth the wrong way round faire qch à l'envers;
    ∎ it's the other way round (quite the opposite) c'est (tout) le contraire;
    ∎ try the key the other way round essaie la clef dans l'autre sens
    ∎ we spent the summer just travelling round on a passé l'été à voyager;
    ∎ can I have a look round? je peux jeter un coup d'œil?
    ∎ hand the sweets round, hand round the sweets faites passer les bonbons;
    ∎ there's a rumour going round il y a une rumeur qui court;
    ∎ there wasn't enough to go round il n'y en avait pas assez pour tout le monde
    ∎ she came round to see me elle est passée me voir;
    ∎ let's invite some friends round et si on invitait des amis?;
    ∎ come round for dinner some time viens dîner un soir;
    ∎ take these cakes round to her house apportez-lui ces gâteaux;
    ∎ he'll be round il passera;
    ∎ to order the car round demander qu'on amène la voiture
    (h) (to a different place, position)
    ∎ she's always moving the furniture round elle passe son temps à changer les meubles de place;
    ∎ try shifting the aerial round a bit essaie de bouger un peu l'antenne
    ∎ we had to take the long way round on a dû faire le grand tour ou un grand détour;
    ∎ she went round by the stream elle fit un détour par le ruisseau
    ∎ the tree is 5 metres round l'arbre fait 5 mètres de circonférence
    4 noun
    (a) (circle) rond m, cercle m
    (b) British (slice → of ham, cheese, bread, toast) tranche f;
    ∎ a round of sandwiches = un sandwich au pain de mie coupé en deux ou en quatre
    (c) (one in a series → of discussions, negotiations) série f; (→ of elections) tour m; (→ of increases) série f, train m;
    ∎ the next round of talks will be held in Moscow les prochains pourparlers auront lieu à Moscou
    (d) (regular route → for delivery) tournée f; (→ of sentry, patrol) ronde f;
    ∎ to do a paper/milk round distribuer les journaux/le lait à domicile;
    ∎ to do a hospital round faire sa visite à l'hôpital, visiter ses malades;
    ∎ to go on or do one's rounds (paperboy, milkman) faire sa tournée; (doctor) faire ses visites; (guard, policeman) faire sa ronde;
    ∎ to go or do or make the rounds (story, rumour, cold) circuler;
    ∎ there are several theories going the rounds at the moment il y a plusieurs théories qui circulent en ce moment;
    ∎ there's a joke/rumour/virus going the rounds in the office il y a une blague/une rumeur/un virus qui circule au bureau;
    ∎ she's doing or making the rounds of literary agents/travel agents elle fait le tour des agents littéraires/des agences de voyages
    ∎ the daily round le train-train quotidien, la routine quotidienne;
    ∎ the daily round of cooking and cleaning les travaux quotidiens de cuisine et de ménage;
    ∎ his life is one long round of parties il passe sa vie à faire la fête
    (f) (stage of competition) tour m, manche f;
    ∎ to be/get through to the next round se qualifier/s'être qualifié pour la manche suivante;
    ∎ she's through to the final round elle participera à la finale
    (g) (of golf, cards) partie f; (in boxing, wrestling) round m, reprise f;
    ∎ Horseriding there were six clear rounds six chevaux avaient fait un sans-faute;
    ∎ Boxing he only went three rounds il n'a fait que trois rounds;
    ∎ to play a round of golf faire une partie de golf;
    ∎ he had the best round of the day c'est lui qui a fait le meilleur parcours ou round
    (h) (of drinks) tournée f;
    ∎ to buy or stand a round of drinks payer une tournée (générale);
    ∎ it's my round c'est ma tournée;
    ∎ let's have another round prenons encore un verre
    (i) (of cheering) salve f
    (j) (of ammunition) cartouche f;
    ∎ how many rounds have we got left? combien de cartouches nous reste-t-il?
    (k) (song) canon m
    ∎ theatre in the round théâtre m en rond
    ∎ sculpture in the round ronde-bosse f
    (a) (lips, vowel) arrondir
    (b) (corner) tourner; Nautical (cape) doubler, franchir
    environ;
    ∎ we need round about 6,000 posters il nous faut environ 6000 affiches;
    ∎ she's round about forty elle a la quarantaine;
    ∎ round about midnight vers minuit
    alentour, des alentours;
    ∎ the villages round about les villages alentour ou des alentours
    ∎ to go round and round tourner;
    ∎ we drove round and round for hours on a tourné en rond pendant des heures;
    ∎ my head was spinning round and round j'avais la tête qui tournait
    ∎ we drove round and round the field on a fait plusieurs tours dans le champ;
    ∎ the helicopter flew round and round the lighthouse l'hélicoptère a tourné plusieurs fois autour du phare
    ►► round of applause des applaudissements mpl;
    ∎ give her a round of applause! on peut l'applaudir!;
    ∎ they got a round of applause ils se sont fait applaudir;
    Architecture round arch arc m en plein cintre;
    Cookery round of beef gîte m à la noix;
    Typography round brackets parenthèses fpl;
    round dance ronde f;
    round figure chiffre m rond;
    ∎ in round figures en chiffres mpl ronds;
    round robin (letter) pétition f (où les signatures sont disposées en rond); esp American (contest) poule f;
    the Round Table la Table ronde;
    round table table f ronde;
    round trip (voyage m) aller et retour m;
    ∎ I did the round trip in six hours j'ai fait l'aller-retour en six heures;
    Anatomy round window fenêtre f ronde
    arrondir au chiffre inférieur;
    ∎ their prices were rounded down to the nearest £10 ils ont arrondi leurs prix aux 10 livres inférieures
    (a) (finish, complete) terminer, clore;
    ∎ he rounded off his meal with a glass of brandy il a terminé son repas par un verre de cognac;
    ∎ to round things off… pour finir…
    (b) (figures → round down) arrondir au chiffre inférieur; (→ round up) arrondir au chiffre supérieur
    attaquer, s'en prendre à
    (complete) compléter; (deepen) approfondir
    prendre des rondeurs
    (a) (cattle, people) rassembler; (criminals) ramasser
    (b) (figures) arrondir au chiffre supérieur

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > round

  • 7 test

    test [test]
    test ⇒ 1 (a)-(e) contrôle ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (c) examen ⇒ 1 (b) tester ⇒ 3 (a), 3 (c) analyser ⇒ 3 (b), 3 (f) examiner ⇒ 3 (b) essayer ⇒ 3 (c) vérifier ⇒ 3 (d) contrôler ⇒ 3 (d) mesurer ⇒ 3 (e) évaluer ⇒ 3 (e) éprouver ⇒ 3 (g)
    1 noun
    (a) (examination → gen) test m; School contrôle m, interrogation f;
    ∎ to pass a test réussir à un examen;
    ∎ biology test interrogation f de biologie;
    ∎ to sit or to take a test passer un examen;
    ∎ general knowledge test test m de culture générale;
    ∎ I'm taking my (driving) test tomorrow je passe mon permis (de conduire) demain;
    ∎ did you pass your (driving) test? avez-vous été reçu au permis (de conduire)?
    (b) Medicine (of blood, urine) test m, analyse f; (of eyes, hearing) examen m;
    ∎ to undergo tests subir des tests ou examens;
    ∎ to have a blood test faire faire une analyse de sang;
    ∎ to have an eye test se faire examiner la vue;
    ∎ the lab did a test for salmonella le laboratoire a fait une analyse pour détecter la présence de salmonelles
    (c) (trial → of equipment, machine) test m, essai m, épreuve f; (→ of quality) contrôle m; Marketing (→ of reaction, popularity) évaluation f;
    ∎ to carry out tests on sth effectuer des tests sur qch;
    ∎ all new drugs undergo clinical tests tous les nouveaux médicaments subissent des tests cliniques;
    ∎ a test for noise levels un contrôle des niveaux sonores;
    ∎ to be on test être testé ou à l'essai;
    ∎ to put sth to the test tester qch, faire l'essai de qch
    (d) (of character, endurance, resolve) test m;
    ∎ a good test of character un bon test de personnalité, un bon moyen de tester la personnalité;
    ∎ to put sb to the test éprouver qn, mettre qn à l'épreuve;
    ∎ his courage was really put to the test son courage fut sérieusement mis à l'épreuve ou éprouvé;
    ∎ it's the first major test for the Prime Minister c'est la première fois que le Premier ministre est réellement mis à l'épreuve;
    ∎ to stand the test se montrer à la hauteur;
    ∎ also figurative test of strength épreuve f de force;
    ∎ to stand the test of time durer, résister à l'épreuve du temps;
    ∎ her books have certainly stood the test of time ses livres n'ont pas pris une ride
    (e) (measure) test m;
    ∎ it's a test of union solidarity c'est un test de la solidarité syndicale;
    ∎ it will be a test of popularity for the new leader ce sera un test de popularité pour le nouveau dirigeant;
    ∎ the by-election will be a good test of public opinion l'élection partielle représentera un bon test de l'opinion publique
    (f) British Sport test-match m
    d'essai
    (a) (examine → ability, knowledge, intelligence) tester, mesurer; School (→ pupils) tester, contrôler les connaissances de;
    ∎ we were tested in geography nous avons eu un contrôle de géographie;
    ∎ she was tested on her knowledge of plants on a testé ou vérifié ses connaissances botaniques
    (b) Medicine (blood, urine) analyser, faire une analyse de; (sight, hearing) examiner;
    ∎ to have one's eyes tested se faire examiner la vue;
    ∎ figurative you need your eyes tested or British testing! il faut mettre des lunettes!;
    ∎ to test sb for AIDS faire subir le test de dépistage du sida à qn;
    ∎ to test an athlete for steroids faire subir des tests à un athlète pour détecter l'usage de stéroïdes
    (c) (try out → prototype, car) essayer, faire l'essai de; (→ product) essayer; (→ weapon, procedure) tester; (→ drug) tester, expérimenter;
    ∎ none of our products are tested on animals nos produits ne sont pas testés sur les animaux
    (d) (check → batteries, pressure, suspension) vérifier, contrôler
    (e) (measure → reaction, popularity) mesurer, évaluer; Marketing (→ quality) contrôler;
    ∎ the day of action will test union solidarity la journée d'action permettra de mesurer ou d'évaluer la solidarité syndicale
    (f) (analyse → soil) analyser, faire des prélèvements dans; (→ water) analyser;
    ∎ the water was tested for phosphates on a analysé l'eau pour en déterminer le taux de phosphates;
    ∎ to test food for starch rechercher la présence d'amidon dans les aliments;
    ∎ figurative to test the water tâter le terrain
    (g) (tax → machinery, driver, patience) éprouver, mettre à l'épreuve;
    ∎ to test sb to the limit pousser qn à bout ou à la dernière extrémité;
    ∎ to test sb's patience to the limit mettre la patience de qn à rude épreuve
    ∎ to test for salmonella faire une recherche de salmonelles;
    ∎ to test for AIDS procéder à un test de dépistage du sida;
    ∎ to test for the presence of gas rechercher la présence de gaz
    ∎ she tested positive for AIDS son test de dépistage du sida s'est révélé positif
    ∎ testing, testing! un, deux, trois!
    ►► Law & History the Test Act = loi anglaise de 1673, abrogée en 1828, interdisant aux catholiques l'accès aux postes gouvernementaux et à la fonction de député;
    test area région f test;
    test ban interdiction f des essais nucléaires;
    test ban treaty traité m de prohibition des essais nucléaires;
    test bench banc m d'essai;
    British Television test card mire f;
    Law test case affaire f qui fait jurisprudence;
    ∎ the trial has come to be regarded as a test case in environmental law ce procès a acquis force de précédent dans le domaine de la protection de l'environnement;
    ∎ figurative doctors regard her experiences as a test case for some of their theories les médecins estiment que ses expériences vont leur permettre d'éprouver ou de mettre à l'épreuve certaines de leurs théories;
    test certificate certificat m d'essai;
    Television test chart mire f (de réglage);
    Marketing test city ville f test;
    test drive essai m sur route;
    ∎ to go for a test drive essayer une voiture;
    Aviation test flight vol m d'essai;
    test market marché-test m, marché m témoin;
    British test match match m international, test-match m;
    (a) Chemistry papier m réactif
    (b) British School interrogation f écrite;
    American Television test pattern mire f (de réglage);
    Music test piece morceau m imposé ou de concours;
    test pilot pilote m d'essai;
    test run essai m;
    ∎ to go for a test run faire un essai;
    test shot lancement m d'essai;
    test signal signal m de mesure;
    test site site m témoin;
    Cars test track piste f d'essai;
    test tube éprouvette f
    (a) (idea, theory) tester
    (b) (prototype, product) essayer, mettre à l'essai;
    ∎ these products are tested out on animals ces produits sont testés sur les animaux

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > test

  • 8 acceptance

    noun
    1) (willing receipt) Annahme, die; (of gift, offer) Annahme, die; Entgegennahme, die; (of duty, responsibility) Übernahme, die; (in answer) Zusage, die; (agreement) Annahme, die; Zustimmung, die (of zu)
    2) no pl. (approval) Billigung, die
    3) no pl. (acknowledg[e]ment) Anerkennung, die; (toleration) Hinnahme, die
    * * *
    noun We have had few acceptances to our invitation.)
    * * *
    ac·cept·ance
    [əkˈseptən(t)s]
    n
    1. no pl (accepting) of an invitation, offer, proposal, cheque Annahme f; of idea Zustimmung f
    2. (positive answer) Zusage f
    letter of \acceptance schriftliche Zusage
    3. no pl (toleration) Hinnahme f
    4. no pl (recognition) Anerkennung f, Akzeptanz f geh
    there is a general \acceptance that... man ist sich allgemein einig, dass...
    to gain \acceptance Anerkennung bekommen
    to meet with general \acceptance allgemeine Anerkennung finden
    5. FIN Akzept nt
    clean [or general] \acceptance uneingeschränktes [o reines] Akzept
    partial \acceptance Teilakzept nt
    qualified/uncovered \acceptance eingeschränktes/ungedecktes Akzept
    to procure \acceptance Akzept einholen
    6. PHYS
    \acceptance angle Einfangwinkel m
    \acceptance test [or testing] Annahmeprüfung f
    * * *
    [ək'septəns]
    n
    1) (of offer, gift, excuse) Annahme f; (of suggestion, work also, report, findings) Akzeptierung f; (of responsibility) Übernahme f; (= believing of story) Glauben nt; (= receiving of award) Entgegennahme f

    his acceptance into the family — seine Aufnahme in der or die Familie

    to find or win or gain acceptance (theories, people) — anerkannt werden, Anerkennung finden

    2) (= recognition of need, fact) Anerkennung f
    3) (= toleration of behaviour, fate, conditions) Hinnahme f
    4) (COMM) (of cheque, orders) Annahme f; (of delivery also) Abnahme f
    * * *
    1. Annahme f, Entgegennahme f
    2. Akzeptierung f:
    acceptance of life Lebensbejahung f
    3. Hinnahme f
    4. Anerkennung f:
    gain ( oder win) acceptance Anerkennung finden;
    his ideas have gained ( oder met with, won) general acceptance werden allgemein anerkannt oder haben sich durchgesetzt
    5. → academic.ru/319/acceptation">acceptation
    6. Aufnahme f ( into in akk)
    7. WIRTSCH
    a) Akzept n, angenommener Wechsel
    b) Akzept n, Annahme f (eines Wechsels)
    c) Annahmeerklärung f, -vermerk m
    8. JUR Zustimmung f, Vertragsannahme f
    9. ZOOL Brunst(zeit) f (weiblicher Haustiere)
    acc. abk
    1. TECH acceleration
    2. WIRTSCH acceptance
    4. WIRTSCH account
    5. LING accusative
    acpt. abk WIRTSCH acceptance
    * * *
    noun
    1) (willing receipt) Annahme, die; (of gift, offer) Annahme, die; Entgegennahme, die; (of duty, responsibility) Übernahme, die; (in answer) Zusage, die; (agreement) Annahme, die; Zustimmung, die (of zu)
    2) no pl. (approval) Billigung, die
    3) no pl. (acknowledgement) Anerkennung, die; (toleration) Hinnahme, die
    * * *
    n.
    Abnahme -n f.
    Akzeptanz f.
    Annahme -n f.

    English-german dictionary > acceptance

  • 9 swing

    1. noun
    1) (apparatus) Schaukel, die
    2) (spell of swinging) Schaukeln, das
    3) (Sport): (strike, blow) Schlag, der; (Boxing) Schwinger, der; (Golf) Schwung, der

    take a swing at somebody/something — zum Schlag gegen jemanden/auf etwas (Akk.) ausholen

    4) (of suspended object) Schwingen, das

    in full swing — (fig.) in vollem Gang[e]

    5) (steady movement) Rhythmus, der

    get into/be in the swing of things or it — richtig reinkommen/richtig drin sein (ugs.)

    6) (Mus.) Swing, der
    7) (shift) Schwankung, die; (of public opinion) Wende, die; (amount of change in votes) Abwanderung, die
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) (turn on axis, sway) schwingen; (in wind) schaukeln

    swing open — [Tür:] aufgehen

    2) (go in sweeping curve) schwenken

    swing from somebody's arm/a tree — an jemandes Arm/einem Baum schwingen (geh.) od. baumeln

    3)

    swing into action — (fig.) loslegen (ugs.)

    4) (move oneself by swinging) sich schwingen
    5) (sl.): (be executed by hanging) baumeln (salopp)
    3. transitive verb,
    1) schwingen; (rock) schaukeln

    swing something round and round — etwas kreisen od. im Kreise wirbeln lassen

    2) (cause to face in another direction) schwenken

    he swung the car off the road/into the road — er schwenkte [mit dem Auto] von der Straße ab/in die Straße ein

    3) (have influence on) umschlagen lassen [öffentliche Meinung]

    swing the elections — den Ausgang der Wahlen entscheiden

    what swung it for me... — was für mich den Ausschlag gab...

    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/112515/swing_round">swing round
    * * *
    [swiŋ] 1. past tense, past participle - swung; verb
    1) (to (cause to) move or sway in a curve (from side to side or forwards and backwards) from a fixed point: You swing your arms when you walk; The children were swinging on a rope hanging from a tree; The door swung open; He swung the load on to his shoulder.) schwingen
    2) (to walk with a stride: He swung along the road.) schwungvoll gehen
    3) (to turn suddenly: He swung round and stared at them; He is hoping to swing the voters in his favour.) sich drehen, herumkriegen
    2. noun
    1) (an act, period, or manner, of swinging: He was having a swing on the rope; Most golfers would like to improve their swing.) das Schwingen, der Schlag
    2) (a swinging movement: the swing of the dancers' skirts.) der Schwung
    3) (a strong dancing rhythm: The music should be played with a swing.) der Schwung
    4) (a change in public opinion etc: a swing away from the government.) die Schwenkung
    5) (a seat for swinging, hung on ropes or chains from a supporting frame etc.) die Schaukel
    •
    - swinging
    - swing bridge
    - swing door
    - be in full swing
    - get into the swing of things
    - get into the swing
    - go with a swing
    * * *
    [swɪŋ]
    I. n
    1. (movement) Schwingen nt kein pl
    with a \swing of his axe... mit einem Schwung seiner Axt...
    2. (punch) Schlag m
    to take a \swing at sb zum Schlag gegen jdn ausholen
    3. (hanging seat) Schaukel f
    porch \swing Hollywoodschaukel f
    to go on a \swing schaukeln
    4. (change) Schwankung f
    mood \swing Stimmungsschwankung f; POL Umschwung m
    5. esp AM (quick trip) Stippvisite f fam
    to take a \swing through the southern states eine kurze Tour durch die Südstaaten machen
    6. no pl MUS Swing m
    7. AM (in baseball) Swing m
    8.
    ▶ to be in full \swing voll im Gang sein
    ▶ to get [back] into the \swing of things [or it] ( fam) sich akk [wieder] an etwas gewöhnen, [wieder] in etwas reinkommen fam
    ▶ to go with a \swing BRIT ( fam: be exciting) Schwung haben; (be well done) ein voller Erfolg sein
    ▶ what you lose on the \swings, you gain on the roundabouts [or it's \swings and roundabouts] BRIT ( prov) das hält sich die Waagschale, das ist Jacke wie Hose [o ÖSTERR, DIAL g'hupft wie g'hatscht] [o SCHWEIZ Hans was Heinrich] fam
    II. vi
    <swung, swung>
    1. (move) [hin- und her]schwingen; (move circularly) sich akk drehen
    the monkey was \swinging from tree to tree der Affe schwang sich von Baum zu Baum
    the door swung open in the wind die Tür ging durch den Wind auf
    2. (attempt to hit) zum Schlag ausholen
    ▪ to \swing at sb [with sth] [mit etw dat] nach jdm schlagen
    3. (in playground) schaukeln
    4. (alternate) mood schwanken
    5. MUS swingen
    6. ( fam: be exciting) swingen sl
    you need music to make a party \swing man braucht Musik, um eine Party in Schwung zu bringen
    7. esp AM (stop shortly)
    ▪ to \swing by somewhere irgendwo kurz anhalten
    8. (hang) hängen, baumeln fam
    ▪ to \swing for sth für etw akk gehängt werden; AM ( fig: be reprimanded) für etw akk gerügt [o getadelt] werden
    9. AM ( fam: in baseball)
    to \swing for the fences einen Homerun versuchen
    10. AM ( fam: to take a chance and go for it all) das Äußerste wagen
    11.
    ▶ to \swing into action loslegen fam
    III. vt
    <swung, swung>
    ▪ to \swing sth etw [hin und her] schwingen
    to \swing one's arms die Arme schwingen
    2. MUS etw als Swing spielen
    3. ( fam: arrange)
    ▪ to \swing sth:
    do you think you could \swing the job for me? glaubst du, du könntest die Sache für mich schaukeln? fam
    to \swing it es arrangieren [o fam deichseln]
    to \swing an election ( pej) eine Wahl herumreißen fam
    4.
    ▶ to \swing the balance den Ausschlag geben
    ▶ to \swing the lead BRIT sich akk vor etw dat drücken
    IV. adj voter, state entscheidend
    * * *
    [swɪŋ] vb: pret, ptp swung
    1. n
    1) (= movement) Schwung m; (to and fro) Schwingen nt; (of needle) Ausschlag m; (= distance) Ausschlag m, Schwung(weite f) m; (BOXING ETC = blow) Schwinger m; (GOLF, SKIING ETC) Schwung m; (fig, POL) (Meinungs)umschwung m

    the golfer took a big swing at the ball —

    my swing is too short — ich hole nicht weit genug aus

    2) (= rhythm) Schwung m; (= kind of music, dance) Swing m

    to get into the swing of sth (of new job, married life etc) — sich an etw (acc) gewöhnen

    3) (= seat for swinging) Schaukel f

    what you win or gain on the swings (you lose on the roundabouts) (prov) — was man auf der einen Seite gewinnt, verliert man auf der anderen

    4) (esp US

    = scope, freedom) he gave his imagination full swing — er ließ seiner Fantasie or Phantasie (dat) freien Lauf

    he was given full swing to make decisions — man hat ihm bei allen Entscheidungen freie Hand gelassen

    2. vt
    1) object schwingen; (to and fro) hin und her schwingen; (on swing, hammock) schaukeln; arms, legs (vigorously) schwingen (mit); (= dangle) baumeln mit; propeller einen Schwung geben (+dat)
    See:
    → cat
    2) (= move) schwingen

    he swung his axe at the tree/at me — er schwang die Axt gegen den Baum/gegen mich

    to swing a door open/shut —

    he swung the case ( up) onto his shoulder — er schwang sich (dat) die Kiste auf die Schulter

    he swung himself over the stream/wall/up into the saddle — er schwang sich über den Bach/über die Mauer/in den Sattel

    3) (= influence) election, decision, voters beeinflussen; opinion umschlagen lassen; person umstimmen, herumkriegen (inf)

    his speech swung the decision in our favour — seine Rede ließ die Entscheidung zu unseren Gunsten ausfallen

    what swung it for me was the fact that... (inf) — was dann letzten Endes den Ausschlag gegeben hat, war, dass...

    to swing it ( so that...) (inf) — es so drehen or deichseln (inf)(, dass...)

    he managed to swing it in our favour — es gelang ihm, es zu unseren Gunsten zu drehen

    4) (turn) plane, car herumschwenken
    3. vi
    1) (object) schwingen; (to and fro) (hin und her) schwingen; (= pivot) sich drehen; (on swing) schaukeln; (arms, legs = dangle) baumeln

    he was left swinging by his hands — er hing or (dangerously) baumelte nur noch an den Händen

    2) (= move into saddle, along rope etc) sich schwingen

    opinion/the party has swung to the right — die Meinung/die Partei hat einen Rechtsschwenk gemacht

    3) (music, tune) Schwung haben

    the town/club began to swing — in der Stadt/im Klub kam Stimmung auf (inf)

    4) (inf

    = be hanged) he'll swing for it — dafür wird er baumeln

    I'll swing for him ( yet) — ich bring ihn noch um (inf)

    he's not worth swinging for — es lohnt sich nicht, sich an ihm die Hände schmutzig zu machen (inf)

    * * *
    swing [swıŋ]
    A v/t prät und pperf swung [swʌŋ]
    1. ein Lasso, Schwert etc schwingen:
    swing o.s. from branch to branch;
    2. eine Glocke etc schwingen, (hin- und her)schwenken:
    swing one’s arms mit den Armen schlenkern; she left the room, swinging her hips mit wiegenden Hüften;
    swing out TECH ausschwenken;
    swing sb round jemanden herumwirbeln oder -schwenken;
    swing the propeller den Propeller durchdrehen oder anwerfen; → lead2 A 2, room A 1
    3. baumeln oder pendeln lassen, aufhängen ( from an dat):
    swing a hammock eine Hängematte aufhängen;
    swing one’s legs mit den Beinen baumeln;
    swing a gate open (to) ein Tor auf-(zu)stoßen
    5. swing in (out) besonders MIL ein-(aus)schwenken lassen
    6. SCHIFF (rund)schwojen
    7. (auf die Schulter etc) (hoch)schwingen
    8. TECH Spielraum lassen für:
    9. umg
    a) etwas schaukeln, hinkriegen
    b) US die Wähler etc rumkriegen
    c) US eine Wahl etc entscheiden(d beeinflussen)
    B v/i
    1. (hin- und her)schwingen, pendeln, ausschlagen (Pendel, Zeiger):
    swing from branch to branch sich von Ast zu Ast schwingen;
    swing into motion in Schwung oder Gang kommen;
    swing into action fig loslegen;
    a) fig alles abdecken,
    b) POL eine Wahlrundreise machen;
    swing round the circle of all theories US sich der Reihe nach mit allen Theorien befassen
    2. baumeln ( from an dat) (Glocke etc)
    3. (sich) schaukeln
    4. umg baumeln (gehängt werden):
    5. sich drehen ( on its hinges in den Angeln) (Tür etc):
    swing open (to) auffliegen (zuschlagen);
    a) sich ruckartig umdrehen,
    b) sich drehen (Wind etc),
    c) fig umschlagen (öffentliche Meinung etc)
    6. SCHIFF schwojen
    7. a) mit schwungvollen oder flotten Bewegungen gehen, auch MIL (flott) marschieren
    b) swing in(to line) (out) besonders MIL ein-(aus)schwenken
    8. mit Schwung oder in großem Bogen fahren:
    9. sich in weitem Bogen hinziehen:
    10. a) schwanken
    b) TECH Schwingungen haben
    11. a) Schwung haben, schwungvoll sein (Musik etc)
    b) lebenslustig sein
    12. (zum Schlag) ausholen:
    swing at sb nach jemandem schlagen
    13. MUS swingen, Swing spielen oder tanzen
    14. sl swingen (Atmosphäre haben)
    15. sl (gerne) Partner tauschen
    C s
    1. (Hin- und Her)Schwingen n, Schwingung f, Pendeln n, Ausschlagen n (eines Pendels oder Zeigers), TECH auch Schwungweite f, Ausschlag m:
    the swing of the pendulum fig der Umschwung;
    free swing Bewegungsfreiheit f, Spielraum m (beide a. fig):
    a) einer Sache freien Lauf lassen,
    b) jemandem freie Hand lassen;
    the party was in full swing die Party war in vollem Gang
    2. Schaukeln n:
    have a swing schaukeln
    3. a) Schwung m (beim Gehen, Skilauf etc), schwingender Gang, Schlenkern n
    b) LIT, MUS Schwung m (auch fig), schwingender Rhythmus:
    with a swing schwungvoll;
    get into the swing of things umg den Bogen rauskriegen;
    go with a swing Schwung haben, fig a. wie am Schnürchen gehen
    4. Schwung (-kraft f) m (auch fig):
    at full swing in vollem Schwung, in voller Fahrt
    5. WIRTSCH US umg Konjunkturperiode f
    6. umg (Arbeits)Schicht f
    7. Boxen: Schwinger m
    8. POL US Wahlrundreise f
    9. a) Schwenkung f
    b) fig Umschwung m (of gen oder in dat):
    swing of opinion Meinungsumschwung
    10. Schaukel f: → roundabout B 3
    11. TECH
    a) Spielraum m, Spitzenhöhe f (einer Drehbank)
    b) (Rad)Sturz m
    12. MUS Swing m (ein Jazzstil)
    13. WIRTSCH Swing m (Spielraum für Kreditgewährung bei bilateralen Handelsverträgen)
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (apparatus) Schaukel, die
    2) (spell of swinging) Schaukeln, das
    3) (Sport): (strike, blow) Schlag, der; (Boxing) Schwinger, der; (Golf) Schwung, der

    take a swing at somebody/something — zum Schlag gegen jemanden/auf etwas (Akk.) ausholen

    4) (of suspended object) Schwingen, das

    in full swing — (fig.) in vollem Gang[e]

    5) (steady movement) Rhythmus, der

    get into/be in the swing of things or it — richtig reinkommen/richtig drin sein (ugs.)

    6) (Mus.) Swing, der
    7) (shift) Schwankung, die; (of public opinion) Wende, die; (amount of change in votes) Abwanderung, die
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) (turn on axis, sway) schwingen; (in wind) schaukeln

    swing open — [Tür:] aufgehen

    swing from somebody's arm/a tree — an jemandes Arm/einem Baum schwingen (geh.) od. baumeln

    3)

    swing into action — (fig.) loslegen (ugs.)

    4) (move oneself by swinging) sich schwingen
    5) (sl.): (be executed by hanging) baumeln (salopp)
    3. transitive verb,
    1) schwingen; (rock) schaukeln

    swing something round and round — etwas kreisen od. im Kreise wirbeln lassen

    he swung the car off the road/into the road — er schwenkte [mit dem Auto] von der Straße ab/in die Straße ein

    3) (have influence on) umschlagen lassen [öffentliche Meinung]

    what swung it for me... — was für mich den Ausschlag gab...

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (music) n.
    Swingmusik f. n.
    Schaukel -n f.
    Schwingen n. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: swung)
    = schaukeln v.
    schwingen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: schwang, geschwungen)

    English-german dictionary > swing

  • 10 Theory X

    Gen Mgt
    a management theory based on the assumption that most people are naturally reluctant to work and need discipline, direction, and close control if they are to meet work requirements. Theory X was coined by Douglas McGregor in The Human Side of Enterprise (1960), and it was considered by him to be an implicit basis for traditional hierarchical management. McGregor rejected Theory X as an appropriate management style and favored instead his proposed alternative, Theory Y.

    The ultimate business dictionary > Theory X

  • 11 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 12 Mind

       It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)
       Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)
       The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)
       MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)
       [Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)
       Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)
       7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive Analyses
       Recent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....
       Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.
       In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.
       The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)
       Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.
    ... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind

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