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  • 41 greifen

    to clutch; to grasp; to grab; to grip
    * * *
    grei|fen ['graifn] pret gri\#ff [grɪf] ptp gegri\#ffen [gə'grɪfn]
    1. vt
    1) (= nehmen, packen) to take hold of, to grasp; (= grapschen) to seize, to grab; Saite to stop, to hold down; Akkord to strike

    eine Oktave gréífen — to stretch or reach an octave

    diese Zahl ist zu hoch/zu niedrig gegriffen (fig) — this figure is too high/low

    zum Greifen nahe sein (Sieg) — to be within reach; (Folgerung) to be obvious (to anyone)

    2) (= fangen) to catch

    Greifen spielen — to play catch or tag

    jdn/etw gréífen — to grab sb/sth

    den werde ich mir mal gréífen (inf) — I'm going to tell him a thing or two (inf) or a few home truths (Brit)

    2. vi
    1)

    gréífen — to reach behind one

    um sich gréífen (fig) — to spread, to gain ground

    gréífen — to reach under sth

    gréífen — to put one's hand into sth, to reach into sth

    nach einer Sache gréífen — to reach for sth; (um zu halten) to clutch or (hastig) grab at sth

    zu etw gréífen (zu Pistole) — to reach for sth; (fig) zu Methoden, Mitteln to turn or resort to sth

    zur Flasche gréífen — to take or turn to the bottle

    er greift gern nach einem guten Buch — he likes to settle down with a good book

    tief in die Tasche gréífen (fig) — to dig deep in one's pocket(s)

    in die Saiten/Tasten gréífen — to strike up a tune

    nach den Sternen gréífen — to reach for the stars

    nach dem rettenden Strohhalm gréífen — to clutch at a straw

    zum Äußersten gréífen — to resort to extremes

    nach der Macht gréífen — to try to seize power

    die Geschichte greift ans Herz — the story really tears or tugs at one's heartstrings

    2) (= nicht rutschen, einrasten) to grip; (fig) (= wirksam werden) to take effect; (= zum Ziel/Erfolg führen) to achieve its ends; (= zutreffen) (Gesetz, Vorschrift) to apply; (Vergleich, Unterscheidung) to hold

    zu kurz gréífen — to fall short

    * * *
    1) (to stretch out one's hand in order to touch or get hold of something: He reached (across the table) for another cake; She reached out and took the book; He reached across/over and slapped her.) reach
    2) (to close (a hole, eg on a flute) or press down (a string on a violin etc) in order to play a particular note.) stop
    * * *
    grei·fen
    < griff, gegriffen>
    [ˈgraifn̩]
    I. vt
    1. (nehmen)
    ▪ [sich dat] etw \greifen to take sth; Essen to help oneself to sth
    aus dem Leben gegriffen sein to be taken from real life
    2. (packen)
    ▪ [sich dat] etw [mit etw dat] \greifen to take hold of sth [with sth]; (schnell) to grab [or seize] sth [with sth]
    ▪ jdn an [o bei] etw dat \greifen to take sb by sth, to take sb's sth; (klammern) to grasp sb's sth
    sie griff ihn an der Hand she grasped [or took] hold of his hand
    3. (fangen)
    ▪ [sich dat] jdn \greifen to catch sb
    ▪ etw \greifen to play sth; (auf Gitarre a.) to finger sth
    der Fernseher ist hoch/niedrig gegriffen noch 200 Euro wert the television is worth €200 at the most/least [or at most/least €200]
    zu hoch/niedrig gegriffen sein to be overestimated/underestimated [or an overestimate/underestimate]
    unser Ziel ist zu hoch gegriffen (fig) we've set our sights too high
    6. (fam: stellen)
    sich dat [mal] jdn \greifen to give sb a good talking-to fam
    II. vi
    1. (geh: ergreifen)
    ▪ zu etw dat \greifen to reach for sth
    in den Ferien greift sie gern zum Buch she enjoys reading a book during the holidays
    zu Drogen \greifen to turn to drugs
    zur Feder \greifen to take up one's pen
    zur Zigarette \greifen to reach for a cigarette
    2. (fassen)
    ▪ irgendwohin \greifen to reach somewhere
    ▪ in etw akk \greifen to reach into sth
    der Fahrlehrer griff ihr ins Steuer the driving instructor grabbed the wheel from her
    ins Leere \greifen to meet empty air
    ▪ nach etw dat \greifen to reach for sth; (packen) to grab sth; (versuchen) to [make a] grab for sth
    nach der Krone \greifen to try to crown oneself king/queen
    nach der Macht \greifen to try to seize power
    um sich akk \greifen to spread
    ▪ zu etw dat \greifen to resort to sth
    ▪ an etw akk \greifen to touch sth
    an jds Ehre \greifen (geh) to impugn [or cast a slur on] sb's honour
    jdm ans Herz \greifen (geh) to tug at one's heartstrings
    sich dat an die Stirn \greifen to clasp one's forehead
    ▪ jdm an etw akk \greifen to snatch at sb's sth
    5. TECH (festsitzen) to grip ( auf + dat on); Zahnrad to mesh; Zahnräder a. to intermesh; Schreibstift to write ( auf + dat on
    6. (wirken) to take effect
    zu kurz \greifen to not go far enough, to be inadequate
    7.
    ▶ hinter sich \greifen müssen SPORT (sl) to fail to prevent a goal
    * * *
    1.
    unregelmäßiges transitives Verb
    1) (ergreifen) take hold of; grasp; (rasch greifen) grab; seize

    sich (Dat.) etwas greifen — help oneself to something

    von hier scheint der See zum Greifen nah[e] — from here the lake seems close enough to reach out and touch

    zum Greifen nahe sein — <end, liberation> be imminent; < goal, success> be within somebody's grasp

    2) (fangen) catch
    3)

    einen Akkord greifen — (auf dem Klavier usw.) play a chord; (auf der Gitarre usw.) finger a chord

    tausend ist zu hoch/niedrig gegriffen — one thousand is an overestimate/underestimate

    2.
    unregelmäßiges intransitives Verb
    1)

    in/unter/hinter etwas/sich (Akk.) greifen — reach into/under/behind something/one

    nach etwas greifen — reach for something; (hastig) make a grab for something

    zu Drogen/zur Zigarette greifen — turn to drugs/reach for a cigarette

    nach der Macht greifen — (fig.) try to seize power

    2) (Technik) grip
    3) (ugs.): (spielen)

    in die Tasten/Saiten greifen — sweep one's hand over the keys/across the strings

    * * *
    greifen; greift, griff, hat gegriffen
    A. v/t
    1. take; fest: grasp; (packen) grab (hold of); umg (jemanden) grab
    2. MUS (Ton, Akkord) play
    3. fig:
    aus dem Leben gegriffen taken from life;
    das ist (völlig) aus der Luft gegriffen that’s something he’s etc just plucked out of the air, that’s (completely) off the top of his etc head;
    die Zahl ist zu hoch/niedrig gegriffen the figure is too high/low;
    das ist (fast) mit Händen zu greifen it’s glaringly obvious;
    sich (dat)
    jemanden greifen umg (bestrafen) show sb what’s what; (tadeln) tell sb what’s what ( oder a thing or two); um jemandem Aufgaben zu übertragen: grab sb, get hold of sb;
    jemanden greifen umg (Dieb etc) nab (US auch nail) sb
    B. v/i
    1. reach (
    in +akk into;
    hinter +akk behind;
    unter +akk under);
    an den Hut etc
    greifen touch;
    sich (dat)
    greifen clutch one’s brow ( oder forehead) etc;
    der Torwart musste viermal hinter sich greifen the keeper let in four, the keeper had to pick the ball out of the back of the net four times;
    ins Leere greifen miss, grab thin air;
    in die Saiten/Tasten greifen umg strike up a tune (on the guitar/piano etc);
    greifen nach reach for; hastig: snatch at; klammernd: clutch at;
    mit beiden Händen greifen nach fig, nach einer Gelegenheit etc: jump at, grab umg;
    um sich greifen reach about; tastend: grope ( oder feel) around; fig Unsitte etc: spread, proliferate;
    um sich greifend fig rampant;
    greifen zu reach for; fig zu List etc: resort to; zu Alkohol, Droge etc: take to;
    zu den Waffen greifen take up arms; Volk: auch rise in arms;
    greifen pick up a book etc;
    ein Buch etc
    zu dem man immer wieder (gern[e]) greift to which one will always return (with pleasure), one wouldn’t like to miss;
    zum Äußersten greifen fig go to extremes;
    es war zum Greifen nah it was (bzw seemed) so close you could almost touch it; Erfolg etc it was within easy reach; → Feder, Flasche, Strohhalm, Tasche etc
    2. Bremse, Reifen, Zange etc: grip
    3. fig (zu wirken beginnen) (begin to) take effect; (wirksam sein) be effective; (ankommen) catch on
    * * *
    1.
    unregelmäßiges transitives Verb
    1) (ergreifen) take hold of; grasp; (rasch greifen) grab; seize

    sich (Dat.) etwas greifen — help oneself to something

    von hier scheint der See zum Greifen nah[e] — from here the lake seems close enough to reach out and touch

    zum Greifen nahe sein — <end, liberation> be imminent; <goal, success> be within somebody's grasp

    2) (fangen) catch
    3)

    einen Akkord greifen — (auf dem Klavier usw.) play a chord; (auf der Gitarre usw.) finger a chord

    tausend ist zu hoch/niedrig gegriffen — one thousand is an overestimate/underestimate

    2.
    unregelmäßiges intransitives Verb
    1)

    in/unter/hinter etwas/sich (Akk.) greifen — reach into/under/behind something/one

    nach etwas greifen — reach for something; (hastig) make a grab for something

    zu Drogen/zur Zigarette greifen — turn to drugs/reach for a cigarette

    nach der Macht greifen — (fig.) try to seize power

    2) (Technik) grip
    3) (ugs.): (spielen)

    in die Tasten/Saiten greifen — sweep one's hand over the keys/across the strings

    * * *
    (nach) v.
    to reach (for) v. v.
    (§ p.,pp.: griff, gegriffen)
    = to grasp v.
    to snatch v. v.
    to grab v.
    to seize v.
    to snatch v.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > greifen

  • 42 capacidad

    f.
    1 capacity (cabida).
    con capacidad para quinientas personas with a capacity of five hundred
    este teatro tiene capacidad para mil doscientos espectadores this theater can seat one thousand two hundred people
    2 ability (aptitud, talento, potencial).
    no tener capacidad para algo/para hacer algo to be no good at something/at doing something
    capacidad adquisitiva purchasing power
    capacidad de concentración ability to concentrate
    capacidad ofensiva fire power
    3 throughput.
    * * *
    1 (gen) capacity
    2 figurado (habilidad) capability, ability
    * * *
    noun f.
    2) ability, capability
    * * *
    SF
    1) [de vehículo, teatro, depósito] capacity

    un disquete con capacidad de 1.44 MB — a diskette with a capacity of 1.44 MB

    capacidad: 40 viajeros sentados — seating capacity: 40

    un avión con capacidad para 155 pasajeros — a 155-seater aircraft, an aircraft that can carry 155 passengers

    capacidad de carga — carrying capacity, freight capacity

    medida 1)
    2) (=habilidad) ability

    capacidad adquisitiva — (Com) purchasing power, buying power

    capacidad de convocatoria — [de orador] pulling power; [de huelga, manifestación] appeal, popular appeal

    capacidad de ganancia — (Com) earning power, earning capacity

    capacidad de trabajo, tiene una enorme capacidad de trabajo — she can get through a tremendous amount of work, she has an enormous capacity for hard work

    3) (=autoridad) authority
    4) (Jur) capacity
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( competencia) ability
    b) ( potencial) capacity

    capacidad de or para + inf — ability o capacity to + inf

    están en capacidad de despachar más pasajeros — (Col) they have the capacity to handle more passengers

    c) (Der) capacity
    2) ( cupo) capacity
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( competencia) ability
    b) ( potencial) capacity

    capacidad de or para + inf — ability o capacity to + inf

    están en capacidad de despachar más pasajeros — (Col) they have the capacity to handle more passengers

    c) (Der) capacity
    2) ( cupo) capacity
    * * *
    capacidad1
    1 = ability, capability, competence, appetite, capacity, hat, aptitude, faculty.

    Ex: The ability to search on word stems is particularly valuable where the text to be searched is in free-language format.

    Ex: DOBIS/LIBIS may replace the typewriter and the catalog card but it cannot replace the decision-making capabilities of the library staff.
    Ex: In order that you should be able to perform these required skills with greater competence, selected elements of the theory of subject indexing will be included.
    Ex: Such machines will have enourmous appetites.
    Ex: Older people have suffered some losses in sensory and physical capacity, and newer teaching techniques might intimidate them.
    Ex: The city librarian has commonly been a general cultural consultant, often with more than one hat, with the curatorship of the museum and/or art gallery as additional offices.
    Ex: In tracking, schools categorize according to measures of intelligence, achievement, or aptitude and then assign students to ability or interest-grouped classes = En la subdivisión de los alumnos en clases según su nivel académico, las escuelas agrupan a los alumnos de acuerdo con su nivel de inteligencia, habilidad o aptitud y luego los asignan a las clases según su capacidad o por sus intereses.
    Ex: Sophia no sooner saw Blifil than she turned pale, and almost lost the use of all her faculties.
    * actuar por encima de {Posesivo} capacidades = punch above + Posesivo + weight.
    * capacidad académica = academic ability.
    * capacidad analítica = analytical capacity.
    * capacidad cognitiva = cognitive ability, cognitive capacity.
    * capacidad comunicativa = speaking skills.
    * capacidad crediticia = credit standing.
    * capacidad crítica = critical skills, critical awareness, critical faculty.
    * capacidad crítica de los programas televisivos = teleliteracy.
    * capacidad de absorción = absorptive capacity, absorptive capability.
    * capacidad de búsqueda = searching power.
    * capacidad de comercialización = marketability.
    * capacidad de comprensión = listening skills, understanding capacity.
    * capacidad de discriminación = discriminating power.
    * capacidad deductiva = heuristic power.
    * capacidad de enganche = holding power.
    * capacidad de escuchar = listening skills.
    * capacidad de interpretar imágenes = visual literacy.
    * capacidad de interpretar información estadística = graphic literacy, spatial literacy, statistical literacy.
    * capacidad de leer = reading skills.
    * capacidad de manejar la información = information handling.
    * capacidad de mantener la atención = attention span.
    * capacidad de negociación = bargaining power.
    * capacidad de procesamiento = throughput, processing power.
    * capacidad de producción = throughput.
    * capacidad de promoción = promotability.
    * capacidad de razonamiento = thinking skills.
    * capacidad de resolver problemas = problem-solving ability.
    * capacidad de retención = holding power.
    * capacidad de saber leer y escribir = literacy skills.
    * capacidad económica = earning capacity, earning power.
    * capacidades informáticas = computer skills.
    * capacidad física = physical capability.
    * capacidad informática = computing power.
    * capacidad intelectual = intellectual ability.
    * capacidad lingüística = language skill.
    * capacidad mental = brainpower [brain power], mental capability.
    * desarrollar la capacidad de = gain in + the ability to.
    * desarrollar las capacidades = fulfil + potential.
    * desarrollo de capacidades = capacity building.
    * en + Posesivo + capacidad como = in + Posesivo + capacity as.
    * no actuando en capacidad de autor = non-authorial.
    * persona que rinde por debajo de su capacidad = underachiever.
    * sin capacidad de discernimiento = undiscriminating.
    * tener la capacidad de = have + the potential (to/for).

    capacidad2
    2 = capacity, headroom.
    Nota: Literalmente, espacio sobre la cabeza y de ahí el significado de "espacio para crecer".

    Ex: Marginal storage cards normally have capacity for storing citations and abstracts.

    Ex: I was also encouraged to read a subscriber to this list has over 40,000 items meaning this software has plenty of headroom = También me sentí animado al leer que un miembro de esta lista tiene más de 40.000 registros lo que significa que este software tiene bastante capacidad.
    * alcanzar el límite de + Posesivo + capacidad = stretch + Nombre + beyond the breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to the limit.
    * capacidad de almacenamiento = storage capacity.
    * capacidad excesiva = overcapacity [over-capacity].
    * capacidad para libros = book capacity.
    * con gran capacidad = capacious.
    * de gran capacidad = large-capacity, high capacity.
    * de mucha capacidad = capacious.
    * funcionar a plena capacidad = be fully into + Posesivo + stride.
    * llegar al límite de + Posesivo + capacidad = stretch + Nombre + beyond the breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to breaking point, stretch + Nombre + to the limit.

    * * *
    A
    1 (competencia) ability
    nadie pone en duda su capacidad no one doubts his ability o capability
    una persona de gran capacidad a person of great ability, a very able o capable person
    2 (potencial) capacity capacidad DE algo:
    su capacidad de comunicación their ability to communicate
    capacidad DE or PARA + INF capacity o ability to + INF
    la capacidad de grabar durante 24 horas seguidas the ability o capacity to record non-stop for 24 hours
    están en capacidad de despachar más pasajeros ( Col); they have the capacity to handle more passengers
    3 ( Der) capacity
    capacidad civil/legal civil/legal capacity
    Compuestos:
    purchasing power
    ● capacidad crediticia or de crédito
    creditworthiness
    borrowing capacity
    firepower
    creditworthiness
    production capacity
    physical capacity
    mental capacity
    production capacity
    la capacidad del depósito es de unos 40 litros the tank has a capacity of o holds about 40 liters
    Compuesto:
    freight o cargo capacity
    * * *

     

    capacidad sustantivo femenino
    1



    capacidad de or para hacer algo ability o capacity to do sth
    c) (Der) capacity

    2 ( cupo) capacity
    capacidad sustantivo femenino
    1 (disposición) capacity, ability
    2 (de un local, armario, etc) capacity: este cine tiene capacidad para mil personas, this cinema can hold up to one thousand people
    ' capacidad' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    aguante
    - cabida
    - competencia
    - don
    - dote
    - error
    - expresar
    - facultad
    - genio
    - habla
    - hablarse
    - incapaz
    - mayor
    - palabra
    - poder
    - raciocinio
    - saber
    - sentida
    - sentido
    - servir
    - solvencia
    - talento
    - techo
    - ver
    - virtud
    - visión
    - volumen
    - arroba
    - comprensión
    - criterio
    - cupo
    - entendimiento
    - incapacidad
    - observación
    - potencial
    - sobrepasar
    - triplicar
    English:
    ability
    - accommodate
    - admire
    - aptitude
    - attention span
    - attest
    - capacity
    - carload
    - cast
    - endurance
    - idle
    - judgement
    - judgment
    - manufacturing capacity
    - moot
    - movement
    - power
    - qualification
    - truckload
    - uncanny
    - underrated
    - volume
    - capability
    - hold
    - justice
    - resilience
    - resilient
    - seat
    - stretch
    - take
    - three-quarters
    * * *
    1. [cabida] capacity;
    unidades de capacidad units of capacity;
    capacidad máxima [en ascensor] maximum load;
    con capacidad para 500 personas with a capacity of 500;
    este teatro tiene capacidad para 1.200 espectadores this theatre can seat 1,200 people
    Informát capacidad de almacenamiento storage capacity;
    capacidad de carga cargo capacity;
    capacidad eléctrica [de condensador] capacitance;
    Informát capacidad de memoria memory capacity;
    capacidad pulmonar lung capacity
    2. [aptitud, talento, potencial] ability;
    no tener capacidad para algo/para hacer algo to be no good at sth/at doing sth
    capacidad adquisitiva purchasing power;
    capacidad de aprendizaje ability to learn;
    capacidad de concentración ability to concentrate;
    Fin capacidad de endeudamiento borrowing capacity o power;
    capacidad de fabricación manufacturing capacity;
    capacidad de gestión managerial skills;
    capacidad ofensiva fire power;
    capacidad de producción production capacity;
    capacidad de reacción ability to react o respond;
    capacidad de respuesta ability to react o respond
    3. Der capacity
    * * *
    f
    1 capacity;
    medida de capacidad cubic measure
    2 ( aptitud) competence
    * * *
    1) : capacity
    2) : capability, ability
    * * *
    1. (en general) capacity
    el ferry tiene una capacidad para 800 pasajeros the ferry has a capacity of 800 passengers / the ferry can carry 800 passengers
    2. (aptitud) ability

    Spanish-English dictionary > capacidad

  • 43 negocio

    m.
    1 business (empresa).
    ¿cómo va el negocio? how's business?
    negocio familiar family business
    2 deal, (business) transaction.
    (buen) negocio good deal, bargain
    hacer negocio to do well
    ¡mal negocio! (figurative) that's a nasty business!
    negocio redondo great bargain, excellent deal
    negocio sucio shady deal, dirty business
    3 establishment, concern, business.
    4 gain.
    pres.indicat.
    1st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: negociar.
    * * *
    1 (actividad) business
    2 (gestión) deal, transaction
    3 (asunto) affair
    4 (local) shop, US store
    \
    ¡bonito negocio hemos hecho! (con ironía) some deal that was!, some deal that turned out to be!
    hablar de negocios to talk business
    hacer negocio to make a profit
    hacer un buen negocio (comercialmente) to do a good deal 2 (gen) to do well
    * * *
    noun m.
    •
    - mujer de negocios
    * * *
    SM
    1) (Com, Econ) (=empresa) business; (=tienda) shop, store (EEUU)

    montar un negocio — to set up o start a business

    traspasar un negocio — to transfer a business, sell a business

    2) (=transacción) deal, transaction

    ¡hiciste un buen negocio! — iró that was a fine deal you did!

    un negocio redondo — a real bargain, a really good deal

    negocio sucio, negocio turbio — shady deal

    3) pl negocios (Com, Econ) business sing, trade sing

    hombre/mujer de negocios — businessman/businesswoman

    4) (=asunto) affair

    ¡mal negocio! — it looks bad!

    5) And, Cono Sur (=firma) firm, company; (=casa) place of business
    6) And, Caribe
    *

    el negocio — the fact, the truth

    pero el negocio es que... — but the fact is that...

    7) And (=cuento) tale, piece of gossip
    * * *
    a) ( empresa) business

    montar or poner un negocio — to set up a business

    b) ( transacción) deal
    c) (CS) ( tienda) store (AmE), shop (BrE)
    d) negocios masculino plural ( comercio) business
    e) (fam) ( asunto) business (colloq)
    * * *
    a) ( empresa) business

    montar or poner un negocio — to set up a business

    b) ( transacción) deal
    c) (CS) ( tienda) store (AmE), shop (BrE)
    d) negocios masculino plural ( comercio) business
    e) (fam) ( asunto) business (colloq)
    * * *
    negocio1
    1 = affair, business [businesses, -pl.], line of business, trade, business venture.

    Ex: And also until Groome appeared, newcomers were a nullity as an active political force, exerting little influence in city affairs.

    Ex: The treatise arose from Kaiser's work in indexing information relating to business and industry.
    Ex: The computer people are muscling in on our line of business and we can't stop them.
    Ex: Non-bibliographic data bases are particularly used for businesses and industry to extract information in the fields of business, economics, trade and commerce.
    Ex: In considering business ventures libraries should pay attention to the following considerations -- the library's mission, its capability, the financial impact, legal aspects, and professional and ethical issues.
    * asociación benéfica de hombres de negocios = Lions club.
    * dedicarse a un negocio = enter + a business.
    * de negocios = transactional.
    * economía de negocios = managerial economics.
    * emprender un negocio = take on + business venture.
    * escuela de negocios = business school.
    * gente de negocios = business people.
    * hacer negocio = make + business.
    * hacer negocios = do + business.
    * hacer un gran negocio = make + a killing.
    * hombre de negocios = businessman [businessmen, -pl.], entrepreneur.
    * hombres de negocios = business people.
    * llevar un negocio = conduct + a business.
    * magnate de los negocios = business leader, business magnate.
    * mundo de los negocios = business world, business environment.
    * negocio del ocio, el = entertainment industry, the.
    * negocio electrónico = online business.
    * negocio en línea = online business.
    * negocio internacional = international business.
    * negocio lucrativo = lucrative business.
    * negocio multimillonario = multibillion dollar business.
    * negocios = biz.
    * negocio sucio = monkey business.
    * orientado hacia los negocios = business-minded.
    * promocionar un negocio = drum up + business.
    * propuesta de negocios = business proposition.
    * quedarse sin negocio = go out of + business.
    * relacionado con los negocios = business-related.
    * reunión de negocios = business meeting.
    * sagacidad para los negocios = business acumen.
    * usuario del mundo de los negocios = business user.
    * visión para los negocios = business acumen.
    * volumen de negocios = turnover, stock turnover, turnover of stock.

    negocio2
    2 = business [businesses, -pl.], shop, outfit.

    Ex: To a small or mid-sized business, information is critical for effective planning, growth and development.

    Ex: In strong contrast to, say, television sets and instant coffee, where the consumer may save by shopping around, there is no advantage to be gained by going to one shop rather than another for a book so far as price is concerned.
    Ex: The author compares the advantages and disadvantages of buying from the larger established companies and smaller outfits.
    * base de datos de negocios = business database.
    * cerrar el negocio = fold up + shop.
    * cerrar un negocio = go out of + business.
    * montar + Posesivo + propio negocio = set + Reflexivo + up in business.
    * negocio de venta de coches usados = used car business.
    * negocio familiar = family-run business.
    * obligar a cerrar el negocio = force out of + business, force out of + the marketplace.
    * pequeño negocio = small business.

    * * *
    1 (empresa) business
    montó or puso un negocio de compraventa de coches he set up a used-car dealership, he set up in business buying and selling cars
    [ S ] traspaso negocio de vinos wine business for sale
    esto de la compraventa de apartamentos es un negocio there's a lot of money to be made buying and selling apartments
    hicimos un buen negocio we made o did a good deal
    hizo un negocio redondo con la venta de la casa he made a fortune when he sold the house
    hacer negocio to make money
    3 (CS) (tienda) store ( AmE), shop ( BrE)
    en ese barrio no hay negocios there are no stores o shops in that area
    dejó la enseñanza para dedicarse a los negocios he gave up teaching to go into business
    hablar de negocios to talk business
    en el mundo de los negocios in the business world
    5 ( Chi fam) (asunto) business ( colloq)
    * * *

     

    Del verbo negociar: ( conjugate negociar)

    negocio es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    negoció es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    negociar    
    negocio
    negociar ( conjugate negociar) verbo transitivo/intransitivo
    to negotiate
    negocio sustantivo masculino
    a) (Com) business;

    montar or poner un negocio to set up a business;

    hablar de negocios to talk business;
    en el mundo de los negocios in the business world


    c) (CS) ( tienda) store (AmE), shop (BrE)

    d) (fam) ( asunto) business (colloq)

    negociar
    I vtr (acordar, tratar) to negotiate: negociamos con él la compra de las acciones, we negotiated the purchase of the shares with him
    están negociando la subida de las pensiones, they are negotiating a rise in pensions
    II vi (traficar, comerciar) to do business, deal: negocia con ropa usada, he deals in second-hand clothes
    negocio sustantivo masculino
    1 Com Fin business: esa venta fue un mal negocio, that sale was a bad deal
    2 (asunto) affair: no sé en qué negocios anda, I don't know what type of business he's involved in
    3 (tienda, empresa) su padre tiene un negocio de restauración de muebles, his father's got a furniture restoring business
    ♦ Locuciones: hacer negocio, to make a profit: mal negocio vas a hacer si no les cobras a los amigos, you're not going to do very good business if you don't charge your friends
    ' negocio' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abocada
    - abocado
    - acondicionada
    - acondicionado
    - activar
    - ampliar
    - ampliación
    - bancarrota
    - camelar
    - cerrar
    - chanchullo
    - cierre
    - contabilidad
    - dirigir
    - dirigente
    - embarcarse
    - entablar
    - estimativa
    - estimativo
    - evolución
    - filón
    - floreciente
    - fraudulenta
    - fraudulento
    - fundar
    - gárgaras
    - gestión
    - honrada
    - honrado
    - hundirse
    - liquidación
    - llevar
    - local
    - lucrativa
    - lucrativo
    - montar
    - naufragar
    - pantalla
    - patrón
    - patrona
    - patrono
    - peligrar
    - pique
    - poner
    - redonda
    - redondo
    - reflotar
    - regentar
    - regente
    - regir
    English:
    attend to
    - backing
    - bootstrap
    - bust
    - buy out
    - carry on
    - close down
    - concern
    - control
    - decline
    - enterprise
    - established
    - expand
    - fail
    - flourishing
    - founder
    - funny business
    - going
    - handle
    - injection
    - invest
    - keep
    - lucrative
    - mine
    - nourish
    - open up
    - operate
    - patronize
    - shady
    - shop
    - show
    - shut down
    - shut up
    - slacken off
    - sluggish
    - start
    - start up
    - stock
    - stumbling-block
    - successful
    - big
    - business
    - engaged
    - killing
    * * *
    1. [empresa] business;
    tiene un negocio de electrodomésticos he has an electrical appliance business;
    ¿cómo va el negocio? how's business?
    negocio familiar family business
    2.
    negocios [actividad] business;
    el mundo de los negocios the business world;
    un viaje de negocios a business trip;
    se dedica a los negocios he's in business;
    hacer negocios con to do business with;
    3. [transacción] deal, (business) transaction;
    hacer negocio to do well;
    negocio redondo great bargain, excellent deal
    4. [ocupación] business;
    ¡ocúpate de tus negocios! mind your own business!;
    ¿en qué negocios andas metido? what are you involved in now?;
    ¡mal negocio! that's a nasty business!;
    negocio sucio shady deal, dirty business
    5. RP [tienda] store
    * * *
    m
    1 business
    2 ( trato) deal
    * * *
    1) : business, place of business
    2) : deal, transaction
    3) negocios nmpl
    : commerce, trade, business
    * * *
    1. (comercio, actividad) business [pl. businesses]
    2. (trato) deal

    Spanish-English dictionary > negocio

  • 44 real

    adj.
    1 real (verdadero).
    2 royal.
    f.
    REAL, revised European-American lymphoma classification.
    m.
    no tener un real not to have a penny to one's name
    * * *
    1 (regio) royal
    2 figurado grand, fine
    1 (de feria) fairground
    \
    estar sin un real to be penniless
    no me da la real gana familiar I don't feel like it
    no valer un real to be worthless, not be worth tuppence
    por real decreto DERECHO by royal decree
    ————————
    * * *
    adj.
    1) teal
    2) true
    * * *
    I
    ADJ (=verdadero) real
    II
    1. ADJ
    1) (=de la realeza) royal

    porque no me da la real gana — * because I don't damn well feel like it *

    2) † (=espléndido) grand, splendid

    una real hembra — hum a fine figure of a woman

    2. SM
    1) (tb: real de la feria) fairground
    2) ( Hist) army camp
    3) ( Hist) (Econ) old Spanish coin of 25 céntimos, one quarter of a peseta

    no tiene un real — * he hasn't a bean *

    * * *
    I
    1) (verdadero, no ficticio)

    historias de la vida real — real-life o true-life stories

    2) ( de la realeza) royal
    3) (fam) ( uso expletivo)
    II
    1)
    a) (Hist) real ( old Spanish coin)

    no valer un real — (fam) to be worth nothing

    c) reales masculino plural (AmC fam) ( dinero) cash (colloq)
    2) (Mil) camp

    sentar or establecer sus or los reales — ejército to set up camp; persona to install oneself

    * * *
    I
    1) (verdadero, no ficticio)

    historias de la vida real — real-life o true-life stories

    2) ( de la realeza) royal
    3) (fam) ( uso expletivo)
    II
    1)
    a) (Hist) real ( old Spanish coin)

    no valer un real — (fam) to be worth nothing

    c) reales masculino plural (AmC fam) ( dinero) cash (colloq)
    2) (Mil) camp

    sentar or establecer sus or los reales — ejército to set up camp; persona to install oneself

    * * *
    real1
    1 = royal.

    Ex: No less prestigious an authority than a royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the charges brought against the man principally responsible for that volume.

    * águila real = golden eagle.
    * cañada real = droving road.
    * carta real = charter.
    * glacé real = royal icing, glacé royal.
    * Nombre + real = majesty's + Nombre.
    * pagar derechos reales = pay + royalty.
    * pavo real = peacock.

    real2
    2 = actual, flesh-and-blood, genuine, real, real-world, real-life, on the ground, factual.

    Ex: It presents a case study based on an actual situation which arose between the chief librarian of a public library and the library janitor.

    Ex: It is in this way that students gain experience by proxy and get a feel for handling problems in the flesh-and-blood world.
    Ex: A general paper may be irrelevant to a specialist but of genuine value to someone seeking a brief introduction to a field peripheral to their main interest.
    Ex: In this case we find a tendency to ignore the author's identity as found in the document, and to prefer instead a real name to a pseudonym.
    Ex: It is unfortunate that there is a dearth of real-world logged data to explore usage and problems.
    Ex: Many librarians find such theories difficult to put into practice in real-life situations.
    Ex: It is difficult to know just to what extent vague concepts like 'the flow of information in a democratic society' actually result in services on the ground.
    Ex: No one, in this purely hypothetical example, has thought that the reader might be happy with a factual account of an Atlantic convoy as well as, or in place of, a purely fictional account.
    * comprobación en la práctica real = field test.
    * en la práctica real = in actual practice.
    * en la vida real = in real life.
    * en términos reales = in real terms, in actual practice.
    * experiencia del mundo real = real-world training.
    * formación en el mundo real = real-world training.
    * hecho real = brute fact.
    * hechos reales = true story.
    * mundo real, el = real world, the.
    * práctica real = actual practice.
    * real y verdaderamente = really and truly.
    * solución poco real = pie in the sky solution.
    * tamaño real = full-size.
    * vida real = real life.

    * * *
    A
    (verdadero, no ficticio): el libro narra un hecho real the book tells a true story
    es muy distinta en la vida real she's very different in real life
    historias de la vida real real-life stories, true o true-life stories
    la familia real the royal family
    por real decreto by royal decree
    la Real Academia Española de la Lengua the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language
    Compuesto:
    masculine summer residence ( of the Spanish monarchs)
    C ( fam)
    (uso expletivo): porque me da la real gana because I damn well want to ( colloq)
    A
    1 (moneda) real (old Spanish coin worth a quarter of a peseta, also a Peruvian 10 centavo coin)
    estar sin un real ( fam); to be flat broke ( colloq)
    estoy sin un real I'm flat broke, I don't have a penny o ( AmE) a dime ( colloq)
    no valer un real ( fam); to be worth nothing
    los terrenos no valen ni un real the land isn't worth a penny o is worthless
    B
    1 ( Mil) camp
    sentar or establecer sus or los reales «ejército» to set up camp;
    «persona» to install* oneself; «empresa» to set up
    2
    (recinto): real de la feria fairground
    * * *

     

    real adjetivo
    a) (verdadero, no ficticio):


    en la vida real in real life;
    historias de la vida real real-life o true-life stories


    ■ sustantivo masculino
    a) (Hist) real ( old Spanish coin);



    c)

    ◊ reales sustantivo masculino plural (AmC fam) ( dinero) cash (colloq)

    real 1 adj (no ficticio) real: fue una sensación muy real, it was a very vivid feeling
    una historia basada en hechos reales, a true-life story ➣ Ver nota en actual
    real 2 adj (relativo a la realeza) royal
    ' real' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    academia
    - actual
    - águila
    - alteza
    - armar
    - batalla
    - berenjenal
    - bien
    - bocazas
    - botadura
    - buena
    - bueno
    - caballero
    - calvario
    - campeonato
    - comistrajo
    - cómitre
    - concreta
    - concreto
    - conquistador
    - conquistadora
    - corte
    - desengañarse
    - desperdicio
    - efectiva
    - efectivo
    - elemento
    - espectáculo
    - esperpento
    - expolio
    - follón
    - gaita
    - guardia
    - hecha
    - hecho
    - histórica
    - histórico
    - inmobiliaria
    - inmobiliario
    - inmueble
    - jalea
    - joya
    - lacrimógena
    - lacrimógeno
    - legítima
    - legítimo
    - macho
    - maestría
    - mentir
    - muy
    English:
    AA
    - actual
    - bumpkin
    - chalk up
    - character
    - deduce
    - dinosaur
    - doll
    - dope
    - drip
    - dump
    - effective
    - eye-opener
    - go-getter
    - godsend
    - going-over
    - golden eagle
    - gut
    - heyday
    - hick
    - hole
    - host
    - juggling act
    - live
    - loony
    - mine
    - misery
    - mismatch
    - nothing
    - nut
    - peacock
    - predicament
    - pushover
    - real
    - real estate
    - real-life
    - RN
    - royal
    - shirt
    - sight
    - snuff movie
    - state
    - sweat
    - telling-off
    - term
    - thrashing
    - to-do
    - tough
    - trial
    - true
    * * *
    ♦ adj
    1. [verdadero] real;
    existe un peligro real de que explote there is a real danger that it may explode;
    una historia real a true story
    2. [de la realeza] royal
    Real Academia Española (de la Lengua) = institution that sets lexical and grammatical standards for Spanish;
    real decreto = name given to acts passed by the Spanish parliament when appearing in the official gazette;
    Hist royal decree; Fam
    por real decreto: tenemos que volver a casa a las diez por real decreto it has been decreed that we should be back home by ten o'clock
    ♦ nm
    1. [moneda] [de Brasil] real;
    Hist [de España]= old Spanish coin worth one quarter of a peseta;
    cuatro reales: lo compró por cuatro reales she bought it for next to nothing;
    no tener un real not to have a penny to one's name;
    no valer un real to be worthless
    2. Comp
    sentar el real, sentar los reales [ejército] to set up camp;
    [persona] to settle down
    * * *
    I adj
    1 ( regio) royal
    2 ( verdadero) real
    II m fig
    :
    * * *
    real adj
    1) : real, true
    2) : royal
    * * *
    real adj
    1. (auténtico) true / real
    2. (del rey) royal

    Spanish-English dictionary > real

  • 45 उपविष्


    upa-vish
    P. - viveshṭi ( RV. ;

    - veveshṭi ṠBr. ;
    Impv. 2. sg. - viḍḍhi TBr.) to be active for;
    to obtain orﾠ gain by activity RV. X, 61, 12. ;
    to perform service, be effective orﾠ useful for (esp. said of the Upa-vesha below) ṠBr. I, 2, 1, 3 TBr. III, 3, 11, 1.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > उपविष्

  • 46 साधन


    sā́dhana
    mf (ī orﾠ ā) jn. leading straight to a goal, guiding well, furthering RV. ;

    effective, efficient, productive of (comp.) MBh. Kāv. etc.;
    procuring Kāv. ;
    conjuring up (a spirit) Kathās. ;
    denoting, designating, expressive of (comp.) Pāṇ. Sch. ;
    m. N. of the author of RV. X, 157 (having the patr. bhauvana) Anukr. ;
    (ā) f. accomplishment, performance ( seeﾠ mantra-s-);
    propitiation, worship, adoration L. ;
    (am) n. (ifc. f. ā), the act of mastering, overpowering, subduing Kir. Pañcat. ;
    subdueing by charms, conjuring up, summoning (spirits etc.) MBh. Kathās. ;
    subduing a disease, healing, cure Suṡr. MBh. etc.;
    enforcing payment orﾠ recovery (of a debt) Daṡ. ;
    bringing about, carrying out, accomplishment, fullilment, completion, perfection Nir. MBh. etc.;
    establishment of a truth, proof. argument, demonstration Yājñ. Sāh. Sarvad. ;
    reason orﾠ premiss (in a syllogism, leading to a conclusion) Mudr. V, 10 ;
    any means of effecting orﾠ accomplishing, any agent orﾠ instrument orﾠ implement orﾠ utensil orﾠ apparatus, an expedient, requisite for (gen. orﾠ comp.) Mn. R. etc.;
    a means of summoning orﾠ conjuring up a spirit ( orﾠ deity) Kālac. ;
    means orﾠ materials of warfare, military forces, army orﾠ portion of an army (sg. andﾠ pl.) Hariv. Uttar. Rājat. ;
    conflict, battle Ṡiṡ. ;
    means of correcting orﾠ punishing (as « a stick», « rod» etc.) TBr. Sch. ;
    means of enjoyment, goods, commodities etc. R. ;
    efficient cause orﾠ source (in general) L. ;
    organ of generation (male orﾠ female), Sah. ;
    (in gram.) the sense of the instrumental orﾠ agent (as expressed by the case of a noun, opp. to the action itself) Pat. ;
    preparing, making ready, preparation (of food, poison etc.) Kathās. MārkP. ;
    obtaining, procuring, gain, acquisition Kāv. BhP. ;
    finding out by calculation, computation Gaṇit. ;
    fruit, result Pañcat. ;
    the conjugational affix orﾠ suffix which is placed between the root andﾠ terminations (= vīharaṇa q.v.) Pāṇ. 8-4, 30 Vārtt. 1 ;
    (only L. matter, material, substance, ingredient, drug, medicine;
    good works, penance, self-mortification, attainment of beatitude;
    conciliation, propitiation, worship;
    killing, destroying;
    killing metals, depriving them by oxydation etc. of their metallic properties <esp. said of mercury>;
    burning on a funeral pile, obsequies;
    setting out, proceeding, going;
    going quickly;
    going after, following.)
    - साधनक्रिया
    - साधनक्षम
    - साधनचतुष्टय
    - साधनता
    - साधनत्व
    - साधनदीपिका
    - साधननिर्देश
    - साधनपञ्चक
    - साधनपत्त्र
    - साधनपद्धति
    - साधनभाग
    - साधनमालातन्त्र
    - साधनमुक्तावली
    - साधनरूपिन्
    - साधनवत्
    - साधनसागर
    - साधनसुबोधनी

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > साधन

  • 47 स्वार्थ


    svâ̱rtha
    m. one's own affair orﾠ cause, personal matter orﾠ advantage, self-interest, one's own aim orﾠ object ( alsoﾠ pl.) MaitrUp. MBh. R. etc.;

    one's own property orﾠ substance MW. ;
    own orﾠ original meaning Sāh. Vedântas. TPrāt. Sch. ;
    similar meaning (prob. for sâ̱rtha), a pleonasm MW. ;
    = liṅgâ̱rtha-viṡesha L. ;
    mf (ā)n. directed to one's self egoistical (- tā f.) Kum. Tarkas. etc.;
    adapted to (its) purpose Car. ;
    having one's object, expressing (its) own inherent orﾠ true meaning, havñhaving a natural orﾠ literal meaning, havñhaving a similar merits (= sâ̱rtha), pleonastic MW. ;
    (am orﾠ e) ind. on one's own account, for one's self Kāv. Kathās. KapS. etc.;
    - paṇḍita mfn. clever in one's own affairs MBh. ;
    - para mfn. intent on one's own advantage, self-interested Ṡiṡ. (- tā f. « selfishness» MW.);
    -parâ̱yaṇa mfn. id. MW. ;
    - prayatna m. a self-interested project Ratnâv. ;
    - bhāj mfn. managing one's own affairs HPariṡ. ;
    - bhraṉṡin mfn. ruinous to one's own interests Pañcat. ;
    - lipsu mfn. wishing to gain one's own object, self-seeking MW. ;
    - vighāta m. frustration of one's object ib. ;
    - sādhaka mfn. effective of orﾠ promoting one's own object Cāṇ. BhP. Nir. ;
    - sādhana n. accomplishment of one's own object orﾠ desire Mn. Rājat. ;
    (- na) - tatpara mfn. intent upon it Mn. IV, 196 ;
    - siddhi f. (= sādhana) Rājat. ;
    -thâ̱numāna n. « inference for one's self», (in log.) a partic. process of induction MW. ;
    - thết mfn. attending to one's own affairs TS. ;
    - thôpapatti f. the gaining one's own object Ragh.

    Sanskrit-English dictionary > स्वार्थ

  • 48 tempo

    m time
    meteorology weather
    tempo libero free time
    a tempo parziale part-time
    a tempo perso in one's spare time
    a tempo pieno full-time
    sports tempi pl supplementari extra time sg, AE overtime sg
    a tempo, in tempo in time
    col tempo in time, eventually
    un tempo once, long ago
    per tempo ( presto) in good time
    ( di buon'ora) early
    non ho tempo I don't have (the) time
    lavora da molto tempo he has been working for a long time
    fa bel/brutto tempo the weather is lovely/nasty
    * * *
    tempo s.m.
    1 time: spazio e tempo, space and time; tempo presente, passato, present, past time; molto, poco tempo, a long, a short time; un breve periodo di tempo, a short period of time; un gran lasso di tempo, a long period of time; un anno di tempo, a year; il tempo passa, vola, time passes (o goes by), flies; il tempo non passa mai, time is hanging a bit heavy; passare, trascorrere il tempo, to spend one's time; col passare del tempo, in time // un tempo, once: un tempo eravamo amici, once we were friends // ( un po' di, qualche) tempo fa, addietro, some time ago; poco, molto tempo prima, shortly, long before; poco, molto tempo dopo, dopo poco, molto tempo, after a short, a long time; fra qualche tempo, in a while // da ( molto), poco tempo, for a long, short time; da quanto tempo non lo vedi?, how long is it since you saw him?; da quanto tempo non ti vedo!, it's a long time since I last saw you!; è tanto tempo che non lo vedo, I haven't seen him for a long time; da tempo immemorabile, from time immemorial // di tempo in tempo, from time to time // a, in tempo, in time; a un tempo, allo, nello stesso tempo, at the same time; a tempo perso, nei ritagli di tempo, in one's spare time; a tempo debito, in tempo utile, in (due) time; a suo tempo, ( prima) some time ago; ( dopo) at the right time; essere a, fare in tempo a fare qlco., to have enough time to do sthg.: è sempre a, in tempo a pagare, he's always in time to pay; non faccio, non sono più a, in tempo a prendere il treno, I haven't got enough time to catch the train; fare qlco. a tempo e luogo, to do sthg. at the right time; in ogni tempo, in every time; in un primo tempo, at first; in un secondo tempo, later on // col tempo, eventually: col tempo imparerai, eventually you'll learn // per tempo, early; ( in anticipo) beforehand // prima del, innanzi, anzi tempo, before time // le ingiurie del tempo, the ravages of time // avere tempo, to have time: avere buon tempo, to have time to waste; non avere ( un briciolo di) tempo, not to have a minute; non ho avuto il tempo materiale di leggerlo, I didn't have the time to read it; non ho neanche avuto il tempo di salutarli, I didn't even have time to say good bye to them; sta' calmo, hai tutto il tempo, keep calm, you've got all the time in the world; ''Quanto manca alla partenza del treno?'' ''C'è tempo'', ''When is the train leaving?'' ''There's plenty of time''; non c'è tempo da perdere, there is no time to waste; perdere, sciupare, buttar via il tempo, to waste one's time; riguadagnare il tempo perduto, to make up for lost time; guadagnar tempo, to gain time; prender tempo, to stall (for time); senza por tempo in mezzo, without delay // dare, lasciare tempo al tempo, to let time pass // ammazzare, ingannare il tempo, to kill time (o to while away the time) // darsi (al) bel tempo, to have a good time // è tempo che tu cambi, it's high time you changed; è tempo di mangiare, di dormire, it's dinner time, it's time for bed (o it's bedtime) // il tempo è un gran medico, time is a great healer; il tempo è galantuomo, (prov.) murder will out; il tempo è denaro, (prov.) time is money; chi ha tempo non aspetti tempo, (prov.) make hay while the sun shines // tempo libero, spare time (o leisure) // tempo morto, idle time (anche inform.) // tempo di lavorazione, di cottura, production, cooking time; tempi tecnici, time requirement; studio dei tempi e metodi, time and motion study; tempi tecnici per perfezionare un contratto, bureaucratic time requirement for the execution of a contract; tempo utile, time limit; tempo reale, real time; sondaggio in tempo reale, survey in real time; tempo pieno, full time: scuola a tempo pieno, full-time school; insegnare a tempo pieno, to teach full time; lavoratore a tempo pieno, full timer; tempo parziale, part-time // (comm.): tempo di consegna, delivery time; tempo di attesa, improduttivo, downtime; tempo di attesa, ( fra carico e scarico) turn-round time; retribuzione a tempo, time wage (s); contratto a tempo determinato, time contract; ( contratto di) locazione a tempo indeterminato, tenancy at will (o sine die); a far tempo da, starting from // (inform.): tempo di esecuzione, operating time; tempo di esecuzione dell'istruzione, instruction time; tempo di messa in funzione, installation time; tempo di posizionamento, seek time; tempo di corretto funzionamento, up time (o uptime); tempo di disponibilità dell'hardware, block time; tempo di addizione, add-on time; tempo di riferimento, time origin; tempo per attivare una comunicazione, call setup time; tempo per attività accessorie, incidental time; tempi di fermo, ( per guasto) downtime; tempi morti, di risposta, think time; tempo di ripresa, makeup time; tempi elementari, digit time; tempi utili, effective time // (astr.): tempo civile, civil time; tempo solare vero, apparent solar day; tempo universale, universal time (o Greenwich time o Greenwich civil time)
    2 ( epoca, età) time: tempi antichi, moderni, ancient, modern times; tempi difficili, hard times; tempo di guerra, di pace, wartime, peace time; tempo della semina, del raccolto, sowing, harvest time; tempo di quaresima, Lent; tempo di esami, period of exams // ai miei tempi, in my time; in questi ultimi tempi, recently (o lately); al tempo dei tempi, in olden days; nella notte dei tempi, in the mists of time // i vecchi tempi, il buon tempo andato, the good, old days; bei, altri tempi!, the good old days!; coi tempi che corrono, as the times go // un documento del tempo, a document of the period // al tempo di Enrico VIII, at the time of Henry VIII; al tempo che Berta filava, (fam.) in times gone by // il più bel film di tutti i tempi, the best film of all time // una bellezza senza tempo, a timeless beauty // i tempi non sono maturi, the time is not ripe // adeguarsi ai tempi, to move with the times // essere all'altezza dei tempi, to be up-to-date; tenersi al passo coi tempi, to keep up (o to move) with the times; essere figlio del proprio tempo, to be the child of one's time; precorrere i tempi, to be ahead of (o to be born before) one's times // aver fatto il proprio tempo, to have had one's day
    3 ( atmosferico) weather [U]: tempo bello, brutto, cattivo, nice (o fine), bad, nasty weather; tempo da lupi, da cani, nasty (o foul) weather; che bel tempo!, what nice weather!; il tempo cambia, regge, si mantiene al bello, the weather is changing, is holding (up); tempo permettendo, weather permitting; previsioni del tempo, weather forecast; carta del tempo, weather map // fare il bello e il cattivo tempo, (fig.) to lay down the law // sentire il tempo, (fam.) to feel the weather // una risposta che lascia il tempo che trova, a feeble reply // rosso di sera bel tempo si spera, (prov.) red sky at night, shepherd's delight
    4 (mus.) time; tempo*; ( parte di composizione musicale) movement; ( misura) measure; ( battuta) beat: tempo di minuetto, tempo di minuetto (o minuet-time); i quattro tempi di una sinfonia, the four movements of a symphony; battere, tenere il tempo, to beat, to keep time; andare a tempo, to go in time; essere a, fuori tempo, to be in, out of time; perdere il tempo, to go out of time; battere in quattro tempi, to beat four to the bar
    5 (gramm.) tense: tempo presente, passato, futuro, present, past, future tense
    6 ( fase, parte) stage, phase, part: l'operazione fu eseguita in due tempi, the operation was performed in two stages; il primo tempo di una partita di calcio, the first half of a football match; il secondo tempo di un film, the second part of a film // tempi supplementari, extra time, (amer.) overtime
    7 (sport) time: tempo di record, record time; far ( registrare) un buon tempo, to record a good time; migliorare il proprio tempo, to improve one's time; corsa contro il tempo, race against time // fuori tempo massimo, after the time limit.
    * * *
    ['tɛmpo]
    sostantivo maschile
    1) time

    con il passare o l'andare del tempo as time goes by, with the passing of time; col tempo ci si abitua you get used to it in o with time; poco tempo prima shortly o some time before; molto, poco tempo fa a long, short time ago; in poco o breve tempo in a short time; per qualche tempo for some time, for (quite) a while; dopo poco, molto tempo shortly, long after(wards); in tempo [partire, fermarsi, finire] in o on time; arrivare appena in tempo to arrive just in time o right on time; non ho più molto tempo I haven't got much time left; abbiamo tutto il tempo we've got (plenty of) time, we have all the time in the world; non ho il tempo materiale o non ho materialmente il tempo di fare there aren't enough hours in the day for me to do; se ne è andato da molto tempo he has been gone for a long time, he left a long time ago; mi ci è voluto o ci ho messo molto tempo it took me much time; richiedere, prendere, portare via molto tempo to take much time; essere nei -i to be o stay within the agreed time; finire qcs. in o per tempo to finish sth. in o on time; lo conosco da molto tempo I've known him for a long time; il teatro non esiste più da molto tempo the theatre is long gone; fare in tempo a fare qcs. to be in time to do sth.; prendere tempo to stall, to temporize, to play a waiting game; al tempo stesso, allo stesso tempo at the same time, simultaneously, at once; battere qcn. sul tempo to beat sb. to the draw, to steal a march on sb., to steal sb.'s thunder; nel più breve tempo possibile — as quickly as possible

    in tempo utile — in time, within the time limit

    fuori tempo limite o utile beyond time limits; a tempo debito duly, at due time, in due course; hai (un minuto di) tempo? — have you got a moment (to spare)?

    3) meteor. weather

    tempo bello, brutto — good o fine, bad weather

    al tempo dei Romani — in Roman times, in the time of the Romans

    a quel tempo — in those days, at that time

    negli ultimi -i — lately, recently

    in tempo di pace, di guerra — in times of peace, war o in peacetime, wartime

    avere fatto il proprio tempo — [ oggetto] to have had one's day

    6) mecc.

    motore a due, quattro -i — two-, four-stroke engine

    7) sport time

    fare o realizzare un buon tempo to get a fast time; migliorare il proprio tempo di un secondo — to knock a second off one's time

    8) ling. (verbale) tense
    9) mus. time, tempo*

    tenere il tempo — to stay in o keep time

    andare o essere a tempo, fuori tempo to be in, out of time; battere, segnare il tempo — to beat, mark time

    10) cinem. part, half*

    "fine primo tempo" — "end of part one"

    11) sport half*

    il primo, secondo tempo della partita — the first, second half of the match

    12) (età)
    14) a tempo [bomba, interruttore] time attrib.
    •

    tempo libero — free time, spare time, time off, leisure (time)

    tempo morto — slack moment, idle time

    tempo di posa — fot. exposure time, shutter speed

    tempo di reazione — psic. reaction time

    ••

    ammazzare o ingannare il tempo to beguile o kill the time, to while away the hours; ogni cosa a suo tempo all in good time; dar tempo al tempo to let things take their course; a tempo e luogo at the proper time and place; nella notte dei -i in the mists of time; stringere i -i to quicken the pace; il tempo è denaro — time is money

    * * *
    tempo
    /'tεmpo/
    sostantivo m.
     1 time; con il passare o l'andare del tempo as time goes by, with the passing of time; col tempo ci si abitua you get used to it in o with time; poco tempo prima shortly o some time before; molto, poco tempo fa a long, short time ago; in poco o breve tempo in a short time; per qualche tempo for some time, for (quite) a while; dopo poco, molto tempo shortly, long after(wards); in tempo [partire, fermarsi, finire] in o on time; arrivare appena in tempo to arrive just in time o right on time; non ho più molto tempo I haven't got much time left; abbiamo tutto il tempo we've got (plenty of) time, we have all the time in the world; non ho il tempo materiale o non ho materialmente il tempo di fare there aren't enough hours in the day for me to do; se ne è andato da molto tempo he has been gone for a long time, he left a long time ago; mi ci è voluto o ci ho messo molto tempo it took me much time; richiedere, prendere, portare via molto tempo to take much time; essere nei -i to be o stay within the agreed time; finire qcs. in o per tempo to finish sth. in o on time; lo conosco da molto tempo I've known him for a long time; il teatro non esiste più da molto tempo the theatre is long gone; fare in tempo a fare qcs. to be in time to do sth.; prendere tempo to stall, to temporize, to play a waiting game; al tempo stesso, allo stesso tempo at the same time, simultaneously, at once; battere qcn. sul tempo to beat sb. to the draw, to steal a march on sb., to steal sb.'s thunder; nel più breve tempo possibile as quickly as possible
     2 (momento) è tempo di partire it's time to leave; in tempo utile in time, within the time limit; fuori tempo limite o utile beyond time limits; a tempo debito duly, at due time, in due course; hai (un minuto di) tempo? have you got a moment (to spare)?
     3 meteor. weather; tempo bello, brutto good o fine, bad weather; che tempo fa? what's the weather like? non si può uscire con questo tempo! you can't go out in this weather! previsioni del tempo weather forecast
     4 (epoca) al tempo dei Romani in Roman times, in the time of the Romans; al tempo in cui in the days when; bei -i! those were the days! ai miei -i in my days o time; a quel tempo in those days, at that time; negli ultimi -i lately, recently; in tempo di pace, di guerra in times of peace, war o in peacetime, wartime; avere fatto il proprio tempo [ oggetto] to have had one's day
     5 (fase) in due -i in two stages; in un secondo tempo subsequently
     6 mecc. motore a due, quattro -i two-, four-stroke engine
     7 sport time; fare o realizzare un buon tempo to get a fast time; migliorare il proprio tempo di un secondo to knock a second off one's time
     8 ling. (verbale) tense; avverbio di tempo adverb of time
     9 mus. time, tempo*; a tempo di valzer in waltz time; tenere il tempo to stay in o keep time; andare o essere a tempo, fuori tempo to be in, out of time; battere, segnare il tempo to beat, mark time
     10 cinem. part, half*; "fine primo tempo" "end of part one"
     11 sport half*; il primo, secondo tempo della partita the first, second half of the match
     12 (età) quanto tempo ha il bambino? how old is the child?
     13 un tempo non corro più veloce come un tempo I can't run as fast as I used to; un tempo era molto famosa she was once very famous
     14 a tempo [bomba, interruttore] time attrib.
     15 per tempo fammelo sapere per tempo let me know beforehand; alzarsi per tempo to get up early
    fare il bello e cattivo tempo to lay down the law; chi ha tempo non aspetti tempo make hay while the sun shines; ammazzare o ingannare il tempo to beguile o kill the time, to while away the hours; ogni cosa a suo tempo all in good time; dar tempo al tempo to let things take their course; a tempo e luogo at the proper time and place; nella notte dei -i in the mists of time; stringere i -i to quicken the pace; il tempo è denaro time is money
    \
    tempo libero free time, spare time, time off, leisure (time); tempo morto slack moment, idle time; tempo pieno full time; tempo di posa fot. exposure time, shutter speed; in tempo reale real time attrib.; tempo di reazione psic. reaction time.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > tempo

  • 49 диапазон

    band, excursion, interval, range, scope, span, zone
    * * *
    диапазо́н м.
    в диапазо́не — over the range
    выде́рживать (напр. усиление) [m2]постоя́нным по диапазо́ну — maintain (e. g. gain) constant over the range [band]
    переключа́ть диапазо́н — change [select, switch] bands
    по диапазо́ну — over the range [band]
    2. (объём, охват) gamut, spectrum
    веща́тельный диапазо́н — broadcast band
    веща́тельный, станда́ртный диапазо́н — standard broadcast band
    диапазо́н волн — ( в длинах волн) wave band; ( в единицах частоты) frequency band
    диапазо́н вы́держек кфт. — exposure range
    диапазо́н высо́т полё́та — fight altitude envelope
    диапазо́н гектометро́вых волн — hectometric wave [medium-frequency, MF] band
    диапазо́н гро́мкости — volume range
    диапазо́н декаметро́вых волн — decametric wave [high-frequency, HF] band
    диапазо́н дециметро́вых волн — decimetric wave [ultrahigh frequency, UHF] band
    динами́ческий диапазо́н — dynamic range
    диапазо́н досры́вных скоросте́й полё́та — unstalled flight range
    диапазо́н дроссели́рования — throttling band
    диапазо́н замира́ний — fading range
    диапазо́н за́писи, полночасто́тный — high-fidelity [full-frequency] recording range
    диапазо́н затя́гивания радио — pulling range
    диапазо́н захва́та ( в системе АПЧ) — lock-in range
    диапазо́н измене́ния регули́руемой величины́ — control range
    диапазо́н измере́ний — range of measurement
    диапазо́н километро́вых волн — kilometric wave [low-frequency, LF] band
    диапазо́н криоге́нных температу́р — range of cryogenic temperature(s)
    люби́тельский диапазо́н радио — amateur band
    диапазо́н метро́вых волн — metric wave [very-high-frequency, VHF] band
    диапазо́н миллиметро́вых волн — millimetric wave [extremely high-frequency, EHF] band
    диапазо́н мириаметро́вых волн — miriametric wave [very-low-frequency, VLF] band
    диапазо́н настро́йки
    1. tuning range
    2. ( уставок) range of adjustment
    диапазо́н непреры́вных значе́ний мат. — continuum of values
    диапазо́н ни́зких часто́т
    2. (часть рабочего диапазона приемника, усилителя и т. п.) low-frequency range; ( по отношению к тракту передатчика или приемника) audio-frequency range
    диапазо́н ослабле́ния — attenuation range
    диапазо́н оши́бок вчт. — error range
    перекрыва́емый диапазо́н — range of coverage
    диапазо́н перехва́та — interception range
    диапазо́н по́иска ( в системе АПЧ) — search range
    рабо́чий диапазо́н — (напр. шкалы) effective range; (напр. температур) operating range
    радиовеща́тельный диапазо́н — broadcast band
    радиовеща́тельный, коротково́лновый диапазо́н — short-wave broadcast band
    диапазо́н регули́рования ( управления) — control range
    диапазо́н регулиро́вки зажига́ния — timing range
    диапазо́н сантиметро́вых волн — centimetric wave [superhigh frequency, SHF] band
    диапазо́н сверхзвуковы́х скоросте́й — supersonic range
    СВЧ диапазо́н — microwave range, microwave band
    диапазо́н свя́зи — communication band
    диапазо́н синхрониза́ции ( в генераторе развёртки) — lock-in range
    диапазо́н скоросте́й — velocity range, velocity interval
    диапазо́н слеже́ния ( в системе АПЧ) — hold-in range
    диапазо́н слы́шимости — range of bearing
    диапазо́н сре́дних часто́т
    2. (часть рабочего диапазона приемника, усилителя и т. п.) mid-band frequency [mid-frequency] range
    телевизио́нный диапазо́н — television (broadcast) band
    диапазо́н температу́р — temperature span, temperature interval
    диапазо́н центро́вок ав. — range of centre of gravity positions
    диапазо́н часто́т — frequency range; frequency band
    растя́гивать диапазо́н часто́т — spread a (frequency) range [band]
    диапазо́н часто́т, номина́льный — assigned frequency band
    диапазо́н часто́т свя́зи — communication band
    диапазо́н эксплуатацио́нных режи́мов полё́та — flight envelope
    диапазо́н экспози́ций кфт. — exposure range

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > диапазон

  • 50 работающий на пределе

    Работающий на пределе (эффективности)-- He designs a marginally effective inlet system to gain immediate benefits in engine performance at the risk of engine life.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > работающий на пределе

  • 51 рискуя

    Рискуя (чем-либо)
     He designs a marginally effective inlet system to gain immediate benefits in engine performance at the risk of engine life.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > рискуя

  • 52 действие

    [см. в пределах зоны действия радиолокационных средств; вводить в действие; контролировать действие; направление действия перегрузок; направленное действие; под действием рентгеновского излучения Солнца; совместные действия; см. тж. работа; эффект]
    To ensure constant effective operation of the solar cells the spacecraft is spin-stabilized at a rate of several degrees per minute.
    …gain in power due to the directional effect of the antenna…

    Русско-английский словарь по космонавтике > действие

  • 53 другие характеристики … -

    Antennas are also characterized by their power gain and the antenna effective area.

    Русско-английский словарь по космонавтике > другие характеристики … -

  • 54 эффективная площадь антенны

    Antennas are also characterized by their power gain and the antenna effective area.

    Русско-английский словарь по космонавтике > эффективная площадь антенны

  • 55 брать

    несовер. - брать; совер. - взять
    1) (кого-л./что-л.)
    take; shoulder (об ответственности, расходах и т. п.)

    брать под арест — to arrest, to put under arrest

    брать кого-л. на попечение — to take charge of smb.

    брать на себя смелость — to make bold (to do smth.), to take the liberty (of)

    брать свои слова назад — to retract/take back one's words; to eat one's words идиом.

    брать чью-л. сторону — to take smb.'s part/side, to side with smb.

    брать верх (над) — to gain the upper hand (over), to prevail (over)

    брать взятки — accept bribes, graft; finger разг.

    брать внаем — to rent, to hire

    брать отпуск — амер. vacation

    брать патент — (на что-л.) patent

    брать ссуду — to take a loan (from), to borrow (from)

    брать уроки — tutor амер.; разг.

    2) (кого-л.; нанимать) hire, take
    3) (чем-л.; достигать способностями и т.п.)
    succeed by dint (of), succeed by the aid (of)
    4) без доп. work, be effective, operate
    5) (кого-л.; охватывать, захватывать)
    seize, grip

    его берет отчаяние — he is seized/overcome with despair

    6) (что-л.; преодолевать)
    clear (барьер, высоту и т.п.)

    брать препятствие — спорт to clear obstacles

    брать рифы — мор. reef

    ••
    - брать в свои руки
    - брать в скобки
    - брать за правило
    - брать за сердце
    - брать курс
    - брать на себя смелость
    - брать на себя
    - брать на учет
    - брать направо
    - брать ноту
    - брать пример
    - брать свое     - брать слово
    - возьми да скажи
    - наша берет
    - наша взяла
    - ни дать ни взять

    Русско-английский словарь по общей лексике > брать

  • 56 доход

    давать / приносить доход — to bring in an income, to yield a profit

    извлекать доход — to derive / to produce / to yield a profit (from)

    бюджетные доходы — budget receipts / revenue

    валовой доход — gross revenue / receipts

    годовой доход — annual / yearly income / revenue

    государственные доходы — public / government receipts / revenues

    заработанный / полученный доход (от реализации товаров и услуг) — earned revenue

    личные доходы — personal / individual incomes

    валовой национальный доход — gross national income / return

    прирост национального дохода — growth of / increment in / accretion of the national income

    процентный доход, доход в виде / форме процентов — interest income / return / yield

    реальные доходы — real incomes; (завода и т.п.) effective incomes

    текущий доход — current income / yield

    чистый доход — net profit, pure income

    доход на душу населения / — income per, head, per capita / per head income

    доход, облагаемый налогом местными властями — locally taxable income

    доходы от заграничных инвестиций / капиталовложений — earnings from foreign investments

    доход от налогов — receipts from taxes, tax revenue

    доходы от продажи патентов, лицензий и технического опыта (статья в платёжном балансе) — fees and royalties

    доход от ценных бумаг — security / securities yield

    доходы от экспорта — export earnings / revenue

    доход, полученный за счёт предоставления услуг — service income

    Russian-english dctionary of diplomacy > доход

  • 57 robor

    rōbur ( rōbor, v. Lucr. p. 140 Lachm.; also an older form rōbus, Cato, R. R. 17, 1; Col. 2, 6, 1; cf. Paul. ex Fest. p. 264 Müll.), ŏris, n. [cf. Sanscr. radh-as, abundance; Gr. rhônnumi for rhôthnumi, to strengthen, rhômê], a very hard kind of oak (cf.:

    quercus, ilex),

    Plin. 16, 6, 8, § 19; 16, 7, 10, § 28; 16, 38, 73, § 186; 16, 40, 76, § 204; 16, 40, 77, § 218.— Hence,
    I.
    Lit.
    1.
    In gen., a very hard kind of tree or wood:

    morsus roboris,

    i. e. of the wild olive, Verg. A. 12, 783 (a little before: foliis oleaster amaris Hic steterat);

    so of the same,

    id. G. 2, 305; cf.:

    solido de robore myrtus,

    id. ib. 2, 64:

    annoso validam robore quercum,

    i. e. of an old and sturdy trunk, id. A. 4, 441; so,

    annoso robore quercus,

    Ov. M. 8, 743:

    antiquo robore quercus,

    with ancient trunk, Verg. G. 3, 332:

    Massyla, i. e. citri,

    Stat. S. 3, 3, 94; also,

    Maurorum,

    id. ib. 4, 2, 39.—
    2.
    Absol., usu., an oak-tree, an oak in gen.:

    fixa est pariter cum robore cervix,

    i. e. was pinned fast to the oak, Ov. M. 3, 92:

    agitata robora pulsant (delphines),

    id. ib. 1, 303.—
    3.
    Oak-wood, oak:

    naves totae factae ex robore,

    Caes. B. G. 3, 13; cf.:

    (sapiens) non est e saxo sculptus aut e robore dolatus,

    Cic. Ac. 2, 31, 101; and with this cf. id. Div. 2, 41, 85. — Poet.:

    illi robur et aes triplex Circa pectus erat,

    Hor. C. 1, 3, 9; cf.:

    o saxis nimirum et robore nati!

    Stat. Th. 4, 340. —
    II.
    Transf.
    A.
    Of things made of oak or of any other hard wood.
    1.
    In gen.:

    Lacedaemonii cottidianis epulis in robore accumbunt,

    i. e. on oaken, hard benches, Cic. Mur. 35, 74.— So of the wooden horse before Troy:

    sacrum,

    Verg. A. 2, 230; of a lance:

    ferro praefixum,

    id. ib. 10, 479; Sil. 2, 244; 267; of a club, Ov. M. 12, 349; Mart. 9, 44, 4 et saep.:

    aratri,

    i. e. the oaken plough, Verg. G. 1, 162; Val. Fl. 7, 555.—
    2.
    In partic., the lower and stronger part of the prison at Rome, built by Servius Tullius, was called Robur (also Tullianum):

    Robus in carcere dicitur is locus, quo praecipitatur maleficorum genus, quod ante arcis robusteis includebatur, Paul. ex Fest. s. v. robum, p. 264 Müll.: in robore et tenebris exspiret,

    Liv. 38, 59 fin.:

    robur et saxum minitari,

    Tac. A. 4, 29; Val. Max. 6, 3, 1:

    verbera, carnifices, robur,

    Lucr. 3, 1017; Hor. C. 2, 13, 19 (v. carcer and Tullianum).—
    B.
    Hardness, strength, firmness, vigor, power (cf. vires; v. Fabri ad Liv. 21, 1, 2).
    1.
    Lit.:

    duri robora ferri,

    Lucr. 2, 449; so,

    ferri,

    Verg. A. 7, 609:

    saxi,

    Lucr. 1, 882:

    navium,

    Liv. 37, 30: omnia pariter crescunt et robora sumunt, gain strength, [p. 1598] Lucr. 5, 820; 895; cf.:

    qui si jam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet, ipse pro Sex. Roscio diceret,

    Cic. Rosc. Am. 51, 149:

    paululum jam roboris accessit aetati,

    id. Cael. 30, 73:

    solidaeque suo stant robore vires,

    Verg. A. 2, 639; Vulg. Judic. 8, 21:

    si quod est robur,

    Flor. 2, 1, 1.—
    2.
    Trop., power, strength, force, vigor (very freq.):

    alter virtutis robore firmior quam aetatis,

    Cic. Phil. 10, 8, 16:

    in animi excelsi atque invicti magnitudine ac robore,

    id. Off. 1, 5, 14; so,

    animi (with magnitudo),

    id. de Or. 2, 84, 343; id. Tusc. 1, 40, 95:

    robur incredibile animi,

    id. Mil. 37, 101:

    quantum in cujusque animo roboris est ac nervorum,

    id. Fam. 6, 1, 3:

    multo plus firmamenti ac roboris,

    id. Imp. Pomp. 4, 10; so (with firmamentum) id. Mur. 28, 58; (with firmitas) id. Fin. 5, 5, 12:

    hi tot equites Romani quid roboris hujus petitioni attulerunt?

    id. Planc. 8, 21:

    pectus robore fultum,

    Ov. Tr. 5, 12, 11:

    te mea robora fallunt,

    id. H. 16, 367:

    velocitate pari, robore animi virumque praestanti,

    Liv. 24, 26, 11:

    verba quanti roboris plena,

    Sen. Ep 10, 3:

    qui robur aliquod in stilo fecerint,

    Quint. 10, 3, 10; cf.:

    robur oratorium adicere sententiis,

    id. 10, 5, 4; 8, prooem. §

    3: illi robur et aes triplex Circa pectus erat,

    Hor. C. 1, 3, 9; cf.:

    O saxis nimirum et robore nati,

    Stat. Th. 4, 340. —
    b.
    Authority: nostrarum constitutionum, Just. Inst. prooem. 6.—
    c.
    Concr., the strongest, most effective, or best part, the pith, kernel, strength of any thing; of soldiers, the flower of the troops, choice troops, etc. (freq. and class.):

    versaris in optimorum civium vel flore vel robore,

    Cic. Or. 10, 34: et robur et suboles militum interiit, Asin. ap. Cic. Fam. 10, 33; cf.:

    quod fuit roboris, duobus proeliis interiit,

    Caes. B. C. 3, 87:

    quod roboris ea provincia habuerat,

    Liv. 30, 2; Ov. M. 14, 454 al.:

    senatūs robur,

    Liv. 5, 39. — Plur.:

    tunc C. Flavius Pusio, Cn. Titinnius, C. Maecenas, illa robora populi Romani,

    Cic. Clu. 56, 163:

    haec sunt nostra robora,

    id. Att. 6, 5, 3; Liv. 7, 7; 12; 21, 54; 22, 6; 23, 16; 25, 6 init.:

    robora pubis,

    Verg. A. 8, 518; Ov. M. 7, 510:

    ingentia robora virorum,

    Plin. Pan. 34, 3:

    conferta robora virorum,

    Curt. 3, 5, 13: betae, i. e. stalks, Col. poët. 10, 326. — Of a place, a stronghold:

    quod coloniam virium et opum validam robur ac sedem bello legisset,

    Tac. H. 2, 19.— Absol.: robus, the name of an excellent kind of wheat:

    quoniam et pondere et nitore praestat,

    Col. 2, 6, 1.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > robor

  • 58 robur

    rōbur ( rōbor, v. Lucr. p. 140 Lachm.; also an older form rōbus, Cato, R. R. 17, 1; Col. 2, 6, 1; cf. Paul. ex Fest. p. 264 Müll.), ŏris, n. [cf. Sanscr. radh-as, abundance; Gr. rhônnumi for rhôthnumi, to strengthen, rhômê], a very hard kind of oak (cf.:

    quercus, ilex),

    Plin. 16, 6, 8, § 19; 16, 7, 10, § 28; 16, 38, 73, § 186; 16, 40, 76, § 204; 16, 40, 77, § 218.— Hence,
    I.
    Lit.
    1.
    In gen., a very hard kind of tree or wood:

    morsus roboris,

    i. e. of the wild olive, Verg. A. 12, 783 (a little before: foliis oleaster amaris Hic steterat);

    so of the same,

    id. G. 2, 305; cf.:

    solido de robore myrtus,

    id. ib. 2, 64:

    annoso validam robore quercum,

    i. e. of an old and sturdy trunk, id. A. 4, 441; so,

    annoso robore quercus,

    Ov. M. 8, 743:

    antiquo robore quercus,

    with ancient trunk, Verg. G. 3, 332:

    Massyla, i. e. citri,

    Stat. S. 3, 3, 94; also,

    Maurorum,

    id. ib. 4, 2, 39.—
    2.
    Absol., usu., an oak-tree, an oak in gen.:

    fixa est pariter cum robore cervix,

    i. e. was pinned fast to the oak, Ov. M. 3, 92:

    agitata robora pulsant (delphines),

    id. ib. 1, 303.—
    3.
    Oak-wood, oak:

    naves totae factae ex robore,

    Caes. B. G. 3, 13; cf.:

    (sapiens) non est e saxo sculptus aut e robore dolatus,

    Cic. Ac. 2, 31, 101; and with this cf. id. Div. 2, 41, 85. — Poet.:

    illi robur et aes triplex Circa pectus erat,

    Hor. C. 1, 3, 9; cf.:

    o saxis nimirum et robore nati!

    Stat. Th. 4, 340. —
    II.
    Transf.
    A.
    Of things made of oak or of any other hard wood.
    1.
    In gen.:

    Lacedaemonii cottidianis epulis in robore accumbunt,

    i. e. on oaken, hard benches, Cic. Mur. 35, 74.— So of the wooden horse before Troy:

    sacrum,

    Verg. A. 2, 230; of a lance:

    ferro praefixum,

    id. ib. 10, 479; Sil. 2, 244; 267; of a club, Ov. M. 12, 349; Mart. 9, 44, 4 et saep.:

    aratri,

    i. e. the oaken plough, Verg. G. 1, 162; Val. Fl. 7, 555.—
    2.
    In partic., the lower and stronger part of the prison at Rome, built by Servius Tullius, was called Robur (also Tullianum):

    Robus in carcere dicitur is locus, quo praecipitatur maleficorum genus, quod ante arcis robusteis includebatur, Paul. ex Fest. s. v. robum, p. 264 Müll.: in robore et tenebris exspiret,

    Liv. 38, 59 fin.:

    robur et saxum minitari,

    Tac. A. 4, 29; Val. Max. 6, 3, 1:

    verbera, carnifices, robur,

    Lucr. 3, 1017; Hor. C. 2, 13, 19 (v. carcer and Tullianum).—
    B.
    Hardness, strength, firmness, vigor, power (cf. vires; v. Fabri ad Liv. 21, 1, 2).
    1.
    Lit.:

    duri robora ferri,

    Lucr. 2, 449; so,

    ferri,

    Verg. A. 7, 609:

    saxi,

    Lucr. 1, 882:

    navium,

    Liv. 37, 30: omnia pariter crescunt et robora sumunt, gain strength, [p. 1598] Lucr. 5, 820; 895; cf.:

    qui si jam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet, ipse pro Sex. Roscio diceret,

    Cic. Rosc. Am. 51, 149:

    paululum jam roboris accessit aetati,

    id. Cael. 30, 73:

    solidaeque suo stant robore vires,

    Verg. A. 2, 639; Vulg. Judic. 8, 21:

    si quod est robur,

    Flor. 2, 1, 1.—
    2.
    Trop., power, strength, force, vigor (very freq.):

    alter virtutis robore firmior quam aetatis,

    Cic. Phil. 10, 8, 16:

    in animi excelsi atque invicti magnitudine ac robore,

    id. Off. 1, 5, 14; so,

    animi (with magnitudo),

    id. de Or. 2, 84, 343; id. Tusc. 1, 40, 95:

    robur incredibile animi,

    id. Mil. 37, 101:

    quantum in cujusque animo roboris est ac nervorum,

    id. Fam. 6, 1, 3:

    multo plus firmamenti ac roboris,

    id. Imp. Pomp. 4, 10; so (with firmamentum) id. Mur. 28, 58; (with firmitas) id. Fin. 5, 5, 12:

    hi tot equites Romani quid roboris hujus petitioni attulerunt?

    id. Planc. 8, 21:

    pectus robore fultum,

    Ov. Tr. 5, 12, 11:

    te mea robora fallunt,

    id. H. 16, 367:

    velocitate pari, robore animi virumque praestanti,

    Liv. 24, 26, 11:

    verba quanti roboris plena,

    Sen. Ep 10, 3:

    qui robur aliquod in stilo fecerint,

    Quint. 10, 3, 10; cf.:

    robur oratorium adicere sententiis,

    id. 10, 5, 4; 8, prooem. §

    3: illi robur et aes triplex Circa pectus erat,

    Hor. C. 1, 3, 9; cf.:

    O saxis nimirum et robore nati,

    Stat. Th. 4, 340. —
    b.
    Authority: nostrarum constitutionum, Just. Inst. prooem. 6.—
    c.
    Concr., the strongest, most effective, or best part, the pith, kernel, strength of any thing; of soldiers, the flower of the troops, choice troops, etc. (freq. and class.):

    versaris in optimorum civium vel flore vel robore,

    Cic. Or. 10, 34: et robur et suboles militum interiit, Asin. ap. Cic. Fam. 10, 33; cf.:

    quod fuit roboris, duobus proeliis interiit,

    Caes. B. C. 3, 87:

    quod roboris ea provincia habuerat,

    Liv. 30, 2; Ov. M. 14, 454 al.:

    senatūs robur,

    Liv. 5, 39. — Plur.:

    tunc C. Flavius Pusio, Cn. Titinnius, C. Maecenas, illa robora populi Romani,

    Cic. Clu. 56, 163:

    haec sunt nostra robora,

    id. Att. 6, 5, 3; Liv. 7, 7; 12; 21, 54; 22, 6; 23, 16; 25, 6 init.:

    robora pubis,

    Verg. A. 8, 518; Ov. M. 7, 510:

    ingentia robora virorum,

    Plin. Pan. 34, 3:

    conferta robora virorum,

    Curt. 3, 5, 13: betae, i. e. stalks, Col. poët. 10, 326. — Of a place, a stronghold:

    quod coloniam virium et opum validam robur ac sedem bello legisset,

    Tac. H. 2, 19.— Absol.: robus, the name of an excellent kind of wheat:

    quoniam et pondere et nitore praestat,

    Col. 2, 6, 1.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > robur

  • 59 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 60 χρηματιστικός

    A of or for traffic and money-making,

    ὁ χ.

     a man of business,

    Pl.R. 581d

    ; opp. ἀναλωτικός, ib. 558d; opp. στρατιωτικός, οἰκήσεις ib. 415e; opp.

    στρατηγικός, διατριβαί Plu.Crass.17

    ; χ. οἰωνός an omen portending gain, X.An.6.1.23; τὸ χ. the commercial class, opp. τὸ πολεμικόν, etc., Arist.Pol. 1291b21; ἡ -κή (sc. τέχνη ) the art of money-making, Pl. Grg. 477e, Euthd. 307a, al.; on its varieties, v. Arist.Pol. 1256b41.
    II belonging to or fitted for the dispatch of public business, χ. σκηνή, πυλών, a tent, hall for holding conferences, giving audience, Plb.5.81.5, 15.31.2.
    2 notarial,

    τράπεζα PLond.3.1164

    d.4(iii A. D.).
    III oracular, prophetic,

    ψυχή Porph.Abst.4.10

    .
    IV Astrol., effective, operative,

    τόποι Vett.Val.29.18

    , Antioch.Astr. in Cat.Cod.Astr. 8(3).107; of stars Iamb.Myst.3.30.

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > χρηματιστικός

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