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1 buena educación
• amenity• civility• good drubbing• good effort• good manners at the table• good-mannered man• politeness• refinement -
2 wytworn|y
adj. grad. [strój, wystrój, wnętrze, przyjęcie] elegant; [styl, smak, maniery] refined- człowiek wytworny a man of refinement- prowadzić wytworne życie dżentelmena to lead the life of a gentleman- to nie wypada w wytwornym towarzystwie that’s not done in polite societyThe New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > wytworn|y
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3 Feinheit
I f; nur Sg.2. (Stärke) von Garn: size, grist6. (Vornehmheit) distinction, gentility; (Eleganz) smartness, elegance; des Benehmens, Stils etc.: refinement, eleganceII Feinheiten Pl.: die Feinheiten the finer points, the niceties, the subtleties; die letzten Feinheiten the final touches; die sprachlichen Feinheiten des Gedichts the linguistic subtleties of the poem* * *die Feinheitacuteness; subtlety; delicacy; fineness; nicety* * *Fein|heitf -, -en1) (= Zartheit) finenessdie Féínheit des britischen Humors — the delicate British humour (Brit) or humor (US)
2) (= Erlesenheit) excellence; (von Gold, Silber) refinementdie Féínheit des Geschmacks — the delicate flavour (Brit) or flavor (US)
3) (= Schärfe) keenness; (von Gehör, Gefühl auch) acuteness4) (= Vornehmheit) refinement, poshness (inf)5) pl niceties pl, finer points pl; (= Nuancen) subtleties pldas sind eben die Féínheiten — it's the little things that make the difference
* * *die1) (a precise or delicate detail.) nicety2) (good manners, good taste, polite speech etc.) refinement3) subtlety* * *Fein·heit<-, -en>f2. (Scharfsinnigkeit) acuteness, keenness3. (Dezentheit) subtledas sind eben die gewissen \Feinheiten, die man beachten muss it's the little things that make the difference* * *die; Feinheit, Feinheiten1) o. Pl. fineness; delicacy2) (Nuance) subtletydie stilistischen Feinheiten — the stylistic subtleties or nuances
* * *A. f; nur sg2. (Stärke) von Garn: size, grist6. (Vornehmheit) distinction, gentility; (Eleganz) smartness, elegance; des Benehmens, Stils etc: refinement, elegancedie Feinheiten the finer points, the niceties, the subtleties;die letzten Feinheiten the final touches;die sprachlichen Feinheiten des Gedichts the linguistic subtleties of the poem* * *die; Feinheit, Feinheiten1) o. Pl. fineness; delicacy2) (Nuance) subtletydie stilistischen Feinheiten — the stylistic subtleties or nuances
* * *-en f.acuteness n.fineness n.nicety n.subtlety n. -
4 kultiviert
I P.P. kultivierenII Adj. Sprache, Atmosphäre etc.: cultivated; (vornehm) refined; Person: auch cultured; Volk, Land etc.: civilized* * *cultivated; cultured; refined* * *kul|ti|viert [kʊlti'viːɐt]1. adjcultivated, cultured, refined2. advspeisen, sich einrichten stylishly; sich ausdrücken in a refined mannerkönnt ihr euch nicht etwas kultivíérter unterhalten? — couldn't you make your language just a little more refined?
in dieser Familie musst du dich ein bisschen kultivíérter benehmen als sonst — in this family you'll have to behave with a little more refinement or class (inf) than usual
wenn Sie kultivíért reisen wollen — if you want to travel in style
wenn man mal kultivíért essen will — if you want a civilized meal
* * *(having good manners; educated: a cultivated young lady; He has cultivated tastes in music.) cultivated* * *kul·ti·viert[kʊltiˈvi:ɐt]I. adj1. (gepflegt) cultivated, refined▪ \kultiviert sein to be refined [or sophisticated2. (von feiner Bildung)▪ \kultiviert sein to be culturedII. adv1. (gepflegt) sophisticatedly2. (zivilisiert) in a refined manner* * *1.1) cultivated; cultured2) (fein) refined2.* * *B. adj Sprache, Atmosphäre etc: cultivated; (vornehm) refined; Person: auch cultured; Volk, Land etc: civilized* * *1.1) cultivated; cultured2) (fein) refined2.* * *adj.cultivated adj.cultured adj. -
5 primitivo
adj.1 primitive, primal, aboriginal, original.2 primitive, gut, primary.3 primitive, crude, lacking refinement.m.1 primitive.2 Primitivo.* * *► adjetivo1 HISTORIA primitive2 (original) original3 (rudimentario) basic* * *(f. - primitiva)adj.* * *ADJ1) [arte, pueblo] primitive; (=salvaje) uncivilized2) (=original) first, original3) [color] primary4) (Econ) [acción] ordinary* * *- va adjetivo1) primitivelos hombres primitivos — primitive o early man
2) ( original) original3) (Art) primitive* * *= primitive, uncivilised [uncivilized, -USA], barbaric, raw, pristine, primordial.Ex. Primitive war dances, fertility rites, hunting games are all rituals human beings develop in their corporate as well as their private lives.Ex. It was on the tip of his tongue to say: 'Must you speak to me in this uncivilized fashion?' But he discreetly forbore.Ex. The novel is a crude barbaric mixture of verse and prose, poetry and realism, crammed with ghosts, corpses, maniacs all very unlike Racine.Ex. Vegetable fibres in their raw state contain the necessary strands of cellulose which can be converted into paper.Ex. Although national parks are perceived as pristine areas, many are dumping grounds for hazardous materials - everything from industrial toxins to unexploded munitions.Ex. The author examines key passages in the 1941 Nietzsche lectures where Heidegger appears to flirt with the possibility of a more primordial sense of existence.----* hombre primitivo, el = early man.* impulso primitivo = primitive urge.* * *- va adjetivo1) primitivelos hombres primitivos — primitive o early man
2) ( original) original3) (Art) primitive* * *= primitive, uncivilised [uncivilized, -USA], barbaric, raw, pristine, primordial.Ex: Primitive war dances, fertility rites, hunting games are all rituals human beings develop in their corporate as well as their private lives.
Ex: It was on the tip of his tongue to say: 'Must you speak to me in this uncivilized fashion?' But he discreetly forbore.Ex: The novel is a crude barbaric mixture of verse and prose, poetry and realism, crammed with ghosts, corpses, maniacs all very unlike Racine.Ex: Vegetable fibres in their raw state contain the necessary strands of cellulose which can be converted into paper.Ex: Although national parks are perceived as pristine areas, many are dumping grounds for hazardous materials - everything from industrial toxins to unexploded munitions.Ex: The author examines key passages in the 1941 Nietzsche lectures where Heidegger appears to flirt with the possibility of a more primordial sense of existence.* hombre primitivo, el = early man.* impulso primitivo = primitive urge.* * *primitivo -vaA ‹pueblo/costumbres› primitive; ‹instalaciones/métodos› primitivelos hombres primitivos primitive o early mantrabajan en condiciones primitivas they work in primitive conditionsB (original) originalel texto primitivo the original textC ( Art) primitive* * *
primitivo◊ -va adjetivo
primitive
primitivo,-a adjetivo
1 (civilización, cultura) primitive
2 (estado originario) original
la estructura primitiva de la casa, the original structure of the house
3 (grosero) rude, coarse
' primitivo' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
primitiva
- primario
- salvaje
English:
crude
- early
- first
- primaeval
- primitive
- barbaric
* * *primitivo, -a adj1. [arcaico, rudimentario] primitive2. [original] original3. Arte primitivist* * *adj1 ( prehistórico, rudimentario) primitive2 ( original) original* * *primitivo, -va adj1) : primitive2) original: original* * *primitivo adj primitive -
6 délicat
délicat, e [delika, at]adjectivea. ( = fin, fragile, précis) delicate ; [mets] daintyb. ( = difficile) [situation, question, opération, sujet] delicatec. ( = raffiné) [sentiment, goût, esprit, style] delicatee. ( = exigeant) fussy* * *
1.
délicate delika, at adjectif1) ( raffiné) [mets] subtle; [palais] discriminating; [personne] refined2) ( plein de tact) tactful; ( attentionné) thoughtful3) (complexe, difficile) [équilibre, négociations, tâche] delicate; [affaire, dossier, point, moment] sensitive; [mission, manœuvre] tricky4) ( fragile) [peau, mécanisme, instrument] delicate; [estomac, oreille] sensitive
2.
nom masculin, féminin* * *delika, at adj délicat, -e1) (= épineux) (question) delicate, (problème) tricky, (mission) delicate, (négociations) sensitive, delicate2) (= fragile) delicate3) (= plein de tact) tactfulIl est toujours très délicat. — He's always very tactful.
4) (= attentionné) thoughtfulC'est une attention délicate de sa part. — That was thoughtful of him.
5) (= exigeant) fussy, particularNe faites pas le délicat. — Don't be so fussy.
* * *A adj1 (fin, subtil) gén delicate;3 ( plein de tact) tactful; ( attentionné) thoughtful; avoir un geste délicat pour or envers qn to do something thoughtful for sb; quelle attention délicate! what a kind thought!; un homme peu délicat en affaires a man with few business scruples; des procédés peu délicats unscrupulous means;4 (complexe, difficile) [équilibre, négociations, tâche] delicate; [domaine, affaire, secteur, dossier, point, moment] sensitive; [mission, manœuvre] tricky; il est délicat pour lui de faire it's tricky for him to do; la tâche est délicate it's a delicate task;5 ( fragile) [peau] delicate, sensitive; [mécanisme, dispositif, instrument] delicate; [estomac] sensitive; elle est de santé délicate she's delicate;6 pej ( tatillon) [personne] elle est très délicate sur la nourriture she's very fussy about her food; vous êtes bien délicat! ( pour choisir) how fussy GB ou picky US you are!;7 ( chaste) [oreille] sensitive.1. [fragile - tissu] delicate ; [ - peau] sensitive ; [ - santé] delicate, frail ; [ - intestin, estomac] sensitive, delicate ; [ - enfant, plante] fragile2. [sensible - palais] discerning3. [subtil - forme, aquarelle, nuance, travail] delicate, fine ; [ - doigts, traits] delicate, dainty ; [ - mets] dainty, delicate ; [ - saveur, odeur] delicate4. [difficile - situation] delicate, awkward, tricky ; [ - opération chirurgicale, problème] difficult, tricky ; [ - question] delicate, sensitivec'est délicat it's rather delicate ou awkward7. [scrupuleux - conscience, procédé] scrupulous————————, délicate [delika, at] nom masculin, nom féminina. to be fussyb. [devant le sang, la malhonnêteté] to be squeamish -
7 humanitas
hūmānĭtas, ātis, f. [humanus], human nature, humanity, in a good sense; the qualities, feelings, and inclinations of mankind.I.In gen. (for the most part only in Cic.):B.magna est vis humanitatis, multum valet communio sanguinis,
Cic. Rosc. Am. 22, 63:naturas hominum vimque omnem humanitatis penitus perspicere,
id. de Or. 1, 12, 53:humanitatis societas,
id. Rep. 2, 26:communis humanitatis jus,
id. Fl. 11, 24; cf.:communis humanitatis causa,
id. Quint. 16, 51:peterem errato veniam ex humanitate communi,
id. Sull. 23, 64:humanitatis prima species,
id. Tusc. 4, 14, 32:at natura certe dedit, ut humanitatis non parum haberes,
id. Rosc. Am. 16, 46:humanitatem tuam amoremque in tuos reditus celeritas declarabit,
id. Att. 4, 15, 2:nec potuisse (te) non commoveri (viri amicissimi morte) nec fuisse id humanitatis tuae,
id. Lael. 2, 8:fac, id quod est humanitatis tuae, ne quid aliud cures hoc tempore, nisi ut quam commodissime convalescas,
which you owe to yourself as a man, id. Fam. 16, 11, 1:assiduitate molestiarum sensum omnem humanitatis ex animis amittimus,
id. Rosc. Am. 53, 154 fin.; cf.:jam ad ista obduruimus et humanitatem omnem exuimus,
id. Att. 13, 2, 1; id. Lig. 5, 14:nisi ex ejus animo exstirpatam humanitatem arbitramur,
id. Lael. 13, 48:age vero, quid esse potest in otio aut jucundius aut magis proprium humanitatis quam sermo facetus ac nulla in re rudis?
id. de Or. 1, 8, 32:homines quidem pereunt: ipsa humanitas, ad quam homo effingitur, permanet,
Sen. Ep. 65.—Transf., concr., i. q. humanum genus, the human race, mankind (very rare;II.mostly post-class.): ista in figura hominis feritas a communi tamquam humanitatis corpore segreganda est,
Cic. Off. 3, 6, 32:humanitatem hoc loco dicimus omne hominum genus,
Hier. Ep. 147:timorem omnem, quo humanitas regitur, sustulerunt,
Min. Fel. Oct. 8; App. Dogm. Plat. 1, p. 11; id. Trism. p. 288.In partic.A.Humane or gentle conduct towards others, humanity, philanthropy, gentleness, kindness, politeness (syn.: comitas, facilitas, mansuetudo, clementia, opp. severitas;B.very freq. and class.): quemquamne existimas Catone proavo tuo commodiorem, communiorem, moderatiorem fuisse ad omnem rationem humanitatis?... Sed si illius comitatem et facilitatem tuae gravitati severitatique asperseris, etc.,
Cic. Mur. 31, 66; cf.:pro tua facilitate et humanitate,
id. Fam. 13, 24, 2:difficillimam illam societatem gravitatis cum humanitate,
id. Leg. 3, 1, 1:ut summa severitas summa cum humanitate jungatur,
id. Fam. 12, 27:ad humanitatem atque mansuetudinem revocavit animos hominum, studiis bellandi jam immanes ac feros,
id. Rep. 2, 14; cf. id. Sull. 33, 92; id. de Imp. Pomp. 14, 42; cf.also: omnia plena clementiae, mansuetudinis, humanitatis,
id. Q. Fr. 1, 1, 8 fin.; and: pro sua clementia atque humanitate, Hirt. B. G. 8, 21, 2; Caes. B. C. 3, 20, 2:tantaque poena (eos) afficiamus, quantam aequitas humanitasque patitur,
Cic. Off. 2, 5, 18:singularis humanitas suavissimique mores,
id. Att. 16, 16, A, 6:Caesaris summa erga nos humanitas,
id. Fam. 4, 13, 2; cf.:amorem erga me, humanitatem suavitatemque desidero,
id. Att. 15, 1, A, 1:humanitas vetat superbum esse adversus socios,
Sen. Ep. 88 med.:humanitatis praecipua pars est, honestissimum quemque complecti, etc.,
Plin. Ep. 9, 5, 1:illa vero vitiosissima, quae jam humanitas vocatur, invicem qualiacumque laudandi,
Quint. 2, 2, 10.—Mental cultivation befitting a man, liberal education, good breeding, elegance of manners or language, refinement (cf. on this signif. Gell. 13, 16; syn.: doctrina, litterae, eruditio;freq. and class.): homo non communium litterarum et politioris humanitatis expers,
Cic. de Or. 2, 17, 72:esse politum propriis humanitatis artibus,
id. Rep. 1, 17; cf.:humanitate politiores,
id. de Or. 2, 37, 154:in omni recto studio atque humanitate versari,
id. ib. 1, 60, 256:sine ulla bona arte, sine humanitate, sine ingenio, sine litteris,
id. Verr. 2, 4, 44, § 98:doctrinae studium atque humanitatis,
id. Cael. 10, 24; cf.:propter humanitatem atque doctrinam Anco regi familiaris,
id. Rep. 2, 20:in omni genere sermonis, in omni parte humanitatis dixerim oratorem perfectum esse debere,
id. de Or. 1, 16, 71; cf. id. ib. 1, 9, 35 (Ellendt ad loc.):orator inops quidam humanitatis atque inurbanus,
id. ib. 2, 10, 40:ea quae multum ab humanitate discrepant, ut si quis in foro cantet,
good manners, id. Off. 1, 40, 145:Socratem opinor in hac ironia dissimulantiaque longe lepore et humanitate omnibus praestisse,
polished language, id. de Or. 2, 67, 270:(epistulae) humanitatis sparsae sale,
id. Att. 1, 13, 1:alicujus litteras aut humanitatem adamare,
id. Rosc. Am. 41, 121:litteris, et humanitate alicujus delectari,
id. Verr. 2, 3, 4, § 8. -
8 Behaviorism
A person is changed by the contingencies of reinforcement under which he behaves; he does not store the contingencies. In particular, he does not store copies of the stimuli which have played a part in the contingencies. There are no "iconic representations" in his mind; there are no "data structures stored in his memory"; he has no "cognitive map" of the world in which he has lived. He has simply been changed in such a way that stimuli now control particular kinds of perceptual behavior. (Skinner, 1974, p. 84)Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its method nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation. (Watson, quoted in Fancher, 1979, p. 319)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Behaviorism
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9 finesse
finesse [finεs]1. feminine nouna. ( = minceur) [de cheveux, poudre, pointe] fineness ; [de taille] slenderness ; [de couche, papier] thinnessb. ( = raffinement) delicacyc. ( = sensibilité) [de sens] sharpnessd. ( = subtilité) [d'esprit, observation] subtlety2. plural feminine nounfinesses [de langue, art] finer points* * *finɛs1) ( minceur) (d'aiguille, écriture, de fil, cheveux) fineness; (de couche, papier) thinness; ( de lame) keenness, sharpness2) ( délicatesse) (de broderie, bijou, parfum, d'aliment) delicacy; ( de visage) fineness, delicacy; (de chevilles, taille) slenderness3) ( perspicacité) (de personne, remarque) perceptiveness; (d'acteur, interprétation) sensitivity, finesse4) ( acuité des sens) keenness, sharpness5) ( subtilité)* * *finɛs1. nf1) [paroi, tissu] thinness2) [personne, remarque, esprit] subtlety3) (délicatesse, précision) [travail] fineness4) [manœuvre] shrewdness2. finesses nfpl1) (= subtilités) niceties2) (= détails) finer points* * *finesse nf1 ( minceur) (d'aiguille, écriture, de fil, pointe, cheveux, poudre) fineness; (de couche, papier, plaque) thinness; ( de lame) keenness, sharpness;2 ( délicatesse) (d'étoffe, de broderie, bijou) delicacy; (de parfum, saveur, aliment) delicacy; (de visage, traits) fineness, delicacy; (de chevilles, poignets, taille, cou) slenderness;3 ( perspicacité) ( de personne) perceptiveness; (d'analyse, de remarque) shrewdness, perceptiveness; (d'acteur, interprétation) sensitivity, finesse;4 (acuité de vue, goût, d'ouïe, odorat) keenness, sharpness;5 ( subtilité) les finesses d'une langue/discipline the finer points ou the subtleties of a language/discipline.[finɛs] nom féminin3. [subtilité] subtlety (substantif non comptable)5. [minceur - de la taille] slenderness, slimness ; [ - des cheveux, d'une poudre] fineness ; [ - du papier, d'un fil] thinness————————finesses nom féminin pluriel -
10 corrección
• adjustment• amendment• appropriateness• chastisement• correction• correctitude• edit• editing• good manners at the table• good-mannered man• propriety• punisher• punitive• refinement• rightly or wrongly• rightmost• rightness• righto -
11 kultu|ra
f 1. sgt (dorobek) culture- kultura antyczna/grecka/rzymska ancient/Greek/Roman culture- kultura narodowa/światowa national/world culture- szerzyć a. upowszechniać kulturę to disseminate culture2. (społeczeństwo) culture, civilization- przedstawiciele różnych kultur representatives of various cultures3. sgt (muzyczna, literacka) education- kultura polityczna political culture- kultura językowa proper language standards4. sgt (ogłada, takt) culture, cultivation- człowiek o dużej kulturze osobistej a well-mannered a. well-bred man- mieć kulturę to be well-bred- brak kultury lack of refinement, crudity- kultura jazdy road manners- kultura współżycia społecznego social norms a. customs- brak kultury współżycia społecznego antisocial behaviour5. zw. pl Biol. culture- kultury bakterii/tkanek bacteria/tissue cultures6. Roln. (uprawa) cultivation; (teren uprawy) plantation- □ kultura ceramiki sznurowej Antrop., Archeol. corded ware culture- kultura ceramiki wstęgowej Antrop., Archeol. Bandkeramik culture- kultura duchowa spiritual culture- kultura fizyczna physical culture- kultura grobów kurhanowych Antrop., Archeol. barrow a. burial mound a. kurgan culture- kultura języka Jęz. grammar and style- kultura masowa Socjol. mass culture- kultura materialna material culture- kultura megalityczna Antrop., Archeol. megalithic a. Megalithic culture- kultura mikocka Antrop., Archeol. Micoquian a. Micoquean culture- kultura mykeńska Antrop., Archeol. Mycenaean civilization a. culture- kultura wodna Bot. aquaculture, hydrocultureThe New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > kultu|ra
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12 oby|ty
adj. 1. (obeznany) familiar (z czymś with sth); experienced (z czymś in sth)- był obyty z bronią he was experienced in the use of arms- człowiek obyty z fachową terminologią a person familiar with the terminology2. (wyrobiony) refined, cultivated- był młody i mało obyty he was young and lacked refinement- człowiek obyty w świecie a man a. woman of the worldThe New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > oby|ty
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13 καθαρός
Grammatical information: adj.Meaning: `clean, spotless, pure, unmixed, white (of bread, linnen)' (Il.); καθάρειος (- ιος) `pure, elegant' (Arist., Men., Plb.), adv. καθαρείως (X.), after ἀστεῖος; καθάρυλλος ( ἄρτος etc., Com.; cf. Leumann Glotta 32, 219 n. 3).Derivatives: καθαρότης `purity' (Hp., Pl.), καθαρ(ε)ιότης `purity, refinement' (Hdt.). - Denomin. verbs: 1. καθαίρω ( κοθ- Herakl.), often with prefix, e. g. ἀνα-, ἀπο-, δια-, ἐκ-, περι-, aor. καθῆραι (- ᾶραι) `purify' (Il.) with κάθαρσις (IA.), κόθ- (El.) `purification', καθαρμός `atonement' (Hdt., trag.), κάθαρμα, often in plur. `purification, refuse' (Att.); καθαρτής `purifyer, conciliater' (Hp., S.), - τήρ `id.' (Man., Plu.), - τήριος (D. H.); καθάρσιος (: καθαρτής, κάθαρσις, καθαρτός) `purifying' (Hdt., trag.), καθαρτικός `id.' (Hp., Pl.). - 2. καθαρίζω, also with prefix, ἀπο-, δια-, ἐκ-, περι-, `purify' (LXX) with καθαρισμός (LXX), καθάρισις (pap.) a. o. - 3. καθαρεύω `be pure' (Ar., Pl.) with καθάρευσις (H., EM); also καθαρι-εύω (Paus., gramm.). - 4. καθαρι-όω `purify' (LXX).Origin: PG [a word of Pre-Greek origin]Etymology: Solmsen KZ 37, 7A. thought that καθαρός was assimilated from κοθαρός; Schwyzer 344 thought that κοθαρός was Aeolic. - No etymology. Suggestions in Bq. Schwyzer 260 (to Lith. krečiù `shake'). Acc. to Debrunner in Ebert, Reallexikon 4, 2, 526 religious term of Pre-Greek origin The variation α\/ο proves Pre-Greek origin. (Fur. 391 connects ἀθαρής; doubtful..Page in Frisk: 1,752-753Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > καθαρός
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14 innerlijk
innerlijk1〈 het〉1 (one's) inner self/nature♦voorbeelden:1 het innerlijk van de mens • the inner self/man————————innerlijk21 [zich bevindend in de geest] inner♦voorbeelden:innerlijke strijd • inner struggleinnerlijk samenhang • intrinsic connectioninnerlijke waarde • intrinsic value -
15 Harrison, John
[br]b. 24 March 1693 Foulby, Yorkshire, Englandd. 24 March 1776 London, England[br]English horologist who constructed the first timekeeper of sufficient accuracy to determine longitude at sea and invented the gridiron pendulum for temperature compensation.[br]John Harrison was the son of a carpenter and was brought up to that trade. He was largely self-taught and learned mechanics from a copy of Nicholas Saunderson's lectures that had been lent to him. With the assistance of his younger brother, James, he built a series of unconventional clocks, mainly of wood. He was always concerned to reduce friction, without using oil, and this influenced the design of his "grasshopper" escapement. He also invented the "gridiron" compensation pendulum, which depended on the differential expansion of brass and steel. The excellent performance of his regulator clocks, which incorporated these devices, convinced him that they could also be used in a sea dock to compete for the longitude prize. In 1714 the Government had offered a prize of £20,000 for a method of determining longitude at sea to within half a degree after a voyage to the West Indies. In theory the longitude could be found by carrying an accurate timepiece that would indicate the time at a known longitude, but the requirements of the Act were very exacting. The timepiece would have to have a cumulative error of no more than two minutes after a voyage lasting six weeks.In 1730 Harrison went to London with his proposal for a sea clock, supported by examples of his grasshopper escapement and his gridiron pendulum. His proposal received sufficient encouragement and financial support, from George Graham and others, to enable him to return to Barrow and construct his first sea clock, which he completed five years later. This was a large and complicated machine that was made out of brass but retained the wooden wheelwork and the grasshopper escapement of the regulator clocks. The two balances were interlinked to counteract the rolling of the vessel and were controlled by helical springs operating in tension. It was the first timepiece with a balance to have temperature compensation. The effect of temperature change on the timekeeping of a balance is more pronounced than it is for a pendulum, as two effects are involved: the change in the size of the balance; and the change in the elasticity of the balance spring. Harrison compensated for both effects by using a gridiron arrangement to alter the tension in the springs. This timekeeper performed creditably when it was tested on a voyage to Lisbon, and the Board of Longitude agreed to finance improved models. Harrison's second timekeeper dispensed with the use of wood and had the added refinement of a remontoire, but even before it was tested he had embarked on a third machine. The balance of this machine was controlled by a spiral spring whose effective length was altered by a bimetallic strip to compensate for changes in temperature. In 1753 Harrison commissioned a London watchmaker, John Jefferys, to make a watch for his own personal use, with a similar form of temperature compensation and a modified verge escapement that was intended to compensate for the lack of isochronism of the balance spring. The time-keeping of this watch was surprisingly good and Harrison proceeded to build a larger and more sophisticated version, with a remontoire. This timekeeper was completed in 1759 and its performance was so remarkable that Harrison decided to enter it for the longitude prize in place of his third machine. It was tested on two voyages to the West Indies and on both occasions it met the requirements of the Act, but the Board of Longitude withheld half the prize money until they had proof that the timekeeper could be duplicated. Copies were made by Harrison and by Larcum Kendall, but the Board still continued to prevaricate and Harrison received the full amount of the prize in 1773 only after George III had intervened on his behalf.Although Harrison had shown that it was possible to construct a timepiece of sufficient accuracy to determine longitude at sea, his solution was too complex and costly to be produced in quantity. It had, for example, taken Larcum Kendall two years to produce his copy of Harrison's fourth timekeeper, but Harrison had overcome the psychological barrier and opened the door for others to produce chronometers in quantity at an affordable price. This was achieved before the end of the century by Arnold and Earnshaw, but they used an entirely different design that owed more to Le Roy than it did to Harrison and which only retained Harrison's maintaining power.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsRoyal Society Copley Medal 1749.Bibliography1767, The Principles of Mr Harrison's Time-keeper, with Plates of the Same, London. 1767, Remarks on a Pamphlet Lately Published by the Rev. Mr Maskelyne Under theAuthority of the Board of Longitude, London.1775, A Description Concerning Such Mechanisms as Will Afford a Nice or True Mensuration of Time, London.Further ReadingR.T.Gould, 1923, The Marine Chronometer: Its History and Development, London; reprinted 1960, Holland Press.—1978, John Harrison and His Timekeepers, 4th edn, London: National Maritime Museum.H.Quill, 1966, John Harrison, the Man who Found Longitude, London. A.G.Randall, 1989, "The technology of John Harrison's portable timekeepers", Antiquarian Horology 18:145–60, 261–77.J.Betts, 1993, John Harrison London (a good short account of Harrison's work). S.Smiles, 1905, Men of Invention and Industry; London: John Murray, Chapter III. Dictionary of National Biography, Vol. IX, pp. 35–6.DV
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