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  • 21 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

  • 22 comitium

    cŏm-ĭtĭum, ii, n. [locus a coëundo, id est insimul veniendo, est dictus, Paul. ex Fest. p. 38, 12 Müll.; cf. Varr. L. L. 5, § 155 id.: comitium ab eo quod coibant eo comitiis curiatis, et litium causā].
    I.
    In sing., the place for the assembling of the Romans voting by the curiœ situated near the Forum, and separated from it by the ancient Rostra, but sometimes considered as a part of the Forum in a more extended sense (hence, in Dion. Halic. ho kratistos and o epiphanestatos tês agoras topos: IN COMITIO AVT IN FORO, XII. Tab. ap. Auct. Her. 2, 13, 20; Cic. Sest. 35, 75; id. Verr. 2, 1, 22, § 58; id. Brut. 84, 289; Liv. 1, 36, 5; 27, 36, 8; 10, 24, 18; Plaut. Curc. 4, 1, 9 et saep.; cf. Dict. of Antiq.—
    B.
    Transf., any place of assembly out of Rome;

    so of the Ephoreum at Sparta,

    Nep. Ages. 4, 2.—
    C.
    Trop.:

    quod (es) esset animi vestibulum et orationis janua et cogitationum comitium,

    App. Mag. 7, p. 278, 1; so, sacri pectoris, Mam. Grat. Act. ad Jul. 15.—
    II.
    Plur.: cŏmĭtĭa (access. form cŏmĭtĭae, Fratr. Arval. ap. Marin. p. 43; Gloss. Labb. p. 33), the assembly of the Romans for electing magistrates, etc., the comitia. —The comitia were of three kinds.
    1.
    Comitia curiata, the most ancient, voting by curiæ, held in the comitium (v. I.), gradually restricted by,
    2.
    The Comitia centuriata, the proper assembly of the populus Romanus, voting by centuries, instituted by Servius Tullius, continuing through the whole time of the republic, commonly held in the Campus Martius (not in the comitium, as is asserted by many from the similarity of the name; cf.

    campus, II.),

    Gell. 15, 27, 2 sqq.; Cic. Agr. 2, 11, 27; id. Dom. 14, 38; Liv. 5, 52, 15; cf. Cic. Leg. 3, 19, 44.—
    3.
    Comitia tributa, voting by tribes, and commonly held in the Forum, but in choosing magistrates, freq. in the Campus Martius, convened for the first time in the trial of Coriolanus, two years after the introduction of the office of tribune of the people. In them the inferior magistrates (ædiles, tribunes of the people, quæstors), and, later, the Pontifex Maximus also, were chosen, Cic. Leg. 3, 19, 45; id. Agr. 2, 11, 27; Liv. 2, 58, 1; 2, 60, 4; Gell. 15, 27, 3; cf.

    Dict. of Antiq.—Upon the comitia calata, v. 1, calo.—The usual t. t. for holding such comitia is: comitia habere,

    Cic. Div. 2, 18, 43; freq. in all periods;

    they were designated according to the magistrates who were to be chosen in them, as consularia,

    Cic. Verr. 1, 6, 17; id. Mur. 18, 38:

    praetoria,

    Liv. 10, 22, 8:

    tribunicia,

    Cic. Att. 1, 1, 1; Liv. 6, 39, 11:

    militaria,

    Liv. 3, 51, 8:

    quaestoria,

    Cic. Fam. 7, 30, 1; cf.

    also: comitia consulum,

    Liv. 3, 20, 8; and:

    comitia fiunt regi creando,

    id. 1, 35, 1:

    edicere comitia consulibus creandis,

    id. 3, 37, 5:

    comitia conficere,

    Cic. Fam. 10, 36, 12:

    differre,

    Liv. 6, 37, 12:

    dimittere,

    Cic. Att. 1, 14, 5:

    ducere,

    id. ib. 4, 15, 7:

    inire,

    Suet. Vesp. 5.—
    B.
    Transf., of other elections, out of Rome, Cic. Verr. 2, 2, 52, § 129; Liv. 42, 43, 7; Tab. Heracl. v. 24 sq.—
    C.
    Trop.:

    ibo intro, ubi de capite meo sunt comitia, i. e.,

    where my fate is deciding, Plaut. Aul. 4, 7, 20:

    Pseudulus mihi centuriata capitis habuit comitia,

    id. Ps. 4, 7, 134:

    meo illic nunc sunt capiti comitia,

    id. Truc. 4, 3, 45.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > comitium

  • 23 Д-228

    В ДОВЕРШЕНИЕ (K ДОВЕРШЕНИЮ, ДЛЯ ДОВЕРШЕНИЯ) чего PrepP these forms only the resulting PrepP is sent adv
    as a final addition to (the circumstances, events, features etc mentioned in the preceding context and usu. summarized by the complement of the idiom)
    to crown (cap, complete, add to) sth.
    в довершение (к довершению) всего - to top it (all) off
    on top of everything else on top of all this (that)
    в довершение несчастья (беды и т. п.) - to make things (matters) worse.
    Только они (друзья) дошли до ручья, как увидели, что навстречу им идёт человек могучего сложения и несет на плечах дом... На вершине крыши сидел золотистый петух... К довершению всех этих странностей на веранде дома стояла женщина... (Искандер 5). Just as they (the friends) reached the brook they saw a powerfully built man coming toward them, carrying a house on his shoulders.... On the roof-peak sat a golden rooster....To crown all these oddities, a woman stood on the veranda... (5a).
    Сидевшие вокруг его (Тентетникова) господа показались ему так похожими на учеников. К довершению сходства, иные из них читали глупый переводной роман... (Гоголь 3)....The young gentlemen who were sitting around him (Tentetnikov) reminded him of a lot of schoolboys. To complete the similarity, some of them were reading a stupid foreign novel... (3a).
    К довершению бедствия, глуповцы взялись за ум (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). То add to the disaster, the Foolovites came to their senses (1a).
    Начал (бригадир) требовать, чтоб обыватели по сторонам не зевали, а смотрели в оба, и к довершению всего устроил такую кутерьму, которая могла бы очень дурно для него кончиться... (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). Не (the brigadier) began to demand that the townsfolk not stand around gaping but keep their eyes peeled. To top it all off, he staged a ruckus that might have ended very badly for him... (1a).
    В произнесённых им невзначай каких-то сухих и обыкновенных словах (дамы) нашли колкие намёки. В довершение бед какой-то из молодых людей сочинил... сатирические стихи на танцевавшее общество... (Гоголь 3). They (the ladies) discovered sarcastic allusions in the few indifferent and ordinary words he had uttered at random. To make things worse, one of the young men composed some satirical verses on the dancers... (3a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > Д-228

  • 24 Т-171

    ОДИН И ТОТ ЖЕ AdjP (modif) or NP (neut only, subj or obj) fixed WO
    being exactly the same, not another, or being exactly identical
    the (very) same
    NP one and the same NP the selfsame NP
    одно и то же = (one and) the same (thing)
    (in limited contexts) only one thing.
    Так говорил мулла, уважаемый чегемцами человек, потому что он при всех режимах (царском, меньшевистском, большевистском) читал одну и ту же священную книгу Коран... (Искандер 3). So said the mullah, a man respected by the Chegemians because under all regimes (czarist, Menshevik, Bolshevik) he had read one and the same holy book, the Koran... (3a).
    В самом деле сходство Пугачёва с моим вожатым было разительно. Я удостоверился, что Пугачёв и он были одно и то же лицо... (Пушкин 2). Indeed, the similarity between Pugachev and my guide was striking. I came to realize that the two were one and the same person (2a).
    Век об одном и том же - какая скука! Педанты, должно быть!» - сказал, зевая, Обломов (Гончаров 1). "Always one and the same thing? What a bore! Pedants, I suppose," said Oblomov, yawning (1b).
    Они говорили, что погода стала совершенно другая, что раньше в Москве - так был совершенно другой климат: крепкая зима, жаркое лето, а теперь, что Ленинград, что Москва - одно и то же (Битов 2). They said that the weather had become totally different. Moscow used to have a totally different climate-hard winter, hot summer-but now, Leningrad or Moscow, it's one and the same (2a).
    Таня:) Вечно одно и то же. (Репникова:) Опять ворчишь? Не понимаю, чем ты недовольна. (Таня:) Вечно объедимся, как не знаю кто, а потом весь вечер перевариваем... (Репникова:) Не ешь, никто тебя не заставляет (Вампилов 3). (Т.:) It's always the same. (R.:) Are you grumbling again? I don't understand what's bothering you. (T.:) We always overeat like I don't know what and then spend the whole evening digesting.... (R.:) Well don't eat then, no-one's forcing you (3a).
    Волей-неволей ему (Кузьме) приходилось... постоянно думать об одном и том же: где достать деньги? (Распутин 1). Like it or not, he (Kuzma) was forced to think of only one thing: where could he get money? (1a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > Т-171

  • 25 в довершение

    • В ДОВЕРШЕНИЕ (К ДОВЕРШЕНИЮ, ДЛЯ ДОВЕРШЕНИЯ) чего
    [PrepP; these forms only; the resulting PrepP is sent adv]
    =====
    ⇒ as a final addition to (the circumstances, events, features etc mentioned in the preceding context and usu. summarized by the complement of the idiom):
    - to crown (cap, complete, add to) sth.;
    || в довершение несчастья (беды и т. п.) ≈ to make things (matters) worse.
         ♦ Только они [ друзья] дошли до ручья, как увидели, что навстречу им идёт человек могучего сложения и несет на плечах дом... На вершине крыши сидел золотистый петух... К довершению всех этих странностей на веранде дома стояла женщина... (Искандер 5). Just as they [the friends] reached the brook they saw a powerfully built man coming toward them, carrying a house on his shoulders....On the roof-peak sat a golden rooster....To crown all these oddities, a woman stood on the veranda... (5a).
         ♦ Сидевшие вокруг его [Тентетникова] господа показались ему так похожими на учеников. К довершению сходства, иные из них читали глупый переводной роман... (Гоголь 3)....The young gentlemen who were sitting around him [Tentetnikov] reminded him of a lot of schoolboys. To complete the similarity, some of them were reading a stupid foreign novel... (3a).
         ♦ К довершению бедствия, глуповцы взялись за ум (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). То add to the disaster, the Foolovites came to their senses (1a).
         ♦ Начал [бригадир] требовать, чтоб обыватели по сторонам не зевали, а смотрели в оба, и к довершению всего устроил такую кутерьму, которая могла бы очень дурно для него кончиться... (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). Не [the brigadier] began to demand that the townsfolk not stand around gaping but keep their eyes peeled. To top it all off, he staged a ruckus that might have ended very badly for him... (1a).
         ♦ В произнесённых им невзначай каких-то сухих и обыкновенных словах [дамы] нашли колкие намёки. В довершение бед какой-то из молодых людей сочинил... сатирические стихи на танцевавшее общество... (Гоголь 3). They [the ladies] discovered sarcastic allusions in the few indifferent and ordinary words he had uttered at random. To make things worse, one of the young men composed some satirical verses on the dancers... (3a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > в довершение

  • 26 для довершения

    [PrepP; these forms only; the resulting PrepP is sent adv]
    =====
    ⇒ as a final addition to (the circumstances, events, features etc mentioned in the preceding context and usu. summarized by the complement of the idiom):
    - to crown (cap, complete, add to) sth.;
    || в довершение несчастья (беды и т. п.) ≈ to make things (matters) worse.
         ♦ Только они [ друзья] дошли до ручья, как увидели, что навстречу им идёт человек могучего сложения и несет на плечах дом... На вершине крыши сидел золотистый петух... К довершению всех этих странностей на веранде дома стояла женщина... (Искандер 5). Just as they [the friends] reached the brook they saw a powerfully built man coming toward them, carrying a house on his shoulders....On the roof-peak sat a golden rooster....To crown all these oddities, a woman stood on the veranda... (5a).
         ♦ Сидевшие вокруг его [Тентетникова] господа показались ему так похожими на учеников. К довершению сходства, иные из них читали глупый переводной роман... (Гоголь 3)....The young gentlemen who were sitting around him [Tentetnikov] reminded him of a lot of schoolboys. To complete the similarity, some of them were reading a stupid foreign novel... (3a).
         ♦ К довершению бедствия, глуповцы взялись за ум (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). То add to the disaster, the Foolovites came to their senses (1a).
         ♦ Начал [бригадир] требовать, чтоб обыватели по сторонам не зевали, а смотрели в оба, и к довершению всего устроил такую кутерьму, которая могла бы очень дурно для него кончиться... (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). Не [the brigadier] began to demand that the townsfolk not stand around gaping but keep their eyes peeled. To top it all off, he staged a ruckus that might have ended very badly for him... (1a).
         ♦ В произнесённых им невзначай каких-то сухих и обыкновенных словах [дамы] нашли колкие намёки. В довершение бед какой-то из молодых людей сочинил... сатирические стихи на танцевавшее общество... (Гоголь 3). They [the ladies] discovered sarcastic allusions in the few indifferent and ordinary words he had uttered at random. To make things worse, one of the young men composed some satirical verses on the dancers... (3a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > для довершения

  • 27 к довершению

    [PrepP; these forms only; the resulting PrepP is sent adv]
    =====
    ⇒ as a final addition to (the circumstances, events, features etc mentioned in the preceding context and usu. summarized by the complement of the idiom):
    - to crown (cap, complete, add to) sth.;
    || в довершение несчастья (беды и т. п.) ≈ to make things (matters) worse.
         ♦ Только они [ друзья] дошли до ручья, как увидели, что навстречу им идёт человек могучего сложения и несет на плечах дом... На вершине крыши сидел золотистый петух... К довершению всех этих странностей на веранде дома стояла женщина... (Искандер 5). Just as they [the friends] reached the brook they saw a powerfully built man coming toward them, carrying a house on his shoulders....On the roof-peak sat a golden rooster....To crown all these oddities, a woman stood on the veranda... (5a).
         ♦ Сидевшие вокруг его [Тентетникова] господа показались ему так похожими на учеников. К довершению сходства, иные из них читали глупый переводной роман... (Гоголь 3)....The young gentlemen who were sitting around him [Tentetnikov] reminded him of a lot of schoolboys. To complete the similarity, some of them were reading a stupid foreign novel... (3a).
         ♦ К довершению бедствия, глуповцы взялись за ум (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). То add to the disaster, the Foolovites came to their senses (1a).
         ♦ Начал [бригадир] требовать, чтоб обыватели по сторонам не зевали, а смотрели в оба, и к довершению всего устроил такую кутерьму, которая могла бы очень дурно для него кончиться... (Салтыков-Щедрин 1). Не [the brigadier] began to demand that the townsfolk not stand around gaping but keep their eyes peeled. To top it all off, he staged a ruckus that might have ended very badly for him... (1a).
         ♦ В произнесённых им невзначай каких-то сухих и обыкновенных словах [дамы] нашли колкие намёки. В довершение бед какой-то из молодых людей сочинил... сатирические стихи на танцевавшее общество... (Гоголь 3). They [the ladies] discovered sarcastic allusions in the few indifferent and ordinary words he had uttered at random. To make things worse, one of the young men composed some satirical verses on the dancers... (3a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > к довершению

  • 28 один и тот же

    [AdjP (modif) or NP (neut only, subj or obj); fixed WO]
    =====
    ⇒ being exactly the same, not another, or being exactly identical:
    - the selfsame [NP];
    - [in limited contexts] only one thing.
         ♦ Так говорил мулла, уважаемый чегемцами человек, потому что он при всех режимах (царском, меньшевистском, большевистском) читал одну и ту же священную книгу Коран... (Искандер 3). So said the mullah, a man respected by the Chegemians because under all regimes (czarist, Menshevik, Bolshevik) he had read one and the same holy book, the Koran... (За).
         ♦ В самом деле сходство Пугачёва с моим вожатым было разительно. Я удостоверился, что Пугачёв и он были одно и то же лицо... (Пушкин 2). Indeed, the similarity between Pugachev and my guide was striking. I came to realize that the two were one and the same person (2a).
         ♦ "Век об одном и том же - какая скука! Педанты, должно быть!" - сказал, зевая, Обломов (Гончаров 1). "Always one and the same thing? What a bore! Pedants, I suppose," said Oblomov, yawning (1b).
         ♦ Они говорили, что погода стала совершенно другая, что раньше в Москве - так был совершенно другой климат: крепкая зима, жаркое лето, а теперь, что Ленинград, что Москва - одно и то же (Битов 2). They said that the weather had become totally different. Moscow used to have a totally different climate - hard winter, hot summer-but now, Leningrad or Moscow, it's one and the same (2a).
         ♦ [Таня:] Вечно одно и то же. [Репникова:] Опять ворчишь? Не понимаю, чем ты недовольна. [Таня:] Вечно объедимся, как не знаю кто, а потом весь вечер перевариваем... [Репникова:] Не ешь, никто тебя не заставляет (Вампилов 3). [Т.:] It's always the same. [R.:] Are you grumbling again? I don't understand what's bothering you. [T.:] We always overeat like I don't know what and then spend the whole evening digesting.... [R.:] Wsll don't eat then, no-one's forcing you (3a).
         ♦ Волей-неволей ему [Кузьме] приходилось... постоянно думать об одном и том же: где достать деньги? (Распутин 1). Like it or not, he [Kuzma] was forced to think of only one thing: where could he get money? (1a).

    Большой русско-английский фразеологический словарь > один и тот же

  • 29 erfiði

    n. trouble, toil, labor; höfum erfiði ok ekki erendi, we have the toil, but no result.
    * * *
    or erviði (ærfaði, N. G. L. i. 391; ærfuð, id. I. 10), n. [Ulf. arbaiþs = κόπος; A. S. earfoð; O. H. G. arapeit; mod. Germ. arbeit, which shews that mod. Dan. arbeide and Swed. arbete are borrowed from the Germ.; lost in Engl. The etymology of this word is uncertain; the Icel. notion is to derive it from er- priv. and viða = vinna, to work, but it is scarcely right; Grimm, s. v. arbeit, suggests it to be akin to Lat. labor; Max Müller refers it to the root AR, to plough, Science of Language, p. 258, 3rd Ed.; but arfiði (Björn, p. 41) instead of erviði is a fictitious form, and the statement that in old Norse or Icel. it means ploughing rests only on a fancy of old Björn (Dict. l. c.), to which he was probably led by the similarity between Lat. arvum to Germ. and mod. Dan. arbeit, arbeide: in fact the Icel., ancient or modern, conveys no such notion; even in the old heathen poems the word is used exactly in the present sense, which again is the same as in Ulf.]:—toil, labour, and metaph. toil, trouble; in the allit. phrase, e. en eigi eyrendi, toil but no errand, i. e. lost labour, Þkv. 10, 11, Hkv. Hjörv. 5; víl ok e., toil and trouble (of travelling), Hbl. 58, Skálda 163; kváðusk hafa haft mikit e. ok öngu á leið komið, Fms. v. 21, Post. 645. 58, Sks. 235, v. l., N. G. L. l. c.
    2. metaph. distress, suffering; drýgja e., to ‘dree’ distress, Gm. 35 (heathen poem),—in N. G. L. i. 391 this phrase is used of a priest officiating; hungr, þorsti, e., Hom. 160: in pl., meðr mörgum erfiðum er á hana leggjask, Stj. 51: an old poet (Arnor) calls the heaven the erfiði of the dwarfs, vide dvergr. In the Icel. N. T. erfiði is often used in the very same passages as in Ulf., thus—yðvart e. er eigi ónýtt í Drottni, 1 Cor. xv. 58; í erfiði, í vökum, í föstu, 2 Cor. vi. 5; og hrósum oss eigi tram yfir mælingu í annarlegu erfiði, x. 15; og vort e. yrði til ónýtis, 1 Thess. iii. 5, cp. Ulf. l. c.
    β. medic. asthma, difficulty in breathing; brjóst-erfiði, heavy breathing.
    COMPDS: erfiðisdauði, erfiðislaun, erfiðisléttir, erfiðismunir, erfiðisnauð, erfiðissamr, erfiðissemi, erviðisverk.

    Íslensk-ensk orðabók > erfiði

  • 30 заключаться

    Заключаться в -- to consist in, to consist of, to reside in, to lie in; to involve; to be to
     The second step in this reaction consists of a phosphorolysis of thiol ester.
     One of the objectives of the overall experimental program involved a visual observation of the dynamic characteristics.
     The most effective way is to mix the catalyst completely with the fuel prior to ignition.
    Заключаться в том, что-- The similarity lay in the fact that the position of the damage was the same relative to the direction of rotation and to the rod shank drilling. Заключаться не в..., а в
     This suggests that the main potential for savings lies not in the design, but instead in the operating and maintenance practices.
     Their importance lies not only in their usefulness to every installation, but in the overall consistency of approach and data provided by software physics.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > заключаться

  • 31 πρόβατα

    Grammatical information: n. pl.
    Meaning: `cattle, herd, flock' (Il.), `small cattle', sg. - ον mostly `sheep' (Att., Gort. etc.); also name of an unknown fish (Opp., Ael.; because of the similarity of the head, cf. Strömberg Fischn. 102).
    Compounds: Compp., e.g. προβατο-γνώμων m. `knower of herds' (A.), πολυ-πρόβατος `rich of cattle, sheep' (Hdt., X.).
    Derivatives: 1. Dimin. προβάτ-ιον n. (Att.). 2. Adj. προβάτ-ειος (Arist.), - ικός (LXX, N.T.) `belonging to sheep (small cattle)', - ώδης `sheep-like' (sp.). 3. - ών (- εών Hdn.), - ῶνος m. `sheepfold' (hell. inscr. a. pap.). 4. - ήματα πρόβατα H. (after κτήματα, βοσκή-ματα etc.; Chantraine Form. 178). 5. - εύς m. `shepherd' (title of a com. of Antiph.). 6. - εύω `to keep, tend cattle, sheep' (D. H., App.) with - ευτικός, - εύσιμος, - ευτής, - εία. 7. Plant-names: - ειον, - ειος, - αία (Ps.-Dsc.) "sheep-herb" (cf. Strömberg Pfl. 137). -- To πρόβειος, rhythmical shortening for προβάτειος (An. Ox. a.o.) Palmer Class Quart. 33,31ff.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [463] * gʷeh₂- `go'
    Etymology: In the same sense as πρόβατα we find once in collective meaning the verbal abstract πρόβασις (β 75 κειμήλιά τε πρό-βασίν τε), which designates here the moving cattle as opposed to the life-less ("lying") property. The origin from προβαίνειν (thus already EM) is confirmed by it. Thus OIcel. ganganda fé "going cattle" = `living stock' beside liggjanda fé ' κειμήλια', Hitt. ii̯ant- `sheep' prop. "the going", ptc. of ii̯a- `go', Toch. A śemäl `small cattle', prop. vbaladj. of käm-, śäm- `come' (= βαίνειν). Typical for Greek is however the prefix προ-; so πρόβατα prop. "those going forward", a notion, which seems to require an other way of moving as opposite, but has a correspondence in Av. fra-čar- and Skt. pra-car- `move forward' (opposed to `remain motionless'); s. Benveniste BSL 45, 91 ff. with extensive treatment and criticism of diverging views (Lommel KZ 46, 46ff.; s. also Kretschmer Glotta 8, 269 f.). -- The plural πρόβατα is usu., esp. because of the dat. pl. πρόβασι (Hdn.) for the usual προβατοις (Hes.), considered as orig. consonant-stem πρόβατ-α, to which secondarily πρόβατον (Bq s.v., Schwyzer 499 with Risch 178, Benveniste l.c., Egli Heteroklisie 41 ff.); against this with good arguments Georgacas Glotta 36, 178 ff., who rightly points to other infinite active το-participles, e.g. στατός `standing' (s. ἵστημι). -- In the secondary sense of `sheep' πρόβατον has replaced the older ὄις.
    Page in Frisk: 2,597-598

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > πρόβατα

  • 32 amburo

    amb-ūro, ussi, ustum, 3, v. a., to burn around, to scorch (opp. exurere, to burn entirely up); also, with an extension of the idea, to burn wholly up, to consume (most freq. in part. perf.; class.).
    I.
    Lit.
    A.
    Hadrianus vivus exustus est:

    Verres sociorum ambustus incendio, tamen ex illā flammā periculoque evasit,

    Cic. Verr. 2, 1, 27:

    Herculis corpus ambustum,

    id. Sest. 68, 143:

    terret ambustus Phaëthon avaras spes,

    Hor. C. 4, 11, 25 al. —So Cicero jestingly calls the tribune of the people Munacius Plancus, at whose suggestion the enraged populace set fire to the senate-house, tribunus ambustus, the singed tribune of the people, Cic. Mil. 5, 12 Moeb.—Of those whom the lightning had struck, but not killed: Sen. Agam. 537:

    tot circa me jactis fulminibus quasi ambustus,

    Plin. Ep. 3, 11, 3; so Plaut. Ep. 5, 2, 9; id. Mil. 3, 2, 22:

    Cassius, quem fama est esse libris Ambustum propriis,

    Hor. S. 1, 10, 64:

    magna vis frumenti ambusta,

    Tac. H. 5, 12:

    ambustum theatrum,

    Suet. Claud. 21 al. —Hence, ambu-stum, i, n., in medic. lang., a burn:

    inflammatio recentis ambusti,

    Plin. 24, 8, 35, § 51:

    sedare ambusta,

    id. 24, 4, 5, § 10:

    ambusta sanare,

    id. 20, 20, 82, § 217:

    ambusta igne vel frigore,

    id. 24, 8, 29, § 45 al. —
    B.
    From the similarity of effect, to injure by cold, to nip, benumb (cf. aduro):

    ambusti multorum artus vi frigoris,

    Tac. A. 13, 35:

    ambusta pruinis lumina, i. e. oculi,

    Val. Fl. 4, 70.—
    II.
    Trop.
    A.
    Of property:

    ambustas fortunarum mearum reliquias,

    the charred remains, Cic. Dom. 43.—
    B.
    Of one who, when tried for an offence, comes off with great trouble:

    qui damnatione collegae et suā prope ambustus evaserat,

    had come off scorched, Liv. 22, 35.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > amburo

  • 33 ambustum

    amb-ūro, ussi, ustum, 3, v. a., to burn around, to scorch (opp. exurere, to burn entirely up); also, with an extension of the idea, to burn wholly up, to consume (most freq. in part. perf.; class.).
    I.
    Lit.
    A.
    Hadrianus vivus exustus est:

    Verres sociorum ambustus incendio, tamen ex illā flammā periculoque evasit,

    Cic. Verr. 2, 1, 27:

    Herculis corpus ambustum,

    id. Sest. 68, 143:

    terret ambustus Phaëthon avaras spes,

    Hor. C. 4, 11, 25 al. —So Cicero jestingly calls the tribune of the people Munacius Plancus, at whose suggestion the enraged populace set fire to the senate-house, tribunus ambustus, the singed tribune of the people, Cic. Mil. 5, 12 Moeb.—Of those whom the lightning had struck, but not killed: Sen. Agam. 537:

    tot circa me jactis fulminibus quasi ambustus,

    Plin. Ep. 3, 11, 3; so Plaut. Ep. 5, 2, 9; id. Mil. 3, 2, 22:

    Cassius, quem fama est esse libris Ambustum propriis,

    Hor. S. 1, 10, 64:

    magna vis frumenti ambusta,

    Tac. H. 5, 12:

    ambustum theatrum,

    Suet. Claud. 21 al. —Hence, ambu-stum, i, n., in medic. lang., a burn:

    inflammatio recentis ambusti,

    Plin. 24, 8, 35, § 51:

    sedare ambusta,

    id. 24, 4, 5, § 10:

    ambusta sanare,

    id. 20, 20, 82, § 217:

    ambusta igne vel frigore,

    id. 24, 8, 29, § 45 al. —
    B.
    From the similarity of effect, to injure by cold, to nip, benumb (cf. aduro):

    ambusti multorum artus vi frigoris,

    Tac. A. 13, 35:

    ambusta pruinis lumina, i. e. oculi,

    Val. Fl. 4, 70.—
    II.
    Trop.
    A.
    Of property:

    ambustas fortunarum mearum reliquias,

    the charred remains, Cic. Dom. 43.—
    B.
    Of one who, when tried for an offence, comes off with great trouble:

    qui damnatione collegae et suā prope ambustus evaserat,

    had come off scorched, Liv. 22, 35.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > ambustum

  • 34 ὀχέω

    ὀχέω, [tense] impf. ὤχουν prob. in E.Hel. 277; [dialect] Ion. Iterat.
    A

    ὀχέεσκον Od.11.619

    : [tense] fut.

    ὀχήσω A.Pr. 143

     (anap.), E.Or. 802 (troch.): [tense] aor.

    ὤκχησα Call.Jov.23

     (v. infr.):—[voice] Med. and [voice] Pass., [tense] impf.

    ὠχέετο Hdt.1.31

    ,

    - εῖτο X.Cyr.7.3.4

    : [tense] fut.

    ὀχήσομαι Il.24.731

    : [dialect] Ep. [tense] aor.

    ὀχήσατο Od.5.54

    : also [tense] aor.

    ὀχηθῆναι Hp.Art.58

    , Luc.Lex.2: [dialect] Aeol. [tense] pres. part.

    ὀχήμενος Lyr.Adesp.51

    : in [dialect] Att. Prose, used only in [tense] pres. and [tense] impf.: Hom. never uses the augm.: [the first syll. is made long in Pi.O.2.67, Euph. 9.13, Lyc.64,1049, where it is written [full] ὀκχέω (Pi. and Euph.) or [full] ὀγχέω (Lyc.), cf.

    ὄχος 1.1

    , ὄφις sub fin.]:—Frequentat. of ἔχω, as φορέω of φέρω (

    ἔχειν τε καὶ ὀχεῖν Pl.Cra. 400a

    ), hold fast, ἄγκυρα δ' ἥ μου τὰς τύχας ὤχει (sic leg.)

    μόνη E.Hel. 277

    .
    b endure, suffer,

    ὀχέοντας ὀϊζύν Od.7.211

    ;

    κακὸν μόρον.., ὅνπερ ἐγὼν ὀχέεσκον 11.619

    ;

    ἣν ἄτην ὀχέων 21.302

    ;

    ἀπροσόρατον ὀκχέοντι πόνον Pi.O.2.67

    ;

    ἄχθος ὀ. Hp.Fract.9

    ; τἀγαθὰ μὴ.. ὀ. εὐπόρως bear prosperity not with moderation, Democr.173.
    c continue, keep doing, νηπιάας ὀχέειν to keep on with childish ways, like ἔχειν, ἄγειν, Od.1.297; φρουρὰν ἄζηλον ὀχήσω will maintain an unenviable watch, A. l.c.
    2 carry,

    χερσὶ λύρην Thgn.534

    ; τινα E.Or. 802;

    φιάλην X.Cyr.1.3.8

    ; of the legs, carry the body, Hp.Art.52; so of the soul, Pl.Cra. l.c.
    3 let another ride, mount,

    αὐτὸς βαδίζω.., τοῦτον δ' ὀχῶ Ar. Ra.23

    ; of a general, let the men ride, X.Eq.Mag.4.1.
    II more freq. in [voice] Med. and [voice] Pass., to be borne or carried, have oneself borne,

    ὀχήσατο κύμασιν Ἑρμῆς Od.5.54

    ;

    νηυσὶν ὀχήσονται Il.24.731

    ;

    ἵπποισιν ὀχεῖτο h.Ven. 217

    ; so

    ἐπὶ τῆς ἁμάξης ὀχέεσθαι Hdt.1.31

    , cf. Ar.Pl. 1013;

    ἐπὶ τῶν ἵππων X.Cyr.4.5.58

    ;

    ἐφ' ἅρματος Pl.Ly. 208a

    ; ἐν [ἁρμαμάξῃ] X.Cyr.7.3.4;

    δελφῖνος περὶ νώτῳ Opp.H.5.449

    ; ἐπὶ θατέρου σκέλους ὀχοῦνται τὸ σῶμα let their weight rest on.., Plu.2.967c: metaph., to be carried or brought to ([etym.] ἐπί), Dam.Pr.26, cf. 68,99;

    ὁ χρόνος.. συνθεῖ [τῇ κινήσει] ὡς ἐπὶ φερομένης ὀχούμενος Plot.6.3.22

    .
    2 abs., drive, ride, sail, etc., [ἵπποι] ἀλεγεινοὶ.. ὀχέεσθαι difficult to use in a chariot, Il.10.403, cf. Ar.Ra.25, D.21.171; of a dislocated bone, which rides on the edge of another instead of resting in the socket, Hp.Art. 51.
    3 of a ship, ride at anchor, metaph., λεπτή τις ἐλπίς ἐστ' ἐφ' ἧς ὀχούμεθα 'tis but a slender hope on which we ride at anchor, Ar.Eq. 1244;

    ἐπὶ λεπτῶν ἐλπίδων ὠχεῖσθ' ἄρα Id.Fr. 150

    , cf. Pl.Lg. 699b; so

    ἐπ' ἀσθενοῦς ῥώμης E.Or.69

    ; but, ἐπὶ τούτου [τοῦ λόγου], ὥσπερ ἐπὶ σχεδίας buoyed up, carried, Pl.Phd. 85d;

    νεὼς ἐκπεσὼν.. ἐπ' ἐλπίδος ὀχεῖταί τινος Plu.2.1103e

    ; τὰ ὀχούμενα floating bodies, in title of work by Archimedes, Str.1.3.11, cf. 15.1.38, Hero Spir.1 Praef.;

    εἰδώλου καλοῦ ἐφ' ὕδατος ὀχουμένου Plot.1.6.8

    ; of Delos, οὗ νᾶσος ὀχεῖται floats, Orac. ap. D.H.1.19; cf. ὁρμέω.
    III = ὀχεύομαι, Arat.1070. (In signf. 1 cogn. with ἔχω (A), Skt. sáhate 'prevail': in signf. 11 cogn. with ϝέχω, Lat. veho, Skt. váhati, etc. 'carry': the similarity of the forms in Gr. has caused some assimilation of the senses.)

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > ὀχέω

  • 35 Phocis

    1.
    phōcis, ĭdis, f., a kind of pear-tree on the isle of Chios, Plin. 17, 24, 37, § 237.
    2.
    Phōcis, ĭdis, f., = Phôkis, the country between Bœotia and Ætolia, in which were the mountains of Parnassus and Helicon, the Castalian spring, and the river Cephisus, Mel. 2, 3, 4; Plin. 4, 3, 4, § 7; Liv. 28, 5, 16; Ov. M. 1, 313; Stat. Th. 1, 64.—
    2.
    Transf., erroneously, in consequence of the similarity in the sound, for Phocœa:

    Phocide relictā, Graii, qui nunc Massiliam colunt, etc.,

    Sen. Cons. ad Helv. 7, 8; Luc. 3, 340; 4, 256; Sid. Carm. 23, 13; Gell. 10, 16, 4.—Hence,
    A.
    Phōcenses, ium, m., the Phocians, Plin. 3, 5, 10, § 72; Just. 8, 1, 2; Sol. 2.—
    B.
    Phōcēus, a, um, adj., Phocian:

    rura,

    Ov. M. 5, 276:

    Anetor,

    id. ib. 11, 348:

    juvenis,

    Pylades, son of King Strophius of Phocis, id. Tr. 1, 5, 21.—
    C.
    Phōcĭi, ōrum m., the Phocians, Cic. Pis. 40, 96.—
    D.
    Phōcăĭcus, a, um, adj., Phocian:

    tellus,

    Ov. M. 2, 569:

    laurus,

    i. e. from Parnassus, Luc. 5, 143.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > Phocis

  • 36 phocis

    1.
    phōcis, ĭdis, f., a kind of pear-tree on the isle of Chios, Plin. 17, 24, 37, § 237.
    2.
    Phōcis, ĭdis, f., = Phôkis, the country between Bœotia and Ætolia, in which were the mountains of Parnassus and Helicon, the Castalian spring, and the river Cephisus, Mel. 2, 3, 4; Plin. 4, 3, 4, § 7; Liv. 28, 5, 16; Ov. M. 1, 313; Stat. Th. 1, 64.—
    2.
    Transf., erroneously, in consequence of the similarity in the sound, for Phocœa:

    Phocide relictā, Graii, qui nunc Massiliam colunt, etc.,

    Sen. Cons. ad Helv. 7, 8; Luc. 3, 340; 4, 256; Sid. Carm. 23, 13; Gell. 10, 16, 4.—Hence,
    A.
    Phōcenses, ium, m., the Phocians, Plin. 3, 5, 10, § 72; Just. 8, 1, 2; Sol. 2.—
    B.
    Phōcēus, a, um, adj., Phocian:

    rura,

    Ov. M. 5, 276:

    Anetor,

    id. ib. 11, 348:

    juvenis,

    Pylades, son of King Strophius of Phocis, id. Tr. 1, 5, 21.—
    C.
    Phōcĭi, ōrum m., the Phocians, Cic. Pis. 40, 96.—
    D.
    Phōcăĭcus, a, um, adj., Phocian:

    tellus,

    Ov. M. 2, 569:

    laurus,

    i. e. from Parnassus, Luc. 5, 143.

    Lewis & Short latin dictionary > phocis

  • 37 κύτινος

    Grammatical information: m.
    Meaning: `flower, prop. the kalyx of the pomegranate' (Thphr., Dsc., Gal.) also `Cytinus hypocisthis' (Dsc. 1, 97; because of the similarity of the flower of the granate).
    Derivatives: κυτινώδης 'κ. -like' (Thphr.)
    Origin: PG [a word of Pre-Greek origin]
    Etymology: A loan seems probable (cf. Schwyzer 491), but it has also been connected with κύτος `hollow, vessel' because of the chalice (like ἄνθινος: ἄνθος etc.). - Fur. 182 compares κύταρον ζωμήρυσις (`spoon'), κύδαρος, ον `small ship ' κύτταρος `cell of a honeycomb', `chalice of the Egyptian bean' (Thphr.), `chalice of an acorn' (Thphr.), κυττοί `receptacle', κύστεροι = ἀγγεῖα τῶν μελισσων̃ (Η.). This would point to a Pre-Greek word..
    Page in Frisk: 2,56-57

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > κύτινος

  • 38 μεσηγύ

    μεσ(σ)ηγύ(ς)
    Grammatical information: adv.
    Meaning: `in the middle, between' (Il., Hp., Eratosth.).
    Other forms: μεσηγύς only Orph.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [463] * medhieh₁-gʷu- `going in the middle'
    Etymology: On the facultative -ς Schwyzer 404 a. 620. The similarity with ἐγγύς is obvious, whether because of the same origin or analogy (Risch ̨ 126 a), is unknown. After Pisani Ist. Lomb. 73: 2, 47 to βαίνω as "qui medius it" (?); thus also on ἐγγύς and πρέσβυς (s. vv.). Thus also De Lamberterie, RPh. 72(1998)132, with μεσση as instrumental as in Skt. madhyā́ `in the middle' (after Forssman IF 191(1996)305), and a root * gʷeu- beside * gʷem-, gʷeh₂-. Also further the explanations are parallel (s. Bq). Improbable attempt to connect μεσσηγύς and ἐγγύς with ξύν, by Sánchez Ruipérez Emer. 15, 61 ff.
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    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > μεσηγύ

  • 39 μεσηγύς

    μεσ(σ)ηγύ(ς)
    Grammatical information: adv.
    Meaning: `in the middle, between' (Il., Hp., Eratosth.).
    Other forms: μεσηγύς only Orph.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [463] * medhieh₁-gʷu- `going in the middle'
    Etymology: On the facultative -ς Schwyzer 404 a. 620. The similarity with ἐγγύς is obvious, whether because of the same origin or analogy (Risch ̨ 126 a), is unknown. After Pisani Ist. Lomb. 73: 2, 47 to βαίνω as "qui medius it" (?); thus also on ἐγγύς and πρέσβυς (s. vv.). Thus also De Lamberterie, RPh. 72(1998)132, with μεσση as instrumental as in Skt. madhyā́ `in the middle' (after Forssman IF 191(1996)305), and a root * gʷeu- beside * gʷem-, gʷeh₂-. Also further the explanations are parallel (s. Bq). Improbable attempt to connect μεσσηγύς and ἐγγύς with ξύν, by Sánchez Ruipérez Emer. 15, 61 ff.
    Page in Frisk: 2,215

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > μεσηγύς

  • 40 μεσσηγύ

    μεσ(σ)ηγύ(ς)
    Grammatical information: adv.
    Meaning: `in the middle, between' (Il., Hp., Eratosth.).
    Other forms: μεσηγύς only Orph.
    Origin: IE [Indo-European] [463] * medhieh₁-gʷu- `going in the middle'
    Etymology: On the facultative -ς Schwyzer 404 a. 620. The similarity with ἐγγύς is obvious, whether because of the same origin or analogy (Risch ̨ 126 a), is unknown. After Pisani Ist. Lomb. 73: 2, 47 to βαίνω as "qui medius it" (?); thus also on ἐγγύς and πρέσβυς (s. vv.). Thus also De Lamberterie, RPh. 72(1998)132, with μεσση as instrumental as in Skt. madhyā́ `in the middle' (after Forssman IF 191(1996)305), and a root * gʷeu- beside * gʷem-, gʷeh₂-. Also further the explanations are parallel (s. Bq). Improbable attempt to connect μεσσηγύς and ἐγγύς with ξύν, by Sánchez Ruipérez Emer. 15, 61 ff.
    Page in Frisk: 2,215

    Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > μεσσηγύ

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