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theme-based

  • 21 axer

    axer [akse]
    ➭ TABLE 1 transitive verb
    * * *
    akse
    1) lit to centre [BrE] [vis]; to line up [pièce]
    2) fig ( baser) to base ( sur on); ( concentrer) to centre [BrE] ( sur on)
    * * *
    akse vt

    axer qch sur — to centre sth on Grande-Bretagne to center sth on USA

    * * *
    axer verb table: aimer vtr
    1 lit to centreGB [vis]; to line up [pièce];
    2 fig ( baser) to base (sur on); ( concentrer) to centreGB (sur on); axer ses recherches sur un thème to focus one's research on a theme; film axé sur les problèmes sociaux film which focuses on social problems; projet axé sur la clientèle étrangère scheme aimed at foreign customers.
    [akse] verbe transitif
    une modernisation axée sur l'importation des meilleures techniques étrangères modernization based on importing the best foreign techniques

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > axer

  • 22 δικαιοσύνη

    δικαιοσύνη, ης, ἡ (s. δίκαιος; Theognis, Hdt.+) gener. the quality of being upright. Theognis 1, 147 defines δ. as the sum of all ἀρετή; acc. to Demosth. (20, 165) it is the opp. of κακία. A strict classification of δ. in the NT is complicated by freq. interplay of abstract and concrete aspects drawn from OT and Gr-Rom. cultures, in which a sense of equitableness combines with awareness of responsibility within a social context.
    ① the quality, state, or practice of judicial responsibility w. focus on fairness, justice, equitableness, fairness
    ⓐ of human beings (a common theme in honorary ins, e.g. IPriene 71, 14f; 22f of a judge named Alexis; Danker, Benefactor 346–48; cp. Aristot., EN 5, 1, 8, 1129a τὸ μὲν δίκαιον ἄρα τὸ νόμιμον καὶ τὸ ἴσον ‘uprightness consists of that which is lawful and fair’; Ath. 34:2 ἔστι δὲ δ. ἴσα ἴσοις ἀμείβειν ‘uprightness means to answer like with like’; for association of δ. with judgment s. also Diog. L. 3, 79; in contexts of praise δ. suggests authority involving juridical responsibility FX 7, ’81, 255 n. 229) δ. κρίσεως ἀρχὴ καὶ τέλος uprightness is the beginning and end of judgment B 1:6. Melchizedek as βασιλεὺς δικαιοσύνης Hb 7:2. ἐργάζεσθαι δικαιοσύνην administer justice Hb 11:33; κρίνειν ἐν δ. (Ps 71:2f; 95:13; Sir 45:26; PsSol 8:24) judge justly Ac 17:31, cp. Mk 16:14 v.l. (Freer ms. line 5 in N. app.); Ro 9:28 v.l. (Is 10:22). ποιεῖν κρίμα καὶ δ. practice justice and uprightness 1 Cl 13:1 (Jer 9:23). καθιστάναι τοὺς ἐπισκοπούς ἐν δ. appoint overseers in uprightness= who will serve justly 1 Cl 42:5 (Is 60:17). David rejoices in God’s δ. 1 Cl 18:15 (Ps 50:16; s. ἀγαλλιάω, end).
    ⓑ of transcendent figures (Pla. τὴν δ. θεοῦ νόμον ὑπελάμβανεν ‘considered divine justice [i.e. apportionment of reward or retribution in accordance with behavior] a principle’ or ‘system’ that served as a deterrent of crime Diog. L. 3, 79). Of an apocalyptic horseman ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ κρινεῖ Rv 19:11.
    ② quality or state of juridical correctness with focus on redemptive action, righteousness. Equitableness is esp. associated w. God (cp. Paradoxogr. Vat. 43 Keller αἰτεῖται παρὰ τ. θεῶν οὐδὲν ἄλλο πλὴν δικαιοσύνης), and in our lit. freq. in connection w. exercise of executive privilege in conferring a benefit. Hence God’s δ. can be the opposite of condemnation 2 Cor 3:9 (s. below); in it God is revealed as judge Rom 3:5—in contrast to human wrath, which beclouds judgment—displaying judicial integrity 3:25 (on this pass. s. also below). Cp. ἐκάλεσά σε ἐν δ. B 14:7 (Is 42:6). Also of equitable privilege allotted by God 2 Pt 1:1.—In Pauline thought the intimate association of God’s interest in retaining a reputation for justice that rewards goodness and requites evil, while at the same time working out a plan of salvation for all humanity, complicates classification of his use of δικαιοσύνη. On the one hand, God’s δ. is pardoning action, and on the other a way of sharing God’s character with believers, who then exhibit righteousness in the moral sense. God achieves this objective through exercise of executive privilege in dispensing justice equitably without reference to νόμος by making salvation available to all humanity (which shares a common problem of liability to wrath by being unanimously in revolt against God Ro 3:9–18, 23) through faith in God’s action in Jesus Christ. The genitival constr. δ. θεοῦ accents the uniqueness of this δ.: Ro 1:17; 3:21f, 25, 26 (s. these pass. also below; Reumann, 3c end); 10:3, and δ. alone 5:21; 9:30 (3 times); 2 Cor 3:9 (opp. κατάκρισις; cp. Dg 9:3; 5). 2 Cor 5:21 may belong here if δ. is viewed as abstract for concrete=δικαιωθέντες (but s. below). All these refer to righteousness bestowed by God cp. ἡ δωρεὰ τῆς δ. Ro 5:17, also 1 Cor 1:30 (sim. 1QS 11, 9–15; 1QH 4, 30–37). In this area it closely approximates salvation (cp. Is 46:13; 51:5 and s. NSnaith, Distinctive Ideas of the OT ’46, 207–22, esp. 218–22; EKäsemann, ZTK 58, ’61, 367–78 [against him RBultmann, JBL 83, ’64, 12–16]). According to some interpreters hunger and thirst for uprightness Mt 5:6 perh. offers (but s. 3a below) a related eschatological sense (‘Kingdom of God’, FNötscher, Biblica 31, ’50, 237–41=Vom A zum NT, ’62, 226–30).—Keeping the law cannot bring about uprightness Ro 3:21; Gal 2:21; 3:21, because δ. ἐκ τοῦ νόμου uprightness based on the law Ro 10:5 (cp. 9:30f), as ἰδία δ. one’s own (self-made) upr. 10:3, is impossible. God’s δ. without ref. to νόμος is to be apprehended by faith Ro 1:17; 3:22, 26; 4:3ff, 13; 9:30; 10:4, 6, 10 (cp. Hb 11:7 ἡ κατὰ πίστιν δ. righteousness based on faith; s. B-D-F §224, 1), for which reason faith is ‘calculated as righteousness’ (Gen 15:6; Ps 105:31; 1 Macc 2:52) Ro 4:3, 5f, 9, 11, 13, 22; Gal 3:6 (cp. Hb 11:7; Js 2:23; AMeyer, D. Rätsel des Jk 1930, 86ff; 1 Cl 10:6; B 13:7). Of Jesus as our righteousness 1 Cor 1:30.—As gift and power Ro 5:17, 21, and because it is intimately associated with the δύναμις of Christ’s resurrection Phil 3:9f (s. below), this righteousness enables the redeemed to respond and serve God faithfully Ro 6:13 (in wordplay opp. of ἀδικία), 16, 18ff; cp. 1 Cor 1:30 of Christ as instrument of God’s gift of δ.; 2 Cor 3:9. Thus God’s δ. functions as δύναμις 6:7 within Christians 5:21 (i.e. the way God acts in justifying or restoring people to a relationship with God’s self serves as a model for Christian interaction; for a difft. view, s. above) through the Spirit (Ro 8:9) and assures them they will have life that will be fully realized at the end of the age Ro 8:10f; for the time being it is a matter of hope ἐλπὶς δικαιοσύνης Gal 5:5 (cp. Is 51:5); cp. ἡ ἐκ θεοῦ δ. Phil 3:9. Pol 8:1 shares Paul’s view: Christ as ἀρραβὼν τῆς δ.—God’s uprightness as gift τοῦ κυρίου τοῦ ἐφʼ ὑμᾶς στάξαντος τὴν δ. who distills uprightness on you Hv 3, 9, 1.—Such perspectives offer a transition to specific ways in which the redeemed express uprightness.
    ③ the quality or characteristic of upright behavior, uprightness, righteousness
    ⓐ of uprightness in general: Mt 5:6 (cp. 6:33; some interpret 5:6 in an eschatological sense, s. 2 above; on desire for δ. cp. ἐπιθυμία τῆς δ. Hm 12, 2, 4); Mt 5:10, 20 (s. b, below); Hm 10, 1, 5; Dg 10:8; λόγος δικαιοσύνης Hb 5:13; Pol 9:1 (s. also Epict., Fgm. Stob. 26; when a man is excited by the λόγος in meetings, he should give expression to τὰ τῆς δικαιοσύνης λόγια). πάσχειν διὰ δ. 1 Pt 3:14. ἄγγελος τῆς δ. Hm 6, 2, 1; 3; 8; 10. ῥήματα δ. 8:9. 10, 1, 5; Dg 10:8; Pol 2:3; 3:1; ἐντολὴ δ. commandment of upr. Pol 3:3; 9:1.—Mt 6:33 of the kind of δ. God expects (on δ. as characteristic required by God acc. to Jewish perspective s. Bousset, Rel.3 387ff; 379ff; 423; cp. KFahlgren, Sẹdāḳā, nahestehende u. entgegengesetzte Begriffe im Alten Testament, diss. Uppsala ’32.—S. Diog. L. 3, 83 on Plato’s view of δικαιοσύνη περὶ θεούς or δ. πρὸς τοὺς θεούς=performance of prescribed duties toward gods; s. also ref. to 3, 79 at 1b above). Christ’s δ. Dg 9:3, 5. διαλέγεσθαι περὶ δ. Ac 24:25. Opp. ἀδικία (Hippol., Ref. 4, 43, 12; Did., Gen. 20, 27) 2 Cl 19:2; Dg 9:1. As ἀρετή Hm 1:2; Hs 6, 1, 4; 8, 10, 3. Opp. ἀνομία 2 Cor 6:14; cp. 2 Cor. 11:15 (ironical); Hb 1:9 (Ps 44:8); ἁμαρτία, which is the dominating power before δ. θεοῦ comes into play Ro 6:16, 18–20; cp. 1 Pt 2:24. ἐργάζεσθαι δ. (Ps 14:2) do what is right Ac 10:35; accomplish righteousness Js 1:20 (W-S. §30, 7g); Hv 2, 2, 7; 2, 3, 3; m 5, 1, 1; 12, 3, 1; 12, 6, 2; Hs 9, 13, 7. Also ἔργον δικαιοσύνης ἐργάζεσθαι 1 Cl 33:8. Opp. οὐδὲν ἐργάζεσθαι τῇ δ. Hs 5, 1, 4; ποιεῖν (τὴν) δ. (2 Km 8:15; Ps 105:3; Is 56:1; 58:2; 1 Macc 14:35 al.) do what is right 1J 2:29; 3:7, 10; Rv 22:11; 2 Cl 4:2; 11:7. Also πράσσειν τὴν δ. 2 Cl 19:3; διώκειν τὴν δ. (cp. Sir 27:8 διώκ. τὸ δίκαιον) seek to attain/achieve upr. Ro 9:30; 1 Ti 6:11; 2 Ti 2:22; 2 Cl 18:2; δ. ἀσκεῖν Hm 8:10. ὁδὸς (τῆς) δ. (ὁδός 3ab) Mt 21:32; 2 Pt 2:21; B 1:4; 5:4. προπορεύσεται ἔμπροσθεν σου ἡ δ. 3:4 (Is 58:8); cp. 4:12. κατορθοῦσθαι τὰς ὁδοὺς ἐν δ. walk uprightly Hv 2, 2, 6; τῇ δ. ζήσωμεν live uprightly 1 Pt 2:24. πύλη δ. gate of upr. 1 Cl 48:2 (Ps 117:19), cp. vs. 4. ἐν οἷς δ. κατοικεῖ (cp. Is 32:16) in which righteousness dwells 2 Pt 3:13. Of Christ’s body δικαιοσύνης ναο͂ς AcPlCor 2:17. παιδεία ἡ ἐν δ. training in uprightness 2 Ti 3:16. ἔργα τὰ ἐν δ. righteous deeds Tit 3:5. λαμπρότης ἐν δ. rejoicing in uprightness 1 Cl 35:2; ἐχθρὸς πάσης δ. enemy of every kind of upr. Ac 13:10. W. ὁσιότης (Wsd 9:3): holiness and upr. (as the relig. and moral side of conduct; cp. 1QS 1:5; 8:2; 11:9–15; 1QH 4:30f) Lk 1:75 (λατρεύειν ἐν δ. as Josh 24:14); Eph 4:24; 1 Cl 48:4. W. πίστις (OGI 438, 8; 1 Macc 14:35; Just., D. 110, 3) Pol 9:2; cp. 2 Pt 1:1. With εἰρήνη (Is 39:8; 48:18) and χαρά Ro 14:17; cp. 1 Cl 3:4; Hb 7:2 (but s. 1a, above). W. ἀλήθεια (Is 45:19; 48:1) Eph 5:9; 1 Cl 31:2; 62:2; Hs 9, 25, 2. W. ἀγάπη 2 Cl 12:1. W. ἀγαθωσύνη Eph 5:9. W. ἁγνεία Hs 9, 16, 7. W. γνῶσις κυρίου (cp. Pr 16:8) D 11:2. ὅπλα (τῆς) δ. tools or weapons of uprightness Ro 6:13; 2 Cor 6:7; Pol 4:1; θῶραξ τῆς δ. (Is 59:17; Wsd 5:18) breastplate of upr. Eph 6:14. τέκνα δικαιοσύνης (opp. ὀργῆς) AcPlCor 2:19. διάκονοι δικαιοσύνης servants of upr. 2 Cor 11:15; Pol 5:2; μισθός δ. D 5:2; B 20:2; μέρος δ. portion in (eternal salvation) which is meant for righteousness ApPt Rainer 6; καρπὸς δικαιοσύνης (Pr 3:9; 11:30; 13:2) produce of uprightness (ApcSed 12:5) Phil 1:11; Hb 12:11; Js 3:18; Hs 9, 19, 2; GJs 6:3. ὁ τῆς δ. στέφανος the crown of upr. (w. which the upright are adorned; cp. TestLevi 8:2; Rtzst., Mysterienrel.3 258; a common theme in honorary ins recognizing distinguished public service, s. indexes SIG, OGI and other ins corpora; Danker, Benefactor 345–47; s. also the boast of Augustus, s.v. δίκαιος 1aα) 2 Ti 4:8; cp. ἡ τ. δικαιοσύνης δόξα the glory of upr. ending of Mk in the Freer ms. ln. 11f. Described as a characteristic to be taught and learned, because it depends on a knowledge of God’s will: κῆρυξ δ. preacher of upr. 2 Pt 2:5 (cp. Ar. 15:2 τῇ δ. τοῦ κηρύγματος). διδάσκειν δ. teach upr. (of Paul) 1 Cl 5:7. μέρος τι ἐκ τῆς δ. a portion of uprightness Hv 3, 1, 6; cp. 3, 6, 4; δ. μεγάλην ἐργάζεσθαι m 8:2.—ἐλέγχειν περὶ δικαιοσύνης convict w. regard to uprightness (of Jesus) J 16:8, 10 (s. WHatch, HTR 14, 1921, 103–5; HWindisch: Jülicher Festschr. 1927, 119f; HTribble, Rev. and Expos. 32, ’37, 269–80; BLindars, BRigaux Festschr., ’70, 275–85).
    ⓑ of specific action righteousness in the sense of fulfilling divine expectation not specifically expressed in ordinances (Orig., C. Cels. 7, 18, 39; Did., Gen. 188, 27: οἱ κατὰ δ. ζῶντες) Mt 3:15=ISm 1:1; of a superior type Mt 5:20 (s. JMoffatt, ET 13, 1902, 201–6, OOlevieri, Biblica 5, 1924, 201ff; Betz, SM 190f); not to win plaudits 6:1. To please outsiders as well as oneself 2 Cl 13:1. W. characteristic restriction of mng. mercy, charitableness (cp. Tob 12:9) of God, whose concern for the poor 2 Cor 9:9 (Ps 111:9) is exemplary for the recipients of the letter vs. 10; participation in such activity belongs, according to Mt 6:1f (cp. δίκαιος 1:19: Joseph combines justice and mercy), to the practice of piety (on the development of the word’s mng. in this direction s. Bousset, Rel.3 380). Pl. (B-D-F §142; W-S. §27, 4d; Rob. 408 δικαιοσύναι righteous deeds (Ezk 3:20; 33:13; Da 9:18) 2 Cl 6:9. δικαιοσύναι righteous deeds (Ezk 3:20; 33:13; Da 9:18; TestAbr A 12 p. 91, 12 [Stone p. 30]) 2 Cl 6:9. ἀρετὴ δικαιοσύνης Hm 1:2; Hs 6, 1, 4; cp. 8, 10, 3.
    ⓒ uprightness as determined by divine/legal standards δ. θεοῦ upr. that meets God’s standard Js 1:20 (W-S. 30, §7g).—Ro 10:5; Gal 2:21; 3:21; Phil 3:6; 3:9.—ASchmitt, Δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ: JGeffcken Festschr. ’31, 111–31; FHellegers, D. Gerechtigkeit Gottes im Rö., diss. Tüb. ’39; AOepke, TLZ 78, ’53, 257–64.—Dodd 42–59; ADescamps, Studia Hellenistica, ’48, 69–92.—S. also JRopes, Righteousness in the OT and in St. Paul: JBL 22, 1903, 211ff; JGerretsen, Rechtvaardigmaking bij Pls 1905; GottfrKittel, StKr 80, 1907, 217–33; ETobac, Le problème de la Justification dans S. Paul 1908; EDobschütz, Über d. paul. Rechtfertigungslehre: StKr 85, 1912, 38–87; GWetter, D. Vergeltungsged. b. Pls 1912, 161ff; BWestcott, St. Paul and Justification 1913; WMacholz, StKr 88, 1915, 29ff; EBurton ICC, Gal. 1921, 460–74; WMichaelis, Rechtf. aus Glauben b. Pls: Deissmann Festschr. 1927, 116–38; ELohmeyer, Grundlagen d. paul. Theologie 1929, 52ff; HBraun, Gerichtsged. u. Rechtfertigungslehre b. Pls. 1930; OZänker, Δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ b. Pls: ZST 9, ’32, 398–420; FFilson, St. P.’s Conception of Recompense ’31; WGrundmann, ZNW 32, ’33, 52–65; H-DWendland, D. Mitte der paul. Botschaft ’35; RGyllenberg, D. paul. Rechtfertigungslehre u. das AT: Studia Theologica (Riga) I ’35, 35–52; HJager, Rechtvaardiging en zekerheid des geloofs (Ro 1:16f; 3:21–5:11) ’39; HHofer, D. Rechtfertigungsverk. des Pls nach neuerer Forschg. ’40; VTaylor, Forgiveness and Reconciliation ’41; RBultmann, Theologie des NT ’48, 266–80, Eng. tr. KGrobel ’51, I 270–85; SSchulz, ZTK 56, ’59, 155–85 (Qumran and Paul); CMüller, FRL 86, ’64 (Ro 9–11); JBecker, Das Heil Gottes, ’64; PStuhlmacher, Gerechtigkeit Gottes b. Paulus, ’65; JReumann, Int 20, ’66, 432–52 (Ro 3:21–31); HBraun, Qumran II, ’66, 165–80; JZiesler, The Mng. of Righteousness in Paul, ’72; ESanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, ’77 (s. index 625; appendix by MBrauch 523–42 rev. of discussions in Germany); SWilliams, JBL 99, ’80, 241–90.—CPerella, De justificatione sec. Hb: Biblica 14, ’33, 1–21; 150–69. S. also the lit. on πίστις and ἁμαρτία.—On the whole word s. RAC X 233–360; AKöberle, Rechtfertigung u. Heiligung 1930; EDNT I 325–30.—DELG s.v. δίκη. M-M. EDNT.TW. Sv.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > δικαιοσύνη

  • 23 wąt|ek

    m (G wątku) 1. Włók. (układ nici) weft, woof, filling US; (przędza) wefts pl, weft threads pl 2. przen., książk. (temat) (dyskusji, rozmowy) thread; (myśli) train, strand
    - główny wątek konferencji the keynote a. main topic of the conference
    - nie będę rozwijać tego wątku I won’t continue with this train of thought
    - podjąć wątek czegoś to pick up the thread of sth [rozmowy, wykładu]
    - wrócił do przerwanego wątku he picked up the thread where he left off
    - wątek przewijający się przez/łączący wszystkie przemówienia a common thread running through a. a recurring theme of all the speeches
    - w śledztwie pojawiły się nowe wątki there are new leads in the investigation
    3. (motyw) (powieści, filmu) motive, theme
    - wątki ludowe/mitologiczne/zdobnicze folk/mythological/ornamental motifs
    - wątki fabuły threads a. strands of the plot
    - wątek główny the main a. central theme
    - wątek poboczny a subplot, an underplot
    - wątek miłosny a love interest
    - film oparty a. osnuty na wątkach biblijnych a film based on biblical themes
    - w jego powieściach przewijają się cztery zasadnicze wątki there are four main themes to his novels

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > wąt|ek

  • 24 regrouper

    regrouper [ʀ(ə)gʀupe]
    ➭ TABLE 1
    1. transitive verb
    [+ objets, industries, partis, parcelles] to group together ; [+ pièces de collection] to bring together ; [+ territoires] to consolidate ; [+ services, classes] to merge
    2. reflexive verb
       a. ( = se réunir) [personnes] to gather ; [entreprises] to group together
       b. [coureurs] to bunch together again ; [rugbymen] to form a loose scrum
    * * *
    ʀ(ə)gʀupe
    1.
    1) ( mettre ensemble) to group [something] together [objets, mots, services, terrains]; to bring [something] together [personnes]; to pool [intérêts]; ( amalgamer) to merge
    2) ( remettre ensemble) to reassemble [élèves]; to rally [partisans, armée]; to regroup [parti]; to round up [animaux]

    2.
    se regrouper verbe pronominal
    1) ( se mettre ensemble) [groupes, entreprises] to group together; [mécontents] to gather (together)
    2) ( se remettre ensemble) [personnes] to regroup; [coureurs] to bunch together again
    * * *
    ʀ(ə)ɡʀupe vt
    1) (= grouper) to group together

    Nous avons regroupé les enfants suivant leur âge. — We grouped the children together according to age.

    2) (= contenir) to include, to comprise
    * * *
    regrouper verb table: aimer
    A vtr
    1 ( mettre ensemble) to group [sth] together [objets, mots, services, terrains]; to bring [sth] together [personnes]; to group [sth] together, to consolidate [provinces, territoires]; to pool [intérêts]; ( amalgamer) to merge; l'exposition regroupe vingt tableaux de Monet the exhibition brings together twenty Monets; regrouper deux chapitres en un seul to merge two chapters into one; les trois écoles regroupent 3 000 élèves the three schools have a combined roll of 3,000 pupils; questions regroupées autour d'un thème questions based on a theme;
    2 ( remettre ensemble) to reassemble [élèves]; to rally [partisans, armée]; to regroup [parti]; to round up [animaux].
    1 ( se mettre ensemble) [groupes, entreprises] to group together; [mécontents] to gather (together) (autour de around; derrière behind); se regrouper en association to form an association;
    2 ( se remettre ensemble) [personnes] to regroup; [coureurs] to bunch together again.
    [rəgrupe] verbe transitif
    1. [rassembler] to bring together (separable), to group ou to gather together (separable)
    2. [contenir] to contain
    ————————
    se regrouper verbe pronominal intransitif
    1. [institutions] to group together
    [foule] to gather
    les sociétés se sont regroupées pour mieux faire face à la concurrence the companies have joined forces to deal more effectively with the competition

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > regrouper

  • 25 Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard (Le Corbusier)

    [br]
    b. 6 October 1887 La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland
    d. 27 August 1965 Cap Martin, France
    [br]
    Swiss/French architect.
    [br]
    The name of Le Corbusier is synonymous with the International style of modern architecture and city planning, one utilizing functionalist designs carried out in twentieth-century materials with modern methods of construction. Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, born in the watch-making town of La Chaux-de-Fonds in the Jura mountain region, was the son of a watch engraver and dial painter. In the years before 1918 he travelled widely, studying building in many countries. He learned about the use of reinforced concrete in the studio of Auguste Perret and about industrial construction under Peter Behrens. In 1917 he went to live in Paris and spent the rest of his life in France; in 1920 he adopted the name of Le Corbusier, one derived from that of his ancestors (Le Corbesier), and ten years later became a French citizen.
    Le Corbusier's long working life spanned a career divided into three distinct parts. Between 1905 and 1916 he designed a number of simple and increasingly modern houses; the years 1921 to 1940 were ones of research and debate; and the twenty years from 1945 saw the blossoming of his genius. After 1917 Le Corbusier gained a reputation in Paris as an architect of advanced originality. He was particularly interested in low-cost housing and in improving accommodation for the poor. In 1923 he published Vers une architecture, in which he planned estates of mass-produced houses where all extraneous and unnecessary features were stripped away and the houses had flat roofs and plain walls: his concept of "a machine for living in". These white boxes were lifted up on stilts, his pilotis, and double-height living space was provided internally, enclosed by large areas of factory glazing. In 1922 Le Corbusier exhibited a city plan, La Ville contemporaine, in which tall blocks made from steel and concrete were set amongst large areas of parkland, replacing the older concept of city slums with the light and air of modern living. In 1925 he published Urbanisme, further developing his socialist ideals. These constituted a major reform of the industrial-city pattern, but the ideas were not taken up at that time. The Depression years of the 1930s severely curtailed architectural activity in France. Le Corbusier designed houses for the wealthy there, but most of his work prior to 1945 was overseas: his Centrosoyus Administration Building in Moscow (1929–36) and the Ministry of Education Building in Rio de Janeiro (1943) are examples. Immediately after the end of the Second World War Le Corbusier won international fame for his Unité d'habitation theme, the first example of which was built in the boulevard Michelet in Marseille in 1947–52. His answer to the problem of accommodating large numbers of people in a small space at low cost was to construct an immense all-purpose block of pre-cast concrete slabs carried on a row of massive central supports. The Marseille Unité contains 350 apartments in eight double storeys, with a storey for shops half-way up and communal facilities on the roof. In 1950 he published Le Modular, which described a system of measurement based upon the human male figure. From this was derived a relationship of human and mathematical proportions; this concept, together with the extensive use of various forms of concrete, was fundamental to Le Corbusier's later work. In the world-famous and highly personal Pilgrimage Church of Notre Dame du Haut at Ronchamp (1950–5), Le Corbusier's work was in Expressionist form, a plastic design in massive rough-cast concrete, its interior brilliantly designed and lit. His other equally famous, though less popular, ecclesiastical commission showed a contrasting theme, of "brutalist" concrete construction with uncompromisingly stark, rectangular forms. This is the Dominican Convent of Sainte Marie de la Tourette at Eveux-sur-l'Arbresle near Lyon, begun in 1956. The interior, in particular, is carefully worked out, and the lighting, from both natural and artificial sources, is indirect, angled in many directions to illuminate vistas and planes. All surfaces are carefully sloped, the angles meticulously calculated to give optimum visual effect. The crypt, below the raised choir, is painted in bright colours and lit from ceiling oculi.
    One of Le Corbusier's late works, the Convent is a tour de force.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Honorary Doctorate Zurich University 1933. Honorary Member RIBA 1937. Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur 1937. American Institute of Architects Gold Medal 1961. Honorary Degree University of Geneva 1964.
    Bibliography
    His chief publications, all of which have been numerously reprinted and translated, are: 1923, Vers une architecture.
    1935, La Ville radieuse.
    1946, Propos d'urbanisme.
    1950, Le Modular.
    Further Reading
    P.Blake, 1963, Le Corbusier: Architecture and Form, Penguin. R.Furneaux-Jordan, 1972, Le Corbusier, Dent.
    W.Boesiger, 1970, Le Corbusier, 8 vols, Thames and Hudson.
    ——1987, Le Corbusier: Architect of the Century, Arts Council of Great Britain.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Jeanneret, Charles-Edouard (Le Corbusier)

  • 26 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 27 nach

    I Präp. (+ Dat)
    1. räumlich: to; (bestimmt nach) for, bound for; Richtung: auch toward(s); nach außen outward(s); nach rechts to the right; nach unten down; im Haus: downstairs; nach oben up; im Haus: upstairs; nach England reisen go to England; nach England abreisen leave for England; der Zug nach London the train to London; das Schiff fährt nach Australien is bound for ( oder is going to) Australia; nach Hause home; das Zimmer geht nach hinten / vorn hinaus the room faces the back / front; der Balkon geht nach Süden the balcony faces south; Balkon nach Süden south-facing balcony; wir fahren nach Norden we’re travel(l)ing north ( oder northward[s]); bei bestimmten Verben: die Blume richtet sich nach der Sonne the flower turns toward(s) the sun; nach dem Arzt schicken send for the doctor; nach dem Messer greifen grab for the knife
    2. zeitlich: after; fünf ( Minuten) nach eins five (minutes) past (Am. auch after) one; nach zehn Minuten ten minutes later; nach einer Stunde von jetzt an: in an hour(‘s time); nach Ankunft / Erhalt on arrival (receipt)
    3. Reihenfolge: after; einer nach dem anderen one by one, one after the other; der Reihe nach in turn; der Reihe nach! take (it in) turns!, one after the other!; der Größe nach by ( oder according to) size; nach Hauptmann kommt Major major comes after captain; nach ihm kommt lange keiner fig. he’s in a class of his own, he’s streets ahead of the rest
    4. (entsprechend) according to; siehe auch gemäß; nach dem, was er sagte auch going by what he said; nach Ansicht (+ Gen) in ( oder according to) the opinion of; nach meiner Ansicht oder meiner Ansicht nach in my opinion; nach Gewicht verkaufen sell by weight; nach Bedarf as required; seine Uhr nach dem Radio etc. stellen set one’s watch by the radio etc.; wenn es nach mir ginge if I had my way; dem Namen nach by name; seinem Namen / Akzent etc. nach judging oder going by his name / accent etc.; Rehbraten nach Art des Hauses roast venison а la maison; Sauerbraten nach rheinischer Art braised beef marinated in vinegar (Am. sauerbraten) in the Rhenish style; sie kommt ganz nach der Mutter she’s just like her mother; nach Musik tanzen etc.: to music; nach Noten from music; nach Vorlage zeichnen draw from a pattern; eine Geschichte nach dem Leben a story taken from real life; es ist nicht nach i-m Geschmack it’s not to her taste; seinem Wesen nach ist er eher ruhig if anything he is quiet by nature; riechen / schmecken nach smell (taste) of; nach seiner Weise in his usual way; nach Shakespeare according to Shakespeare; frei nach Heine freely adapted from Heine; nach bestem Wissen to the best of one’s knowledge; nach Stunden / Dollar etc. gerechnet in (terms of) hours / dollars etc.; 3 Pfund sind etwa 5 Euro nach unserem Geld 3 pounds is about 5 euros in our money; Ermessen, Meinung etc.
    5. nach jemandem fragen ask for s.o.; die Suche nach dem Glück etc. the pursuit of ( oder search for) happiness etc.
    6. Dial.: nach dem Süden fahren go south; nach Oma gehen go to grandma’s
    II Adv. after; mir nach! follow me!; nach und nach gradually, bit by bit, Am. auch little by little; nach wie vor still, as ever
    * * *
    after (Adv.);
    (Reihenfolge) after (Präp.);
    (Richtung) unto (Präp.); at (Präp.); for (Präp.); to (Präp.); towards (Präp.); bound for (Präp.);
    (Uhrzeit) past (Präp.);
    (gemäß) acc. (Präp.); according to (Präp.)
    * * *
    [naːx]
    1. prep +dat
    1) (örtlich) to

    das Schiff/der Zug fährt nách Kiel — the boat/train is bound for Kiel, the boat/train is going to Kiel

    er ist schon nách London abgefahren — he has already left for London

    nách Osten — eastward(s), to the east

    nách Westen — westward(s), to the west

    von Osten nách Westen — from (the) east to (the) west

    nách links/rechts — (to the) left/right

    von links nách rechts — from (the) left to (the) right

    nách jeder Richtung, nách allen Richtungen (lit) — in all directions; (fig) on all sides

    nách hinten/vorn — to the back/front; (in Wagen/Zug etc auch) to the rear/front

    nách... zu — towards... (Brit), toward... (US)

    nách Norden zu or hin — to(wards) the north

    2)

    (in Verbindung mit vb siehe auch dort) nách jdm/etw suchen — to look for sb/sth

    sich nách etw sehnen — to long for sth

    nách etw schmecken/riechen — to taste/smell of sth

    3) (zeitlich) after

    fünf (Minuten) nách drei — five (minutes) past or after (US) three

    nách Christi Geburt, nách unserer Zeitrechnung — AD, anno Domini (form)

    sie kam nách zehn Minuten — she came ten minutes later, she came after ten minutes

    nách zehn Minuten war sie wieder da — she was back in ten minutes, she was back ten minutes later

    nách zehn Minuten wurde ich schon unruhig — after ten minutes I was getting worried

    was wird man nách zehn Jahren über ihn sagen? — what will people be saying about him in ten years or in ten years' time?

    nách Empfang or Erhalt or Eingang — on receipt

    drei Tage nách Empfang — three days after receipt

    nách allem, was geschehen ist — after all that has happened

    4) (Reihenfolge) after

    eine(r, s) nách dem/der anderen — one after another or the other

    die dritte Straße nách dem Rathaus — the third road after or past the town hall

    ich komme nách Ihnen! — I'm or I come after you

    (bitte) nách Ihnen! — after you!

    der Leutnant kommt nách dem Major (inf) — a lieutenant comes after a major

    nách "mit" steht der Dativ — " mit" is followed by or takes the dative

    5) (= laut, entsprechend) according to; (= im Einklang mit) in accordance with

    nách dem Gesetz, dem Gesetz nách — according to the law

    nách römischem Gesetz — according to or under Roman law

    nách Artikel 142c — under article 142c

    manche Arbeiter werden nách Zeit, andere nách Leistung bezahlt — some workers are paid by the hour, others according to productivity

    etw nách Gewicht kaufen — to buy sth by weight

    nách Verfassern/Gedichtanfängen — in order of or according to authors/first lines

    die Uhr nách dem Radio stellen — to put a clock right by the radio

    seinem Wesen or seiner Natur nách ist er sehr sanft — he's very gentle by nature

    seiner Veranlagung nách hätte er Musiker werden sollen — with his temperament he should have been a musician

    ihrer Sprache nách (zu urteilen) — from her language, judging by her language

    nách dem, was er gesagt hat — from what he's said, according to what he's said

    nách allem, was ich gehört habe — from what I've heard

    nách allem, was ich weiß — as far as I know

    Knödel nách schwäbischer Art — Swabian dumplings

    6) (= angelehnt an) after

    nách dem Russischen — after the Russian

    nách einem Gedicht von Schiller — after a poem by Schiller

    7)

    er wurde nách seinem Großvater genannt — he was named after (Brit) or for (US) his grandfather

    2. adv
    1)

    (räumlich) mir nách! (old, liter) — follow me!

    2)

    (zeitlich) nách und nách — little by little, gradually

    nách wie vor —

    wir treffen uns nách wie vor im "Goldenen Handschuh" — we still meet in the "Golden Glove" as always

    * * *
    1) (in the order of: books arranged according to their subjects.) according to
    2) (in proportion to: You will be paid according to the amount of work you have done.) according to
    3) (later in time or place than: After the car came a bus.) after
    4) (following (often indicating repetition): one thing after another; night after night.) after
    5) (considering: After all I've done you'd think he'd thank me; It's sad to fail after all that work.) after
    6) ((American: in telling the time) past: It's a quarter after ten.) after
    7) (to the place mentioned: I'll come along in five minutes.) along
    8) at
    9) (towards; in the direction of: We set off for London.) for
    10) (in order to have, get, be etc: He asked me for some money; Go for a walk.) for
    11) (closest to: In height, George comes next to me.) next to
    12) (after: It's past six o'clock.) past
    13) (after: The child became ill subsequent to receiving an injection against measles.) subsequent to
    * * *
    [na:x]
    I. präp + dat
    ▪ \nach etw:
    die Küche geht \nach dem Garten/der Straße the kitchen looks out over [or on] the garden/faces the street
    ein Zimmer mit Fenstern \nach dem Garten/der Straße a room overlooking the garden/street
    \nach Norden/Westen gehen to go north/west; s.a. außen, da, dort, hier, hinten, innen, links, oben, rechts, unten, vorn
    2. (als Ziel)
    ▪ \nach etw to sth
    der Weg führt direkt \nach Rom this is the way to Rome
    der Zug \nach Bonn the train for Bonn, the Bonn train
    \nach etw abreisen to leave for sth; s.a. Haus
    ▪ \nach etw after sth
    \nach nur wenigen Minuten after only a few minutes, only a few minutes later
    \nach Ablauf der Verlängerung after [or on] expiry of the extension, at the end of the extension
    20 [Minuten] \nach 10 20 [minutes] past 10
    wird der Baum noch \nach 100 Jahren stehen? will the tree still be standing in a hundred years' time?
    \nach allem, was... after all that...; s.a. Christus
    ▪ etw \nach etw sth after sth
    Schritt \nach Schritt step by step, little by little
    ▪ \nach jdm/etw after sb/sth
    das Museum kommt \nach der Post the museum is after [or past] the post office
    der Leutnant kommt \nach dem Oberst lieutenant ranks lower than colonel
    du stehst \nach mir auf der Liste you're [or you come] after me on the list
    eins \nach dem ander[e]n first things first
    [bitte,] \nach dir/Ihnen! after you!
    6. (gemäß)
    ▪ \nach etw according to sth
    \nach Artikel 23/den geltenden Vorschriften under article 23/present regulations
    \nach allem [o dem], was... from what...
    \nach allem, was ich gehört habe from what I've heard
    \nach dem, was wir jetzt wissen as far as we know
    aller Wahrscheinlichkeit \nach in all probability
    dem Gesetz \nach by law
    etw \nach dem Gewicht/der Größe \nach sortieren to sort sth by [or according to] weight/size
    \nach Lage der Dinge as matters stand
    \nach menschlichem Ermessen as far as one can tell
    [ganz] \nach Wunsch [just] as you wish
    ▪ jds... \nach [o \nach jds...] judging by sb's...
    meiner Ansicht/Meinung \nach in my view/opinion
    \nach meiner Erinnerung as I remember [or recall] it
    \nach Meinung von Experten according to experts; s.a. Art
    ▪ \nach etw:
    \nach einer Erzählung von Poe after [or based on] a story by Poe
    eine Erzählung \nach dem Arbeitsleben a tale from [or based on] working life
    ein Gemälde \nach einem alten Meister a painting in the manner of an old master
    ein Werk \nach einem Thema von Bach a piece on a theme by Bach
    dem Sinn \nach hat er gesagt, dass... the sense of his words were that...
    Ihrem Akzent \nach sind Sie Schotte I hear from your accent [or your accent tells me] that you're from Scotland
    das kostet ungefähr 2 Euro nach unsrem Geld it costs about 2 euros in our money
    \nach etw geformt formed after sth
    [frei] \nach Goethe [freely] adapted from Goethe
    etw \nach Litern/Metern messen to measure sth in litres/metres
    \nach der neuesten Mode in [accordance with] the latest fashion
    jdn dem Namen \nach kennen to know sb by name
    \nach Plan according to plan
    \nach etw riechen/schmecken to smell/taste of sth
    der Sage \nach [o \nach der Sage] according to the legend
    \nach einer Vorlage from an original
    jds Wesen \nach judging from sb's character, by nature; s.a. Gedächtnis, Maß
    ▪ \nach jdm/etw to sb/sth
    \nach der Bahn gehen to go to the station
    \nach dem Osten/Süden fahren to go [to the] east/south
    \nach jdm fragen/rufen/schicken to ask/call/send for sb
    \nach wem hat er gefragt? who was he asking for?
    \nach etw greifen/streben/suchen to reach/strive/look for sth
    wo\nach [o (fam) \nach was] suchst du? what are you looking for?
    er hat erreicht, wo\nach [o (fam) \nach was] er gestrebt hat he has achieved what he has been striving for
    II. adv
    ihm \nach! after him!; (an Hund a.) sic 'im! fam
    mir \nach! follow me!
    da kann man nicht \nach gehen you can't go there
    3.
    ▶ \nach und \nach gradually, little by little
    ▶ \nach wie vor still
    ich halte \nach wie vor an meiner Überzeugung fest I remain convinced
    * * *
    1.

    sich nach vorn/hinten beugen — bend forwards/backwards

    nach links/rechts — to the left/right

    nach Osten [zu] — eastwards; [towards the] east

    nach außen/innen — outwards/inwards

    ich bringe den Abfall nach draußen — I am taking the rubbish outside

    2) (zeitlich) after

    zehn [Minuten] nach zwei — ten [minutes] past two

    3)

    nach fünf Minuten — after five minutes; five minutes later

    4) (mit bestimmten Verben, bezeichnet das Ziel der Handlung) for
    5) (bezeichnet [räumliche und zeitliche] Reihenfolge) after
    6) (gemäß) according to

    nach meiner Ansicht od. Meinung, meiner Ansicht od. Meinung nach — in my view or opinion

    [frei] nach Goethe — [freely] adapted from Goethe

    nach der neuesten Mode gekleidet — dressed in [accordance with] the latest fashion

    nach etwas schmecken/riechen — taste/smell of something

    sie kommt eher nach dem Vater — (ugs.) she takes more after her father

    dem Gesetz nach — in accordance with the law; by law

    2.

    [alle] mir nach! — [everybody] follow me!

    nach und nach — little by little; gradually

    nach wie vor — still; as always

    * * *
    A. präp (+dat)
    1. räumlich: to; (bestimmt nach) for, bound for; Richtung: auch toward(s);
    nach außen outward(s);
    nach rechts to the right;
    nach unten down; im Haus: downstairs;
    nach oben up; im Haus: upstairs;
    nach England reisen go to England;
    nach England abreisen leave for England;
    der Zug nach London the train to London;
    fährt nach Australien is bound for ( oder is going to) Australia;
    das Zimmer geht nach hinten/vorn hinaus the room faces the back/front;
    der Balkon geht nach Süden the balcony faces south;
    Balkon nach Süden south-facing balcony;
    wir fahren nach Norden we’re travel(l)ing north ( oder northward[s]); bei bestimmten Verben:
    die Blume richtet sich nach der Sonne the flower turns toward(s) the sun;
    nach dem Arzt schicken send for the doctor;
    nach dem Messer greifen grab for the knife
    2. zeitlich: after;
    fünf (Minuten) nach eins five (minutes) past (US auch after) one;
    nach zehn Minuten ten minutes later;
    nach einer Stunde von jetzt an: in an hour(’s time);
    nach Ankunft/Erhalt on arrival (receipt)
    3. Reihenfolge: after;
    einer nach dem anderen one by one, one after the other;
    der Reihe nach in turn;
    der Reihe nach! take (it in) turns!, one after the other!;
    der Größe nach by ( oder according to) size;
    nach Hauptmann kommt Major major comes after captain;
    nach ihm kommt lange keiner fig he’s in a class of his own, he’s streets ahead of the rest
    4. (entsprechend) according to; → auch gemäß;
    nach dem, was er sagte auch going by what he said;
    nach Ansicht (+gen) in ( oder according to) the opinion of;
    meiner Ansicht nach in my opinion;
    nach Gewicht verkaufen sell by weight;
    nach Bedarf as required;
    stellen set one’s watch by the radio etc;
    wenn es nach mir ginge if I had my way;
    dem Namen nach by name;
    seinem Namen/Akzent etc
    nach judging oder going by his name/accent etc;
    Rehbraten nach Art des Hauses roast venison à la maison;
    Sauerbraten nach rheinischer Art braised beef marinated in vinegar (US sauerbraten) in the Rhenish style;
    sie kommt ganz nach der Mutter she’s just like her mother;
    nach Musik tanzen etc: to music;
    nach Noten from music;
    nach Vorlage zeichnen draw from a pattern;
    eine Geschichte nach dem Leben a story taken from real life;
    es ist nicht nach i-m Geschmack it’s not to her taste;
    seinem Wesen nach ist er eher ruhig if anything he is quiet by nature;
    riechen/schmecken nach smell (taste) of;
    nach seiner Weise in his usual way;
    nach Shakespeare according to Shakespeare;
    frei nach Heine freely adapted from Heine;
    nach bestem Wissen to the best of one’s knowledge;
    nach Stunden/Dollar etc
    gerechnet in (terms of) hours/dollars etc;
    3 Pfund sind etwa 5 Euro nach unserem Geld 3 pounds is about 5 euros in our money; → Ermessen, Meinung etc
    5.
    die Suche nach dem Glück etc the pursuit of ( oder search for) happiness etc
    6. dial:
    nach Oma gehen go to grandma’s
    B. adv after;
    mir nach! follow me!;
    nach und nach gradually, bit by bit, US auch little by little;
    nach wie vor still, as ever
    * * *
    1.

    sich nach vorn/hinten beugen — bend forwards/backwards

    nach links/rechts — to the left/right

    nach Osten [zu] — eastwards; [towards the] east

    nach außen/innen — outwards/inwards

    2) (zeitlich) after

    zehn [Minuten] nach zwei — ten [minutes] past two

    3)

    nach fünf Minuten — after five minutes; five minutes later

    4) (mit bestimmten Verben, bezeichnet das Ziel der Handlung) for
    5) (bezeichnet [räumliche und zeitliche] Reihenfolge) after
    6) (gemäß) according to

    nach meiner Ansicht od. Meinung, meiner Ansicht od. Meinung nach — in my view or opinion

    [frei] nach Goethe — [freely] adapted from Goethe

    nach der neuesten Mode gekleidet — dressed in [accordance with] the latest fashion

    nach etwas schmecken/riechen — taste/smell of something

    sie kommt eher nach dem Vater — (ugs.) she takes more after her father

    dem Gesetz nach — in accordance with the law; by law

    2.

    [alle] mir nach! — [everybody] follow me!

    nach und nach — little by little; gradually

    nach wie vor — still; as always

    * * *
    konj.
    for conj. präp.
    according to prep.
    after prep.
    to prep.
    towards prep.

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > nach

  • 28 articuler

    articuler [aʀtikyle]
    ➭ TABLE 1
    1. transitive verb
       a. [+ mot] ( = prononcer clairement) to articulate ; ( = dire) to pronounce
    • articule ! speak clearly!
       b. ( = joindre) [+ idées] to link
    2. reflexive verb
    * * *
    aʀtikyle
    1.
    1) ( prononcer) to articulate [mot, son]; to utter [phrase]
    2) ( assembler) to connect [pièce] ( sur to)
    3) ( structurer) to structure [idées, discours]

    2.
    s'articuler verbe pronominal

    s'articuler à or avec — to articulate with

    s'articuler à or sur — to connect to

    3) fig
    * * *
    aʀtikyle vt
    1) (en prononçant) to articulate
    2) TECHNIQUE to articulate
    * * *
    articuler verb table: aimer
    A vtr
    1 ( prononcer) to articulate [mot, phonème, son]; to utter [phrase]; articule quand tu parles! speak clearly!;
    2 Mécan ( assembler) to connect [pièce] (sur to);
    3 ( structurer) to structure [idées, discours]; j'ai articulé mon discours/le débat autour de deux thèmes I structured my speech/the discussion around two themes.
    1 Anat s'articuler à or avec [os] to articulate with [os];
    2 Mécan s'articuler à or sur [pièce] to connect to [axe];
    3 ( être structuré) s'articuler autour de [débat, action] to be based on [idées, thème].
    [artikyle] verbe transitif
    1. [prononcer] to articulate
    articule, je ne comprends rien speak more clearly, I don't understand
    2. [dire] to utter
    3. [enchaîner - démonstration, thèse] to link up ou together (separable) ; [ - faits] to connect
    5. DROIT [accusations] to enumerate, to set forth ou out (separable)
    ————————
    s'articuler autour de verbe pronominal plus préposition
    to hinge ou to turn on
    ————————
    s'articuler sur verbe pronominal plus préposition
    ANATOMIE & MÉCANIQUE & ZOOLOGIE to be articulated ou jointed with

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > articuler

  • 29 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 30 EXPO '98

       Portugal's world's fair, held from May to October 1998, set in Lisbon. Designed to commemorate and celebrate the 500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's 1498 discovery of an all-water route to India, this was an ambitious undertaking for a small country with a developing economy. The setting of the exposition was remote eastern Lisbon, along the banks of the Tagus estuary. To facilitate logistics, Portugal opened a new Metro station (Oriente) for the Expo and the new Vasco da Gama Bridge, just northeast of the site. More than 10 million visitors, many of them from abroad but a large proportion from Spain and Portugal, arrived at the site by Metro, bus, taxi, or car and were guided by signs in three languages: Portuguese, Spanish, and English. To the dismay of Francophones, the choice of English and Spanish reflected both the nature of the globalization process and Portugal's growing connections with Europe and the wider world.
       The theme of Expo '98 was "The Oceans, Heritage for the Future," and the official mascot-symbol was "Gil," a cartoon characterization of a drop of ocean water, based on the suggestion of schoolchildren from the small town of Barrancos. Somewhat in the spirit of Disney's Mickey Mouse, "Gil" reflected cheeriness, but his message was serious, alerting the public to the fact that the oceans were endangered and fresh drinking water increasingly in short supply for a burgeoning world population. Among the outstanding structures at Expo '98 was the Pavilion of Portugal, designed by Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza Vieira, and the Pavilion of the Oceans or the Oceanarium (which remained open to the public after the exposition closed), which was designed by an American architect.
       Despite the general success of the fair, critics gave mixed reviews to the historic commemoration of the Discoveries facets of the effort. No vessel from Vasco da Gama's 1497-99 famous voyage was reproduced at the fair's dockside exhibit—although there was a 19th-century sailing vessel and a reproduction of one of the vessels from Christopher Columbus's first voyage, constructed by Portuguese in Madeira—nor was there much else on Vasco da Gama in the Pavilion of Portugal. Instead, visitors were impressed with a multimedia show based on knowledge of a Portuguese shipwreck, a 17th-century nau, found by archaeologists in recent years. The sound and light show in this lovely space was magnificent. The most popular exhibits were the Oceanarium and the Utopia Pavilion, where lines could be hours long. Despite the fact that Expo '98 made only a weak effort to attract visitors from outside Europe, the general consensus was that it was a successful enterprise, unique in Portugal's record of historic and contemporary expositions since 1940.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > EXPO '98

  • 31 motyw

    m (G motywu) 1. (powód) motive (czegoś for sth) 2. Szt. motif, motive
    - dekoracyjny/roślinny motyw a decorative/plant-like motif
    - z motywem liści/róży with a leaf/rose motif
    3. Literat. motif
    - motyw czarodziejskiego instrumentu a motif of an enchanted instrument
    - film na motywach powieści a film based on a novel
    4. Muz. motif
    - □ motyw przewodni Literat., Muz. leitmotif a. leitmotiv
    * * *
    - wu; -wy; loc sg - wie; m
    (postępowania, zbrodni) motive; (utworu, kompozycji) motif

    motyw przewodni — LIT leitmotiv, leitmotif

    * * *
    mi
    1. (= pobudka) motive; motyw działania driving force; motywy popełnienia przestępstwa motives of a crime; główny motyw leading l. main motive; ukryte motywy ulterior motives l. ends.
    2. (muzyczny, literacki) motif, theme; ( zdobniczy) motif, motive; motyw przewodni lit., muz. leitmotiv, leitmotif.

    The New English-Polish, Polish-English Kościuszko foundation dictionary > motyw

  • 32 detectiveverhaal

    n. detective novel, fictitious story based on a theme of detective work, whodunit novel

    Holandés-inglés dicionario > detectiveverhaal

  • 33 pono

    pōno, pŏsŭi (Plaut. posīvi), pŏsĭtum, 3 (old form of perf. POSEIVEI, Inscr. Orell. 3308:

    posivi,

    Plaut. Ps. 5, 1, 35: posivimus, id. Fragm. ap. Prisc. p. 898 P.:

    posiverunt, Cato, R. R. praef. 1: posiveris,

    id. ib. 4, 1; Plaut. Trin. 1, 2, 108: POSIER unt, Inscr. Orell. 5061:

    POSIT, contr. from posivit,

    ib. 71; 732; 1475; 3087 al.; part. perf. sync. postus, a, um, Lucr. 1, 1059; 3, 87; 6, 965), v. a. [for posno, posino, from old prep. port, = proti, pros, and sino; cf.: porricio, pollingo, etc., and v. pro, sino], to put or set down a person or thing, to put, place, set, lay, etc. (syn.: colloco, statuo); constr. with acc. alone, or with in and abl., or with adv. of place; sometimes with in and acc., or absol.; v. infra.
    I.
    Lit.
    A.
    In gen.:

    tabulas in aerario ponere,

    Caes. B. C. 3, 108:

    castra,

    to pitch, id. ib. 1, 65 fin.:

    castra iniquo loco,

    id. ib. 1, 81:

    milia passuum tria ab eorum castris castra ponit,

    id. B. G. 1, 22 fin.: qui indicabantur, in senatu sunt positi, Cic. Fragm. ap. Quint. 9, 3, 50:

    tabulas obsignatas in publico,

    Cic. Fl. 9, 21:

    sejuges in Capitolio aurati a P. Cornelio positi,

    Liv. 38, 35, 4:

    tyrannicidae imago in gymnasio ponatur,

    Quint. 7, 7, 5; cf. id. 1, 7, 12:

    collum in Pulvere,

    Hor. C. 4, 6, 11; cf.:

    artus in litore ponunt,

    Verg. A. 1, 173; and with simple abl.:

    saxo posuit latus,

    Val. Fl. 4, 378:

    in curulibus sellis sese posuerunt,

    seated themselves, Flor. 1, 13.—With in and acc.: hodierno die primum longo intervallo in possessionem libertatis pedem ponimus, Cic. Phil. 3, 11, 28 B. and K. (Klotz, possessione):

    Cyzici in Prytaneum vasa aurea mensae unius posuit,

    Liv. 41, 20, 7 Weissenb. ad loc.:

    stipes erat, quem... in flammam triplices posuere sorores,

    Ov. M. 8, 452:

    omnia pone feros in ignes,

    id. R. Am. 719:

    oleas in solem,

    Cato, R. R. 7:

    coronam in caput,

    Gell. 3, 15, 3.—With sub and abl.:

    pone sub curru nimium propinqui,

    Hor. C. 1, 22, 21:

    fundamenta,

    Vulg. 1 Esd. 6, 3:

    ubi pedem poneret non habebat,

    might set his foot, Cic. Fin. 4, 25, 69:

    genu or genua,

    to bow the knee, to kneel, Ov. F. 2, 438; 5, 507; Curt. 8, 7, 13:

    num genu posuit? num vocem supplicem misit?

    id. 4, 6, 28:

    oculos,

    to cast one's eyes on, Vulg. Jer. 24, 6:

    faciem,

    to turn one's face, id. ib. 42, 15.—
    B.
    In partic.
    1.
    In milit. lang., to place, post, set, station a body of troops:

    ibi praesidium ponit,

    Caes. B. G. 2, 5:

    praesidium ibi,

    id. B. C. 1, 47 fin.:

    legionem tuendae orae maritimae causā,

    id. ib. 3, 34:

    insidias contra aliquem,

    Cic. Agr. 2, 18, 49.—
    2.
    To set up, erect, build (mostly poet.):

    opus,

    Ov. M. 8, 160:

    templa,

    Verg. A. 6, 19:

    aras,

    id. ib. 3, 404:

    tropaeum,

    Nep. Dat. 8, 3; so,

    in inscrr., of erecting monuments of any kind: POSVIT, PONENDVM CVRAVIT (usu. abbreviated P. C.), etc.: columna rostrata quae est Duilio in foro posita,

    in honor of Duilius, Quint. 1, 7, 12.—
    3.
    Hence, poet., to form, fashion works of art:

    Alcimedon duo pocula fecit... Orpheaque in medio posuit,

    Verg. E. 3, 46:

    hic saxo liquidis ille coloribus Sollers nunc hominem ponere, nunc deum,

    Hor. C. 4, 8, 8.—
    4.
    To set, set out, plant trees, etc. ( poet. and in postAug. prose;

    syn.: planto, sero): pone ordine vites,

    Verg. E. 1, 74:

    vitem,

    Col. 4, 1; cf.:

    ille et nefasto te (arbor) posuit die,

    planted thee, Hor. C. 2, 13, 1.—
    5.
    To lay, stake, wager, as a forfeit; to lay down, propose, as a prize: pono pallium;

    Ille suum anulum opposuit,

    Plaut. Curc. 2, 3, 76:

    pocula fagina,

    Verg. E. 3, 36:

    invitat pretiis animos et praemia ponit,

    id. A. 5, 292:

    praemia,

    id. ib. 5, 486:

    praemium,

    Liv. 41, 23, 10.—
    6.
    In business lang., to put out at interest, to loan, to invest (less freq. than collocare): pecuniam in praedio ponere, Cic. Tull. § 15 Orell.; cf.:

    pecuniam apud aliquem,

    id. Verr. 2, 3, 70, § 165:

    dives positis in fenore nummis,

    Hor. A. P. 421:

    pecuniam Quaerit Kalendis ponere,

    id. Epod. 2, 70.—
    7.
    To place, set, appoint a person as a watch or guard, accuser, etc. (less freq. than apponere):

    Dumnorigi custodes ponit, ut, quae agat, scire possit,

    Caes. B. G. 1, 20 fin.:

    custos frumento publico est positus,

    Cic. Fl. 19, 45: alicui accusatorem, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 12, 3:

    puer super hoc positus officium,

    Petr. 56, 8.—
    8.
    To serve up, set before one at table (rare for the class. apponere), Cato, R. R. 79; so id. ib. 81:

    posito pavone,

    Hor. S. 2, 2, 23; 2, 4, 14; 2, 6, 64; 2, 8, 91; id. A. P. 422:

    positi Bacchi cornua,

    Ov. A. A. 1, 231:

    vinum,

    Petr. 34, 7:

    calidum scis ponere sumen,

    Pers. 1, 53:

    porcum,

    Mart. 8, 22, 1:

    da Trebio, pone ad Trebium,

    Juv. 5, 135.—
    9.
    To lay aside, take off, put down, lay down, etc. (as clothing, arms, books, the hair or beard, etc., = deponere):

    cum pila ludere vellet tunicamque poneret,

    Cic. Tusc. 5, 20, 60; cf.:

    veste positā,

    id. ib. 1, 47, 113:

    velamina,

    Ov. A. A. 2, 613; cf.:

    velamina de corpore,

    id. M. 4, 345:

    arma,

    Caes. B. G. 4, 37:

    sarcinam,

    Petr. 117, 11:

    barbam,

    Suet. Calig. 5; cf.:

    bicolor positis membrana capillis,

    Pers. 3, 10:

    libros de manibus,

    Cic. Q. Fr. 1, 1, 8, § 23; cf.:

    cum posui librum, et mecum ipse coepi cogitare,

    id. Tusc. 1, 11, 24.—
    10.
    To lay out for the grave:

    toroque Mortua componar, positaeque det oscula frater,

    Ov. M. 9, 503; Verg. A. 2, 644.—Also, to lay in the grave, to bury, inter ( poet. and in post-class. prose;

    syn.: sepelio, condo): corpore posto,

    Lucr. 3, 871:

    te... patriā decedens ponere terrā,

    Verg. A. 6, 508; Ov. F. 5, 480:

    ubi corpus meum positum fuerit,

    Dig. 34, 1, 18 fin.; Inscr. Orell. 4370:

    IN HAC CVPA MATER ET FILIVS POSITI SVNT,

    ib. 4550; 4495:

    HIC POSITVS EST, Inscr. in Boeckh. C. I. Gr. 4156: CINERES,

    Inscr. Orell. 4393; 4489.—
    11.
    Ponere calculum or calculos, transf., to weigh carefully, to ponder, consider:

    si bene calculum ponas,

    Petr. 115, 16:

    examina tecum, omnesque, quos ego movi, in utrāque parte calculos pone,

    Plin. Ep. 2, 19 fin. —
    12.
    To arrange, deck, set in order (cf. compono):

    qui suas ponunt in statione comas,

    Ov. A. A. 3, 434:

    quid totiens positas fingis, inepta, comas?

    id. ib. 1, 306; cf. id. H. 4, 77; id. M. 1, 477.—
    13.
    To subdue, calm, allay, quiet:

    quo non arbiter Hadriae Major, tollere seu ponere vult freta,

    Hor. C. 1, 3, 16:

    magnos cum ponunt aequora motus,

    Prop. 4 (5), 14, 31.—Hence, neutr., of the winds, to fall, abate ( poet. and late Lat.):

    cum venti posuere omnisque repente resedit Flatus,

    Verg. A. 7, 27:

    tum Zephyri posuere,

    id. ib. 10, 103:

    simul ac ventus posuit,

    Gell. 2, 30, 2.
    II.
    Trop.
    A.
    In gen., to set, place, put, lay a thing anywhere: noenum ponebat rumores ante salutem, Enn. ap. Macr. S. 6, 1 (Ann. v. 314 Vahl.):

    pone ante oculos laetitiam senatūs,

    Cic. Phil. 2, 45, 115:

    at te apud eum, di boni! quantā in gratiā posui,

    id. Att. 6, 6, 4; cf. id. ib. 5, 11, 6; 6, 1, 22: ponite me ei (Appio) in gratiā, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 6, 5:

    apud Lentulum ponam te in gratiā,

    Cic. Att. 5, 3, 3 B. and K. (Orell. gratiam):

    se quoque in gratiā reconciliatae pacis ponere,

    Liv. 44, 14, 7:

    in laude positus,

    Cic. Sest. 66, 139:

    aliquem in metu non ponere,

    i. e. not to fear, id. Top. 13, 55:

    virtutum fundamenta in voluptate tamquam in aquā ponere,

    id. Fin. 2, 22, 72; cf. id. Pis. 4, 9:

    aliquid in conspectu animi,

    id. de Or. 3, 40, 161; cf.:

    sub uno aspectu ponere,

    Q. Cic. Petit. Cons. 1, 1: ponendus est ille ambitus, non abiciendus, to lay down gently, i. e. close gracefully, Cic. Or. 59, 199:

    super cor,

    to lay to heart, Vulg. Mal. 2, 2.—With in and acc.:

    te in crimen populo ponat atque infamiam,

    Plaut. Trin. 3, 3, 11.—Elliptically: et quidem cum in mentem venit, ponor ad scribendum, when it occurs to Cœsar, he sets me (i. e. my name) to the Senate's decrees, Cic. Fam. 9, 15, 4.—
    B.
    In partic.
    1.
    Ponere aliquid in aliquā re, to put or place a thing in something, to cause a thing to rest or depend upon:

    credibile non est, quantum ego in consiliis et prudentiā tuā, quantum in amore et fide ponam,

    Cic. Att. 2, 23, 3:

    spem in aliquo,

    id. ib. 6, 1, 11:

    salutis auxilium in celeritate,

    Caes. B. G. 5, 48; cf.:

    spem salutis in virtute,

    id. ib. 5, 34, 2:

    ut in dubio poneret, utrum, etc.,

    regarded as doubtful, doubted, Liv. 34, 5, 3: sed haec haud in magno equidem ponam discrimine, I shall attach no great importance to it, id. prooem. § 8.—In pass.: positum esse in aliquā re, to be based or founded upon, to rest upon, depend upon:

    ut salutem praesentium, spem reliquorum in vestris sententiis positam esse et defixam putetis,

    Cic. Fl. 1, 3; id. Agr. 2, 9, 22:

    omnia posita putamus in Planci tui liberalitate,

    id. Att. 16, 16, F, 2; id. Or. 8, 27:

    in te positum est, ut, etc.,

    id. Att. 16, 16, B, § 8. —
    2.
    To lay out, spend, employ a thing, esp. time, in any thing:

    tempus in cogitatione ponere,

    Cic. de Or. 3, 5, 17:

    si in hac curā vita mihi ponenda sit,

    id. Fam. 9, 24, 4:

    diem totum in considerandā causā,

    id. Brut. 22, 87; cf. id. Fam. 5, 21, 1; id. Att. 6, 2, 6:

    sumptum,

    id. Q. Fr. 3, 1, 2; id. Fam. 13, 54 fin.; cf.:

    totum animum atque omnem curam, operam diligentiamque suam in petitione,

    id. Mur. 22, 45:

    id multo tum faciemus liberius totosque nos in contemplandis rebus perspiciendisque ponemus,

    id. Tusc. 1, 19, 44:

    apud gratissimum hominem beneficium ponere,

    id. Fam. 13, 55 fin.:

    itinera enim ita facit, ut multos dies in oppidum ponat,

    id. Att. 11, 22, 2.—
    3.
    To put, place, count, reckon, consider a thing in or among certain things:

    mortem in malis,

    Cic. Fin. 3, 8, 29:

    in beneficii loco,

    id. Fam. 15, 4, 12; id. Cat. 2, 9, 20:

    si quis motus populi factus esset, id C. Norbano in fraude capitali esse ponendum,

    id. de Or. 2, 48, 199:

    in laude,

    to regard as praiseworthy, id. Top. 18, 71:

    in vitiis poni,

    to be regarded as a fault, Nep. Epam. 1, 2.—
    4.
    To appoint, ordain, make something:

    leges,

    Cic. Verr. 2, 5, 11, § 28:

    festos laetosque ritus,

    Tac. H. 5, 5 fin.:

    ut male posuimus initia, sic cetera sequentur,

    Cic. Att. 10, 18, 2:

    ne tu in spem ponas me bonae frugi fore,

    to hope for, reckon upon, Plaut. Capt. 5, 2, 4 Fleck.: nomen, to apply or give a name (= imponere):

    sunt enim rebus novis nova ponenda nomina,

    Cic. N. D. 1, 17, 44; id. Tusc. 3, 5, 10; Verg. A. 7, 63:

    qui tibi nomen Insano posuere,

    Hor. S. 2, 3, 48: rationem, to furnish an account, to [p. 1397] reckon, Suet. Oth. 7; cf. Col. 1, 3:

    pecuniae,

    Dig. 46, 3, 89.—
    5.
    To make or render vows or votive offerings to the gods:

    Veneri ponere vota,

    Prop. 3, 12, 18:

    nunc ego victrices lauro redimire tabellas, Nec Veneris mediā ponere in aede morer,

    Ov. Am. 1, 11, 25:

    hic ponite lucida Funalia et vectes,

    Hor. C. 3, 26, 6:

    libatum agricolae ponitur ante deo,

    Tib. 1, 1, 14; Ov. M. 3, 506:

    ex praedā tripodem aureum Delphi posuit,

    Nep. Paus. 2, 3.—
    6.
    In speaking or writing, to lay down as true, to state, assume, assert, maintain, allege, take for granted, etc.:

    quamobrem, ut paulo ante posui, si, etc.,

    Cic. Fam. 1, 9, 21; id. Fin. 2, 31, 100:

    recte Magnus ille noster, me audiente, posuit in judicio, rem publicam, etc.,

    id. Leg. 2, 3, 6: verum pono, esse victum eum;

    at, etc.,

    Ter. Phorm. 4, 3, 25:

    positum sit igitur in primis, etc.,

    Cic. Or. 4, 14:

    hoc posito atque concesso, esse quandam vim divinam, etc.,

    id. Div. 1, 52, 118; cf.:

    quo posito, et omnium sensu adprobato,

    id. Fin. 3, 8, 29; id. Leg. 2, 19, 48:

    pono satis in eo fuisse orationis atque ingenii,

    id. Brut. 45, 165:

    aliquid pro certo ponere,

    Liv. 10, 9 fin.:

    nunc rem ipsam ponamus quam illi non negant... Est haec res posita, quae ab adversario non negatur,

    Cic. Caecin. 11, 32.—
    7.
    Esp.: exemplum ponere, to cite an instance:

    eorum quae constant exempla ponemus,

    Cic. Inv. 1, 38, 68:

    perspicuo et grandi vitio praeditum posuimus exemplum,

    id. ib. 1, 47, 88:

    ab adjunctis antea posui exemplum,

    id. Top. 11, 50:

    horum exempla posui ex jure civili,

    id. ib. 14, 58:

    horum generum ex Cicerone exempla ponamus,

    Quint. 5, 11, 11; 6, 3, 108 al.—
    8.
    To set before the mind, represent, describe:

    nec ponere lucum Artifices, nec, etc.,

    Pers. 1, 70:

    pone Tigellinum,

    Juv. 1, 155.—
    9.
    To propose, offer, fix upon a theme for discussion (= proponere):

    mihi nunc vos quaestiunculam, de quā meo arbitratu loquar, ponitis?

    Cic. de Or. 1, 22, 102; 2, 1, 2:

    ponere aliquid, ad quod audiam, si tibi non est molestum, volo,

    id. Fat. 2, 4; cf.:

    ponere jubebam, de quo quis audire vellet,

    id. Tusc. 1, 4, 7:

    ponere praemium,

    Liv. 39, 17, 1; and impers. pass.:

    doctorum est ista consuetudo eaque Graecorum, ut iis ponatur, de quo disputent quamvis subito,

    id. Lael. 5, 17; so,

    cum ita positum esset, videri, etc.,

    id. Tusc. 3, 22, 54.—
    10.
    To put away, leave off, dismiss, forego, lay down, surrender (= deponere):

    vitam propera ponere,

    Plaut. Curc. 4, 3, 4:

    vitia,

    Cic. de Or. 3, 12, 46:

    dolorem,

    id. Tusc. 3, 28, 66: inimicitias, Cael. ap. Cic. Fam. 8, 6:

    curas,

    Liv. 1, 19:

    metum,

    Plin. Ep. 5, 6:

    iram,

    Hor. A. P. 160:

    moras,

    id. C. 4, 12, 25; Ov. F. 2, 816:

    animos feroces,

    Liv. 8, 1:

    corda ferocia,

    Verg. A. 1, 302:

    vires (flammae),

    id. ib. 5, 681:

    ipsum rudimentum adulescentiae bello lacessentem Romanos posuisse,

    had obtained his first experience, Liv. 31, 11 fin.; Suet. Ner. 22; also,

    tirocinium,

    Just. 12, 4, 6:

    animam,

    to lay down life, Vulg. Johan. 10, 15; 17.—Esp., milit. t. t.: arma ponere (= deponere), to lay down arms, yield, surrender:

    Nepesinis inde edictum ut arma ponant,

    Liv. 6, 10, 5:

    dedi imperatorem, arma poni jubet,

    id. 4, 10, 3; cf.:

    positis armis,

    id. 35, 36, 4; id. Epit. 88.—
    11.
    To make, cause to be (eccl. Lat.):

    cornu tuum ponam ferreum,

    Vulg. Mich. 4, 13:

    posuit me desolatam,

    id. Thren. 3, 11; with quasi:

    ponam Samariam quasi acervum,

    id. Mich. 1, 6; with in and acc.:

    posuerunt eam in ruinam,

    id. Isa. 23, 13.—
    12.
    To assume, suppose, put a case (of mere suppositions; only late Lat.; cf. 6 supra): pone tamen ab evangelistis scriptum, Ambros. de Fide, 5, 16, 194; Ps.-Quint. Decl. 273.—Hence, pŏsĭtus, a, um, P. a., of localities, placed, situated; situate, standing, lying anywhere:

    Roma in montibus posita,

    Cic. Agr. 2, 35, 96:

    Delos in Aegaeo mari posita,

    id. Imp. Pomp. 18, 55:

    portus ex adverso urbi positus,

    Liv. 45, 5:

    tumulus opportune ad id positus,

    id. 28, 13:

    urbs alieno solo posita,

    id. 4, 17.— Poet.:

    somno positus = sopitus,

    lulled to sleep, Verg. A. 4, 527.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > pono

  • 34 Luso-Tropicalism

       An anthropological and sociol ogical theory or complex of ideas allegedly showing a process of civilization relating to the significance of Portuguese activity in the tropics of Africa, Asia, and the Americas since 1415. As a theory and method of social science analysis, Luso-Tropicalism is a 20th-century phenomenon that has both academic and political (foreign and colonial policy) relevance. While the theory was based in part on French concepts of the "science of tropicology" in anthropology, it was Gilberto Freyre, an eminent Brazilian sociologist-anthropologist, who developed Luso-Tropicalism as an academic theory of the unique qualities of the Portuguese style of imperial activity in the tropics. In lectures, articles, and books during the period 1930-60, Freyre coined the term Luso-Tropicalism to describe Portuguese civilization in the tropics and to claim that the Portuguese, more than any other European colonizing people, successfully adapted their civilization to the tropics.
       From 1960 on, the academic theory was co-opted to lend credence to Portugal's colonial policy and determination to continue colonial rule in her large, remaining African empire. Freyre's Luso-Tropicalism theme was featured in the elaborate Fifth Centenary of the Death of Prince Henry the Navigator celebrations held in Lisbon in 1960 and in a massive series of publications produced in the 1960s to defend Portugal's policies in its empire, the first to be established and the last to decolonize in the Third World. Freyre's academic theory and his international prestige as a scholar who had put the sociology of Brazil on the world map were eagerly adopted and adapted by the Estado Novo. A major thesis of this interesting but somewhat disorganized mass of material was that the Portuguese were less racist and prejudiced toward the tropical peoples they encountered than were other Europeans.
       As African wars of insurgency began in Portugal's empire during 1961-64, and as the United Nations put pressures on Portugal, Luso-Tropicalism was tested and contested not only in academia and the press, but in international politics and diplomacy. Following the decolonization of Portugal's empire during 1974 and 1975 (although Macau remained the last colony to the late 1990s), debate over the notion of Luso-Tropicalism died down. With the onset of the 500-year anniversary celebrations of the Portuguese Age of Discoveries and Exploration, beginning in 1988, however, a whiff of the essence of Luso- Tropicalism reappeared in selected aspects of the commemorative literature.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Luso-Tropicalism

  • 35 Cousteau, Jacques-Yves

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 11 June 1910 Saint-André-de-Cubzac, France
    [br]
    French marine explorer who invented the aqualung.
    [br]
    He was the son of a country lawyer who became legal advisor and travelling companion to certain rich Americans. At an early age Cousteau acquired a love of travel, of the sea and of cinematography: he made his first film at the age of 13. After an interrupted education he nevertheless passed the difficult entrance examination to the Ecole Navale in Brest, but his naval career was cut short in 1936 by injuries received in a serious motor accident. For his long recuperation he was drafted to Toulon. There he met Philippe Tailliez, a fellow naval officer, and Frédéric Dumas, a champion spearfisher, with whom he formed a long association and began to develop his underwater swimming and photography. He apparently took little part in the Second World War, but under cover he applied his photographic skills to espionage, for which he was awarded the Légion d'honneur after the war.
    Cousteau sought greater freedom of movement underwater and, with Emile Gagnan, who worked in the laboratory of Air Liquide, he began experimenting to improve portable underwater breathing apparatus. As a result, in 1943 they invented the aqualung. Its simple design and robust construction provided a reliable and low-cost unit and revolutionized scientific and recreational diving. Gagnan shunned publicity, but Cousteau revelled in the new freedom to explore and photograph underwater and exploited the publicity potential to the full.
    The Undersea Research Group was set up by the French Navy in 1944 and, based in Toulon, it provided Cousteau with the Opportunity to develop underwater exploration and filming techniques and equipment. Its first aims were minesweeping and exploration, but in 1948 Cousteau pioneered an extension to marine archaeology. In 1950 he raised the funds to acquire a surplus US-built minesweeper, which he fitted out to further his quest for exploration and adventure and named Calypso. Cousteau also sought and achieved public acclaim with the publication in 1953 of The Silent World, an account of his submarine observations, illustrated by his own brilliant photography. The book was an immediate success and was translated into twenty-two languages. In 1955 Calypso sailed through the Red Sea and the western Indian Ocean, and the outcome was a film bearing the same title as the book: it won an Oscar and the Palme d'Or at the Cannes film festival. This was his favoured medium for the expression of his ideas and observations, and a stream of films on the same theme kept his name before the public.
    Cousteau's fame earned him appointment by Prince Rainier as Director of the Oceanographie Institute in Monaco in 1957, a post he held until 1988. With its museum and research centre, it offered Cousteau a useful base for his worldwide activities.
    In the 1980s Cousteau turned again to technological development. Like others before him, he was concerned to reduce ships' fuel consumption by harnessing wind power. True to form, he raised grants from various sources to fund research and enlisted technical help, namely Lucien Malavard, Professor of Aerodynamics at the Sorbonne. Malavard designed a 44 ft (13.4 m) high non-rotating cylinder, which was fitted onto a catamaran hull, christened Moulin à vent. It was intended that its maiden Atlantic crossing in 1983 should herald a new age in ship propulsion, with large royalties to Cousteau. Unfortunately the vessel was damaged in a storm and limped to the USA under diesel power. A more robust vessel, the Alcyone, was fitted with two "Turbosails" in 1985 and proved successful, with a 40 per cent reduction in fuel consumption. However, oil prices fell, removing the incentive to fit the new device; the lucrative sales did not materialize and Alcyone remained the only vessel with Turbosails, sharing with Calypso Cousteau's voyages of adventure and exploration. In September 1995, Cousteau was among the critics of the decision by the French President Jacques Chirac to resume testing of nuclear explosive devices under the Mururoa atoll in the South Pacific.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Légion d'honneur. Croix de Guerre with Palm. Officier du Mérite Maritime and numerous scientific and artistic awards listed in such directories as Who's Who.
    Bibliography
    Further Reading
    R.Munson, 1991, Cousteau, the Captain and His World, London: Robert Hale (published in the USA 1989).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Cousteau, Jacques-Yves

  • 36 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig

    [br]
    b. 27 March 1886 Aachen, Germany
    d. 17 August 1969 Chicago, USA
    [br]
    German architect, third of the great trio of long-lived, second-generation modernists who established the international style in the inter-war years and brought it to maturity (See Jeanneret (Le Corbusier) and Gropius).
    [br]
    Mies van der Rohe was the son of a stonemason and his early constructional training came from his father. As a young man he gained experience of the modern school from study of the architecture of the earlier leaders, notably Peter Behrens, Hendrik Berlage and Frank Lloyd Wright. He commenced architectural practice in 1913 and soon after the First World War was establishing his own version of modern architecture. His building materials were always of the highest quality, of marble, stone, glass and, especially, steel. He stripped his designs of all extraneous decoration: more than any of his contemporaries he followed the theme of elegance, functionalism and an ascetic concentration on essentials. He believed that architectural design should not look backwards but should reflect the contemporary achievement of advanced technology in both its construction and the materials used, and he began early in his career to act upon these beliefs. Typical was his early concrete and glass office building of 1922, after which, more importantly, came his designs for the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition of 1929. These designs included his famous Barcelona chair, made from chrome steel and leather in a geometrical design, one which has survived as a classic and is still in production. Another milestone was his Tugendhat House in Brno (1930), a long, low, rectilinear structure in glass and steel that set a pattern for many later buildings of this type. In 1930 Mies followed his colleagues as third Director of the Bauhaus, but due to the rise of National Socialism in Germany it was closed in 1933. He finally left Germany for the USA in 1937, and the following year he took up his post as Director of Architecture in Chicago at what is now known as the Illinois Institute of Technology and where he remained for twenty years. In America Mies van der Rohe continued to develop his work upon his original thesis. His buildings are always recognizable for their elegance, fine proportions, high-quality materials and clean, geometrical forms; nearly all are of glass and steel in rectangular shapes. The structure and design evolved according to the individual needs of each commission, and there were three fundamental types of design. One type was the single or grouped high-rise tower, built for apartments for the wealthy, as in his Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago (1948–51), or for city-centre offices, as in his Seagram Building in New York (1954–8, with Philip Johnson) or his Chicago Federal Centre (1964). Another form was the long, low rectangle based upon the earlier Tugendhat House and seen again in the New National Gallery in Berlin (1965–8). Third, there were the grouped schemes when the commission called for buildings of varied purpose on a single, large site. Here Mies van der Rohe achieved a variety and interest in the different shapes and heights of buildings set out in spatial harmony of landscape. Some examples of this type of scheme were housing estates (Lafayette Park Housing Development in Detroit, 1955–6), while others were for educational, commercial or shopping requirements, as at the Toronto Dominion Centre (1963–9).
    [br]
    Further Reading
    L.Hilbersheimer, 1956, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Chicago: P.Theobald.
    Peter Blake, 1960, Mies van der Rohe, Architecture and Structure, Penguin, Pelican. Arthur Drexler, 1960, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, London: Mayflower.
    Philip Johnson, 1978, Mies van der Rohe, Seeker and Warburg.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig

  • 37 αὐξάνω

    αὐξάνω/αὔξω (both forms as early as Pindar with the shorter predominating, as usu. in the earlier lit.; later the longer form becomes more freq. [e.g., Just., D. 88, 2] and the shorter one [Epict.; Heraclit. Stoic. p. 2, 7; 78, 12; Hierocles the Stoic—II A.D.—in BKT IV pap 9780 col. 6, 16 p. 28f; SIG index; OGI 51, 12; 56, 9 and 22; POxy 1450, 3; 21; 4 Macc 13:22; OdeSol 11:19; *TestZeb 1:3; TestJos 19:4, based on the Armenian version, as rendered by Charles; GrBar; ParJer 9:16; EpArist 208; Philo, Aet. M. 71; Jos., Ant. 1, 61; 4, 59; Ar. 6, 3; Mel., Fgm. 8b, 8] becomes rare; both in the same sentence Aëtius 132, 13 αὐξανομένου τ. πάθους αὔξει κ. τὰ συμπτώματα) B-D-F §101; W-S. §15; Meisterhans3-Schw. 176; Mayser 465. Impf. ηὔξανον; fut. αὐξήσω and αὐξανῶ Gen 48:4; Lev 26:9; 1 aor. ηὔξησα. Pass.: fut. αὐξηθήσομαι LXX, En 5:9; aor. ηὐξήθην.
    ① to cause to become greater in extent, size, state, or quality, grow someth., cause to grow, increase trans. (Pind., Hdt., Pla. et al.; ins, pap, LXX; Jos., Ant. 2, 205 [Nägeli 35]) the fruits of righteousness 2 Cor 9:10. Abs. 1 Cor 3:6f=God made it grow; Hv 1, 1, 6; 3, 4, 1.
    ② to become greater, grow, increase intr.
    ⓐ pass. used actively (Hes., Hdt.+; LXX; En oft.; on GrBar s. under b; Jos., Ant. 18, 129, Vi. 193; Ar. 6:3; Mel., HE 4, 26, 7; Did., Gen. 190, 25). Of humans and plants: the human race 1 Cl 33:6; B 6:12, 18 (Gen 1:28); children (Hdt. 5, 92, 5; Gen 21:8; 25; 27) 1 Pt 2:2; plants (Ps.-Phocyl. 38) Mt 13:32; Mk 4:8; καρπὸς αὐξανόμενος ibid. v.l. (Diosc., Mat. Med. 2, 199 add. πρὸ τοῦ τὸν καρπὸν αὐξηθῆναι).—Of nonphysical entities (Pind., N. 8, 40 αὔξεται δʼ ἀρετά = ἀρετή grows; Did., Gen. 119, 8 [of the soul]) the gospel Col 1:6; faith 2 Cor 10:15; knowledge Col 1:10; unrighteousness D 16:4. Cp. Lk 22:28 D.
    ⓑ The use of the act. in the same intr. sense belongs to later Gk. (Aristot.; Polyb.; Diod S; Maximus Tyr. 6, 4f; Olympiodor., Comm. in Alcib. Plat. 18 ed. Creuzer 1821: αὐξούσης τ. σελήνης; PGM 4, 2553; 13, 65; EpArist 208; GrBar; Jos., Ant. 2, 189; 4, 59; Ar. 12, 2; POxy 1778, 13; Just., D. 88, 2; not LXX) lit. of plants Mt 6:28; Lk 12:27; Ox 655, 9f (ASyn. 67, 33; on the last 3 passages s. ξαίνω); Lk 13:19. ἐκ τοῦ ἑνὸς πλείονα fr. one ( grain) many grow 1 Cl 24:5. Of children Lk 1:80; 2:40. Of a people Ac 7:17. Of a house εἰς ναόν Eph 2:21. Of the word of God Ac 6:7; 12:24; 19:20 (on the theme of growth s. DBalch, SBLSP ’89, 354; cp. Polyb. 6, 43, 2). αὐ. τὴν αὔξησιν Col 2:19; ἔν τινι 2 Pt 3:18; αὐ. εἰς Χριστόν grow up into (union w.) Christ Eph 4:15. Abs. Mt 20:28 v.l. = Agr 22; ὡ̣ς … αὔξι̣ν̣ [=αὔξειν] … τὴν̣ ψ̣υ̣χ̣ὴν τοῦ Παῦλου so that … Paul’s spirits rose AcPl Ha 6, 10. Of Jesus increase J 3:30. This is usu. considered a direct ref. to success in attracting followers, but αὐ. can also be used of the increase of sunlight (Calendarium of Antiochus [c. 200 A.D.] on Dec. 25 Ἡλίου γενέθλιον• αὔξει φῶς [FBoll, SBHeidAk 1910, 16; Abh. p. 40ff]; Cosmas of Jerusalem [FCumont, Natalis Invicti: Extr. des compt. rend. de l’Ac. des Inscr. et Bell. Lett. 1911, 292f]). Cp. 3:19–21, where φῶς occurs five times, and marks the leading concept. May this not also be true of 3:30? At any rate the Gk. and Lat. fathers understood 3:30 in the solar sense. S. also on ἐλαττοῦσθαι and s. ENorden, D. Geburt des Kindes 1924, 99–112.—DELG s.v. αὔξω. M-M. TW.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > αὐξάνω

  • 38 αὔξω

    αὐξάνω/αὔξω (both forms as early as Pindar with the shorter predominating, as usu. in the earlier lit.; later the longer form becomes more freq. [e.g., Just., D. 88, 2] and the shorter one [Epict.; Heraclit. Stoic. p. 2, 7; 78, 12; Hierocles the Stoic—II A.D.—in BKT IV pap 9780 col. 6, 16 p. 28f; SIG index; OGI 51, 12; 56, 9 and 22; POxy 1450, 3; 21; 4 Macc 13:22; OdeSol 11:19; *TestZeb 1:3; TestJos 19:4, based on the Armenian version, as rendered by Charles; GrBar; ParJer 9:16; EpArist 208; Philo, Aet. M. 71; Jos., Ant. 1, 61; 4, 59; Ar. 6, 3; Mel., Fgm. 8b, 8] becomes rare; both in the same sentence Aëtius 132, 13 αὐξανομένου τ. πάθους αὔξει κ. τὰ συμπτώματα) B-D-F §101; W-S. §15; Meisterhans3-Schw. 176; Mayser 465. Impf. ηὔξανον; fut. αὐξήσω and αὐξανῶ Gen 48:4; Lev 26:9; 1 aor. ηὔξησα. Pass.: fut. αὐξηθήσομαι LXX, En 5:9; aor. ηὐξήθην.
    ① to cause to become greater in extent, size, state, or quality, grow someth., cause to grow, increase trans. (Pind., Hdt., Pla. et al.; ins, pap, LXX; Jos., Ant. 2, 205 [Nägeli 35]) the fruits of righteousness 2 Cor 9:10. Abs. 1 Cor 3:6f=God made it grow; Hv 1, 1, 6; 3, 4, 1.
    ② to become greater, grow, increase intr.
    ⓐ pass. used actively (Hes., Hdt.+; LXX; En oft.; on GrBar s. under b; Jos., Ant. 18, 129, Vi. 193; Ar. 6:3; Mel., HE 4, 26, 7; Did., Gen. 190, 25). Of humans and plants: the human race 1 Cl 33:6; B 6:12, 18 (Gen 1:28); children (Hdt. 5, 92, 5; Gen 21:8; 25; 27) 1 Pt 2:2; plants (Ps.-Phocyl. 38) Mt 13:32; Mk 4:8; καρπὸς αὐξανόμενος ibid. v.l. (Diosc., Mat. Med. 2, 199 add. πρὸ τοῦ τὸν καρπὸν αὐξηθῆναι).—Of nonphysical entities (Pind., N. 8, 40 αὔξεται δʼ ἀρετά = ἀρετή grows; Did., Gen. 119, 8 [of the soul]) the gospel Col 1:6; faith 2 Cor 10:15; knowledge Col 1:10; unrighteousness D 16:4. Cp. Lk 22:28 D.
    ⓑ The use of the act. in the same intr. sense belongs to later Gk. (Aristot.; Polyb.; Diod S; Maximus Tyr. 6, 4f; Olympiodor., Comm. in Alcib. Plat. 18 ed. Creuzer 1821: αὐξούσης τ. σελήνης; PGM 4, 2553; 13, 65; EpArist 208; GrBar; Jos., Ant. 2, 189; 4, 59; Ar. 12, 2; POxy 1778, 13; Just., D. 88, 2; not LXX) lit. of plants Mt 6:28; Lk 12:27; Ox 655, 9f (ASyn. 67, 33; on the last 3 passages s. ξαίνω); Lk 13:19. ἐκ τοῦ ἑνὸς πλείονα fr. one ( grain) many grow 1 Cl 24:5. Of children Lk 1:80; 2:40. Of a people Ac 7:17. Of a house εἰς ναόν Eph 2:21. Of the word of God Ac 6:7; 12:24; 19:20 (on the theme of growth s. DBalch, SBLSP ’89, 354; cp. Polyb. 6, 43, 2). αὐ. τὴν αὔξησιν Col 2:19; ἔν τινι 2 Pt 3:18; αὐ. εἰς Χριστόν grow up into (union w.) Christ Eph 4:15. Abs. Mt 20:28 v.l. = Agr 22; ὡ̣ς … αὔξι̣ν̣ [=αὔξειν] … τὴν̣ ψ̣υ̣χ̣ὴν τοῦ Παῦλου so that … Paul’s spirits rose AcPl Ha 6, 10. Of Jesus increase J 3:30. This is usu. considered a direct ref. to success in attracting followers, but αὐ. can also be used of the increase of sunlight (Calendarium of Antiochus [c. 200 A.D.] on Dec. 25 Ἡλίου γενέθλιον• αὔξει φῶς [FBoll, SBHeidAk 1910, 16; Abh. p. 40ff]; Cosmas of Jerusalem [FCumont, Natalis Invicti: Extr. des compt. rend. de l’Ac. des Inscr. et Bell. Lett. 1911, 292f]). Cp. 3:19–21, where φῶς occurs five times, and marks the leading concept. May this not also be true of 3:30? At any rate the Gk. and Lat. fathers understood 3:30 in the solar sense. S. also on ἐλαττοῦσθαι and s. ENorden, D. Geburt des Kindes 1924, 99–112.—DELG s.v. αὔξω. M-M. TW.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > αὔξω

  • 39 καυχάομαι

    καυχάομαι (s. two next entries; Pind., Hdt.+) mid. dep.; 2 sing. καυχᾶσαι Ro 2:17, 23; 1 Cor 4:7 (s. Mayser 328; JWackernagel, TLZ 33, 1908, 639; Thackeray 218; Mlt-H. 198); fut. καυχήσομαι; 1 aor. ἐκαυχησάμην; pf. κεκαύχημαι. In our lit. restricted to Paul, except for two pass. each in Js and Ign., and one in 1 Cl (a quot. fr. the OT).
    ① to take pride in someth., boast, glory, pride oneself, brag, intr. (Sappho, Fgm. 26, 10 D.2) ἔν τινι in or about a person or thing (schol. on Apollon. Rhod. 3, 976 οἱ καυχώμενοι ἐν ἑτέρων διαβολαῖς; LXX; TestJud 13:2; ἐν τοῖς θεοῖς Theoph. Ant. 1, 1 [p. 58, 6].—B-D-F §196; s. Rob. 532) ἐν θεῷ Ro 2:17. ἐν τῷ θεῷ 5:11. ἐν κυρίῳ 1 Cor 1:31b; 2 Cor 10:17b; 1 Cl 13:1 (cp. on the three Jer 9:23). ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ Phil 3:3. ἐν ἀνθρώποις 1 Cor 3:21.—ἐν νόμῳ (cp. Sir 39:8) Ro 2:23; in afflictions 5:3; in the work of others 2 Cor 10:15; in weaknesses 12:9; in high position Js 1:9; in wisdom, etc. 1 Cl 13:1 (Jer 9:22f). ἐν τῇ ὑμετέρᾳ σαρκί Gal 6:13. ἐν τῷ σταυρῷ vs. 14. ἐν τῷ προσώπῳ κ., opp. ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ pride oneself on externals … on the heart 2 Cor 5:12. ἐν ᾧ καυχῶνται 11:12. On 2 Th 1:4 v.l. see ἐγκαυχάομαι.—The ἐν is to be taken somewhat differently Js 4:16 (s. ἀλαζονεία).—εἴς τι boast with regard to someth. 2 Cor 10:16. Differently εἰς τὰ ἄμετρα κ. boast beyond limit (s. ἄμετρος) vss. 13, 15.—ἐπί τινι based on someth., in someth. (Cratinus Com. [V B.C.] 95; Diod S 15, 6, 2 ἐπὶ τοῖς ποιήμασιν; 16, 70, 2; iambic poet in Ps.-Callisth. 2, 20, 11 ἐπὶ τέκνοισι; SIG 1268, 23 ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ; Ps 48:7) Ro 5:2 (JBover, Biblica 22, ’41, 41–45). ὑπέρ τινος on behalf of someone 2 Cor 12:5ab. κατά τι in accordance with someth. 2 Cor 11:18a.—ἐνώπιον τ. θεοῦ before God 1 Cor 1:29.—W. ὅτι foll. (Strabo 13, 1, 27) IPhld 6:3. (W. inf. TestJob 41:3; Just., D. 101, 1.)—Abs. (TestReub 3:5) 1 Cor 1:31a; 4:7; 2 Cor 10:17a; 11:18b, 30a; 12:1, 6, 11 v.l.; Eph 2:9; IPol 5:2.—1 Cor 13:3, a variety of witnesses have καυχήσωμαι (read by N. and defended e.g. by Harnack, SBBerlAk 1911, 139ff; Goodsp., Probs. 162–65; KClark, Studia Paulina [deZwaan Festschr.] ’53, 61f) instead of the v.l. καυθήσομαι, which is preferred by others (e.g., EPreuschen, ZNW 16, 1915, 127ff; JKElliott, ZNW 62, ’71, 297f; et al.).—S. καίω 2.
    ② to make a boast about someth., boast about, mention in order to boast of, be proud of, trans. τὶ someth. (Philemon Com. [IV–III B.C.], Fgm. 141 p. 521; Diod S 20, 63, 4) τὰ τῆς ἀσθενείας μου boast about my weaknesses 2 Cor 11:30b (cp. Pr 27:1 κ. τὰ εἰς αὔριον). τὶ περί τινος 10:8. τί τινι ὑπέρ τινος say someth. boastingly (or in pride) to someone concerning someone 7:14; 9:2 (here a ὅτι-clause defines τὶ more closely). μικρόν τι 11:16.—For Gr-Rom. cultural background on Paul’s theme of boasting in 2 Cor s. Plut., Mor. 539–547 ‘On Inoffensive Self-Praise’; FDanker, Augsburg Comm. on the NT: II Cor ’89, esp. 147–214; idem, Paul’s Debt to Demosthenes’ ‘De Corona’, in Persuasive Artistry [GKennedy Festschr.], ed. DWatson, ’91, 262–80; JLambrecht, Dangerous Boasting, Paul’s Self-Commendation in 2 Cor 10–13, in RBieringer, ed., The Corinthian Correspondence ’96, 325–46.—JBosch, ‘Gloriarse’ según San Pablo, Sentido y teologia de καυχάομαι, ’70. BDowdy, The Meaning of καυχᾶσθαι in the NT, diss. Vanderbilt ’55.—B. 1281. DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW. Spicq.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > καυχάομαι

  • 40 φρονέω

    φρονέω (s. φρήν) impf. ἐφρόνουν; fut. φρονήσω; 1 aor. ἐφρόνησα; pf. 1 pl. πεφρονήκαμεν (Ath. 10, 1) (Hom.+; ins, pap, LXX; TestJob 48:2; EpArist 236; Philo, Joseph., Ar., Just., Ath.)
    ① to have an opinion with regard to someth., think, form/hold an opinion, judge ἐφρόνουν ὡς νήπιος I thought like a child 1 Cor 13:11 (schol. on Apollon. Rhod. 4, 868a νηπίου ὄντος καὶ νήπια φρονοῦντος). καθὼς φρονοῦσιν as their opinion is ISm 2. καλῶς καὶ ἀληθῶς φρονεῖς your judgment is right and true Hm 3:4 (εὖ φρ. Hippol., Ref. 10, 32, 4). ταῦτα φρονεῖν 9:12. ἃ φρονεῖς the views that you hold Ac 28:22 (Just., D. 80, 2 ἕτερα λέγειν παρʼ ἃ φρονῶ). πολλὰ φρονῶ ἐν θεῷ many thoughts are mine when I take God’s view of things (so Kleist) ITr 4:1. φρονεῖν τι ὑπέρ τινος think or feel in a certain way about someone Phil 1:7. ὑπέρ τινος φρ. think of someone in the sense be concerned about him 4:10a; cp. 10b. φρ. περί τινος think of or about someone (Wsd 14:30; Just., D. 3, 7; Ath. 24, 1; περὶ τοῦ θεοῦ Theoph. Ant. 1, 1 [p. 58, 15]) 2:1a. φρ. τι περί τινος think someth. concerning someone (Isocr. 3, 60; Polyaenus 5, 2, 13; Lucian, Dial. Mort. 20, 5; Jos., Ant. 12, 125, C. Ap. 2, 168; Ar. 8, 1; Just., D. 48, 1) ISm 5:2. φρ. μικρὰ περί τινος think little of someone 2 Cl 1:2 (Philo, Spec. Leg. 2, 256 φρ. περὶ μοναρχίας τὰ ἄριστα); cp. 1:1b. On ἵνα ἀδελφὸς ἰδὼν ἀδελφὴν οὐδὲν φρονῇ περὶ αὐτῆς θηλυκόν 12:5a s. θηλυκός; cp. 12:5b. θεὸν δεσπότην φρ. think of God as Master Dg 3:2 (s. φρονίμως). οὐδὲν ἄλλο φρ. think nothing different, not take a different view Gal 5:10 (Hdt. 7, 205, 3 ἄλλα φρ.; Jos., Bell. 5, 326 φρ. οὐδὲν ὑγιές). τοῦτο φρ. Phil 3:15a; τὶ ἑτέρως φρ. think of or regard someth. differently 15b; τὸ αὐτὸ φρ. think the same thing, i.e. be in agreement, live in harmony (Hdt. 1, 60, 2; Dio Chrys. 17 [34], 20; Just., D. 65, 2 τὸ αὐτὸ φρ…. ἐμοί; OGI 669, 36.—Opp.: ἀνόμοια φρ. Iren. 1, Pr. 2 [Harv. I 4, 5f]) 2 Cor 13:11; Phil 2:2a; 3:16 v.l.; 4:2; 2 Cl 17:3. τὸ αὐτὸ φρονεῖν ἐν ἀλλήλοις Ro 15:5; εἰς ἀλλήλους 12:16a. Also τὰ αὐτὰ φρ. (Hdt. 5, 72, 2; Appian, Bell. Civ. 1, 65 §295 τὰ αὐτὰ ἐφρόνουν) Hs 9, 13, 7. τὸ ἓν φρ. Phil 2:2b.— Cherish thoughts μὴ ὑπερφρονεῖν παρʼ ὸ̔ δεῖ φρονεῖν not to think more of oneself than one ought to think Ro 12:3a. Cp. 1 Cor 4:6 v.l. (cp. Diod S 27, 6, 2 τοὺς ὑπὲρ ἄνθρωπον φρονοῦντας). ὑψηλὰ φρονεῖν be proud Ro 11:20; 1 Ti 6:17 v.l.
    ② to give careful consideration to someth., set one’s mind on, be intent on, foll. by the acc. (Brutus, Ep. 14 τὰ σὰ φρ.)
    ⓐ gener. ἀγαθὰ φρ. Hm 10, 3, 1. τὸ καλὸν φρ. Hs 5, 2, 7. τέλεια ISm 11:3. τὰ ὑψηλά Ro 12:16b (cp. 2 Macc 9:12). τὰ ἐπίγεια (Did., Gen. 50, 27; Theoph. Ant. 2, 17 [p. 142, 6]) Phil 3:19. τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς Col 3:2 (opp. τὰ ἄνω; TestJob 48:2 τὰ τῆς γῆς φρ.).
    ⓑ φρ. τά τινος take someone’s side, espouse someone’s cause (Diod S 13, 48, 4 and 7 ἐφρόνουν τὰ Λακεδαιμονίων; 13, 72, 1; 14, 32, 4; 20, 35, 2 and oft.; Appian, Liby. 70 §316, Bell. Civ. 3, 85, §351; Polyaenus 8, 14, 3 τὰ Ῥωμαίων φρ., cp. HAlmqvist, Plut. u. das NT ’46, 56; Herodian 8, 6, 6; 1 Macc 10:20; Jos., Ant. 14, 450 οἱ τὰ Ἡρῴδου φρονοῦντες). τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ (opp. τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων) Mt 16:23; Mk 8:33. τὰ τῆς σαρκός (opp. τὰ τοῦ πνεύματος) Ro 8:5.
    ⓒ of acknowledging the importance of someth. ὁ φρονῶν τὴν ἡμέραν κυρίῳ φρονεῖ the one who is intent on the day (i.e. a particular day rather than others) in honor of the Lord Ro 14:6. φρ. εἰς τὸ σωφρονεῖν 12:3b.
    ③ to develop an attitude based on careful thought, be minded/disposed τοῦτο φρονεῖτε ἐν ὑμῖν ὸ̔ καὶ ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ let the same kind of thinking dominate you as dominated Christ Jesus Phil 2:5 (Christ went so far as to devoid himself of his divine status for the benefit of humanity; the opp. of φρονεῖν μέγα, ‘to think presumptuously’, s. Reader, Polemo 216f on the theme of hybris). Or, have the same thoughts among yourselves as you have in your communion with Christ Jesus (so CDodd, The Apost. Preaching ’37, 106f).—B. 1198. DELG s.v. φρήν II. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

    Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά παλαιοχριστιανική Λογοτεχνία > φρονέω

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