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the+principal+of+a+firm

  • 1 the principal of a firm

    Макаров: глава фирмы

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > the principal of a firm

  • 2 (the) principal of a firm

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > (the) principal of a firm

  • 3 principal of a firm

    English-Russian base dictionary > principal of a firm

  • 4 principal

    1. n глава, начальник; патрон, принципал

    disclosed principal — названный, поименованный принципал

    2. n ректор университета
    3. n директор колледжа
    4. n директор школы
    5. n «звезда», ведущий актёр или ведущая актриса
    6. n дуэлист, участник дуэли
    7. n главный должник
    8. n юр. главный преступник, виновник
    9. n юр. доверитель; комитент; заказчик
    10. n участник договора
    11. n фин. капитальная сумма; основная сумма; капитал
    12. n стр. стропильная ферма
    13. n муз. ведущий исполнитель
    14. n муз. солист
    15. a главный, основной
    16. a ведущий

    principal boy — травести, актриса, исполняющая ведущую роль мальчика или юноши

    Синонимический ряд:
    1. first (adj.) arch; capital; cardinal; champion; chief; controlling; dominant; first; foremost; head; key; leading; major; number one; outstanding; paramount; predominant; preeminent; pre-eminent; premier; prime; star; stellar; top; ultimate
    2. main (adj.) main; predominate; prevalent; primary; prominent; ruling; unrivaled
    3. assets (noun) assets; capital; investments; means; resources
    4. dean (noun) dean; director; headmaster; proctor; rector; superintendent
    5. head (noun) administrator; chief; chieftain; head; leader; master; preceptor
    6. lead (noun) lead; protagonist; star
    Антонимический ряд:
    accessory; added; additional; ancillary; auxiliary; dependent; helping; immaterial; inconsiderable; inferior; insignificant; minor; negligible; nugatory; secondary; student

    English-Russian base dictionary > principal

  • 5 principal

    1. [ʹprınsıp(ə)l] n
    1. глава, начальник; патрон, принципал
    2. 1) ректор университета
    2) директор колледжа
    3) директор школы
    3. «звезда», ведущий актёр или ведущая актриса
    4. дуэлист, участник дуэли
    5. главный должник
    6. юр. главный преступник, виновник
    7. юр. доверитель; комитент; заказчик
    8. участник договора
    9. фин. капитальная сумма; основная сумма; капитал (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты)
    10. фин. номинал векселя
    11. стр. стропильная ферма
    12. муз.
    1) ведущий исполнитель
    2) солист
    2. [ʹprınsıp(ə)l] a
    1. 1) главный, основной

    principal towns [rivers] - главные города [реки]

    principal sum = principal I 9

    principal axis - спец. главная ось

    principal attack - воен. главный удар

    principal reserves - воен. общий резерв

    principal rafter - стр. главная стропильная нога

    2) ведущий

    principal boy - театр. травести, актриса, исполняющая ведущую роль мальчика или юноши ( в детском спектакле)

    2. грам. главный

    НБАРС > principal

  • 6 principal

    1. сущ.
    1) общ. глава, начальник, руководитель
    2) обр., амер. директор ( школы или колледжа); ректор ( университета)
    3)
    а) эк., юр. принципал, доверитель (сторона, которая назначает другую действовать по ее поручению в качестве агента или доверенного лица; в американском праве по форме контроля выделяют такие виды принципалов: хозяин, работодатель, контрактор)
    See:
    б) эк., юр. комитент (лицо, дающее поручение другому лицу, комиссионеру, заключить определенную сделку или ряд сделок от имени последнего, но за счет комитента)
    4) юр. участник договора (участвует в сделке от своего лица, в отличие от агентов)
    5)
    а) фин., банк. основная [капитальная\] сумма (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты; фактическая сумма депозита, кредита или инвестиции без учета процентов)
    See:
    б) фин. основная сумма; номинал (векселя, облигации и т. д.; основная сумма долга, оформленного облигацией или иной ценной бумагой, которая будет выплачена ее держателю на дату погашения)
    See:
    6) фин. главный [основной\] должник (первичный должник по кредиту, в противоположность гаранту)
    See:
    7) юр. главный преступник [виновник, обвиняемый\]
    8) общ. ведущий актер или актриса; ведущий исполнитель
    2. прил.
    1) общ. главный, основной
    See:
    2) общ. ведущий

    * * *
    1) номинальная, или "основная", сумма кредита, займа, депозита, инвестиций, в отличие от процентных платежей или дохода; 2) принципал: лицо, действующее за свой счет; основной участник сделки; 3) партнер фирмы (товарищества), отвечающий за ее обязательства и в полной мере участвующий в прибылях; 4) владелец частного бизнеса, обладатель контрольного пакета акций.
    * * *
    Основная сумма. Принципал
    . (1) Общая сумма денег, взятых или данных взаймы. (2) Сторона, затрагиваемая решениями агента в отношениях 'принципал-агент' . Инвестиционная деятельность .
    * * *
    лицо, уполномочивающее агента действовать от его имени
    -----
    Финансы/Кредит/Валюта
    2.сумма долга, на которую начисляется процент
    -----
    Ценные бумаги/Биржевая деятельность
    доверитель, лицо, от чьего имени действует брокер
    -----
    лицо, от чьего имени действует агент, брокер

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > principal

  • 7 principal

    1. n
    1) глава; начальник; патрон; принципал
    2) ректор університету; директор коледжу
    3) амер. директор школи
    4) провідний актор, провідна актриса; «зірка»
    5) головний боржник
    6) юр. головний злочинець (винуватець)
    7) дуеліст, учасник дуелі
    8) фін. капітал, загальна сума
    9) буд. крокви
    2. adj
    1) головний, основний

    principal reservesвійськ. загальний резерв

    2) провідний

    principal boy — актриса, що виконує провідну роль хлопчика (юнака) у дитячому спектаклі

    3) грам. головний

    principal challengeюр. відхилення присяжного через очевидну упередженість

    * * *
    I n
    1) глава, начальник; патрон, принципал
    2) ректор університету; директор коледжу; директор школи
    3) провідний актор або провідна актриса
    4) дуеліст, учасник дуелі
    6) юp. головний злочинець, винуватець
    7) юp. довіритель; комітент; замовник
    9) eк. капітальна сума; основна сума; капітал (сума, на яку нараховуються відсотки)
    10) eк. номінал векселя
    11) бyд. кроквяна ферма
    12) мyз. провідний виконавець; соліст
    II a
    1) головний, основний; ведучий, провідний
    2) гpaм. головний

    English-Ukrainian dictionary > principal

  • 8 firm

    ̈ɪfə:m I сущ. фирма а) слово, которым в юридической и финансовой документации обозначается организация, о которой составляется документ б) торговый дом, компания, предприятие to manage, operate, run a firm ≈ управлять фирмой to establish a firmосновать фирму advertising firmрекламная фирма business firm ≈ коммерческая компания manufacturing firmпроизводственное предприятие shipping firmсудоходная компания II
    1. прил.
    1) крепкий, прочный, твердый to be on firm groundчувствовать твердую почву под ногами;
    чувствовать себя уверенно Syn: strong, solid
    2) а) устойчивый, зафиксированный( о положении предмета в пространстве) Syn: steady, stable б) фин. конкурентоспособный, устойчивый The pound was firm against the dollar. ≈ Курс фунта был устойчив по отношению к доллару. Syn: competitive
    3) учрежденный, принятый( о положении, законе и т.д.) Syn: fixed, settled, established
    4) о человеке а) непоколебимый, непреклонный, решительный It is my firm belief. ≈ Я свято верю в это. (Моя вера в это непоколебима.) Syn: constant, steadfast;
    unflinching, unshaken, unwavering;
    resolute, determined, wilful б) строгий( with) firm with the children ≈ строг к детям Syn: strict
    2. нареч. крепко, твердо Syn: fixedly, steadfastly
    3. гл.
    1) а) сжимать(ся), натягивать(ся) (тж. firm up) Syn: tighten б) уплотнять, утрамбовывать (напр., землю)
    2) приводить в порядок, улаживать;
    окончательно устанавливать to firm a contractустановить контакт to firm up plansутвердить план Syn: settle
    3) укреплять (оказывать дополнительную поддержку) Syn: strengthen фирма;
    торговый дом > long * компания мошенников, закупающих товары в кредит от имени несуществующей фирмы твердый - * ground суша - to be on * ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами, чувствовать себя уверенно - * flesh упругое тело крепкий, прочный, устойчивый - * foundation прочный фундамент, прочное основание - * nerves крепкие нервы - a * seat in the saddle устойчивая посадка в седле - roots * in the earth корни, крепко сидящие в земле - to be * on one's legs крепко держаться на ногах - to walk with a * tread идти уверенной походкой твердый, неизменный - * prices твердые цены - * power (американизм) обеспеченная мощность электростанции твердый, непоколебимый, нерушимый, верный (своим убеждениям) - * conviction твердое убеждение - * faith /belief/ твердая вера - * friends верные друзья решительный, настойчивый - * measures решительные меры - * treatment of children строгое обращение с детьми - * chin упрямый подбородок - * offer окончательное предложение - to look * иметь непреклонный вид - to take a * hold of smth. взять что-л. в свои руки > to rule with a * hand править твердой рукой > to be as * as a rock быть твердым, как скала;
    не поддаваться искушениям крепко, твердо, прочно, неизменно - to stand * стоять прочно (тж. перен.) - to hold * to smth. крепко держаться за что-л., прочно придерживаться чего-л. укреплять;
    уплотнять - to * the soil уплотнять почву - to * the ground after planting утрамбовывать землю после посадки растений укрепляться;
    уплотняться (тж. * up) застывать - the jelly *ed quickly желе быстро застыло замораживать (цены и т. п.;
    тж. * up) - we must act to * the prices up мы должны принять меры к тому, чтобы сохранить прежний уровень цен affiliated ~ включенная в качестве филиала фирма banking ~ банк bartering ~ фирма, заключающая бартерные сделки ~ крепкий, твердый;
    firm ground суша;
    to be on firm ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами;
    чувствовать себя уверенно bogus ~ фиктивная фирма business ~ торговая фирма business ~ торгово-промышленная фирма business ~ торговый дом buy a ~ приобретать фирму capital transacting ~ фирма, ведущая операции с капиталом civil engineering ~ гражданское строительство civil engineering ~ строительная фирма cliffhanger ~ конкурирующая фирма commercial ~ торговая компания conditional sale ~ фирма, ведущая условную продажу construction ~ строительная компания firm компания ~ крепкий, твердый;
    firm ground суша;
    to be on firm ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами;
    чувствовать себя уверенно ~ постоянный ~ решительный;
    настойчивый;
    firm measures решительные меры ~ твердый, крепкий ~ твердый ~ твердо, крепко ~ товарищество ~ торговый дом ~ укреплять(ся) ;
    уплотнять(ся) ;
    to firm the ground after planting утрамбовать землю после посадки растений ~ укреплять ~ устойчивый;
    стойкий, непоколебимый;
    firm step твердая поступь;
    firm prices устойчивые цены;
    (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала ~ устойчивый ~ фирма, торговый дом;
    long firm компания мошенников ~ фирма ~ фирменное наименование ~ устойчивый;
    стойкий, непоколебимый;
    firm step твердая поступь;
    firm prices устойчивые цены;
    (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала ~ крепкий, твердый;
    firm ground суша;
    to be on firm ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами;
    чувствовать себя уверенно ~ решительный;
    настойчивый;
    firm measures решительные меры ~ of accountants ревизорская фирма ~ of attorneys адвокатская контора ~ of auditors аудиторская фирма ~ of auditors ревизорская фирма ~ of bankers банковская фирма ~ of solicitors адвокатская контора ~ of solicitors адвокатская фирма ~ of stockbrokers фирма фондовых брокеров ~ of translators переводческая фирма ~ устойчивый;
    стойкий, непоколебимый;
    firm step твердая поступь;
    firm prices устойчивые цены;
    (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала ~ устойчивый;
    стойкий, непоколебимый;
    firm step твердая поступь;
    firm prices устойчивые цены;
    (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала ~ укреплять(ся) ;
    уплотнять(ся) ;
    to firm the ground after planting утрамбовать землю после посадки растений furniture removal ~ фирма по перевозке мебели heavy goods ~ фирма, изготавливающая крупногабаритные изделия import ~ импортирующая фирма law ~ адвокатская фирма law ~ контора адвокатов law ~ юридическая фирма ~ фирма, торговый дом;
    long firm компания мошенников mail-order ~ компания посылочной торговли multiunit ~ фирма с несколькими отделениями on ~ за счет фирмы original ~ главная фирма parent ~ фирма, владеющая контрольным пакетом другой корпорации;
    фирма-учредитель personally owned ~ фирма, находящаяся в личном владении principal ~ основная фирма private security ~ частная страховая фирма publishing ~ издательская фирма removal ~ транспортная фирма rival ~ конкурирующая фирма sales ~ сбытовая фирма securities ~ фирма, ведущая операции с ценными бумагами security ~ фирма, ведущая операции с ценными бумагами shipping ~ судостроительная фирма shipping ~ судоходная фирма single-unit ~ компания, владеющая одним предриятием stockbroking ~ фирма, ведущая операции с фондовыми ценностями trading ~ торговая фирма wholesale ~ оптовая фирма

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > firm

  • 9 firm

    [̈ɪfə:m]
    affiliated firm включенная в качестве филиала фирма banking firm банк bartering firm фирма, заключающая бартерные сделки firm крепкий, твердый; firm ground суша; to be on firm ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами; чувствовать себя уверенно bogus firm фиктивная фирма business firm торговая фирма business firm торгово-промышленная фирма business firm торговый дом buy a firm приобретать фирму capital transacting firm фирма, ведущая операции с капиталом civil engineering firm гражданское строительство civil engineering firm строительная фирма cliffhanger firm конкурирующая фирма commercial firm торговая компания conditional sale firm фирма, ведущая условную продажу construction firm строительная компания firm компания firm крепкий, твердый; firm ground суша; to be on firm ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами; чувствовать себя уверенно firm постоянный firm решительный; настойчивый; firm measures решительные меры firm твердый, крепкий firm твердый firm твердо, крепко firm товарищество firm торговый дом firm укреплять(ся); уплотнять(ся); to firm the ground after planting утрамбовать землю после посадки растений firm укреплять firm устойчивый; стойкий, непоколебимый; firm step твердая поступь; firm prices устойчивые цены; (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала firm устойчивый firm фирма, торговый дом; long firm компания мошенников firm фирма firm фирменное наименование firm устойчивый; стойкий, непоколебимый; firm step твердая поступь; firm prices устойчивые цены; (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала firm крепкий, твердый; firm ground суша; to be on firm ground чувствовать твердую почву под ногами; чувствовать себя уверенно firm решительный; настойчивый; firm measures решительные меры firm of accountants ревизорская фирма firm of attorneys адвокатская контора firm of auditors аудиторская фирма firm of auditors ревизорская фирма firm of bankers банковская фирма firm of solicitors адвокатская контора firm of solicitors адвокатская фирма firm of stockbrokers фирма фондовых брокеров firm of translators переводческая фирма firm устойчивый; стойкий, непоколебимый; firm step твердая поступь; firm prices устойчивые цены; (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала firm устойчивый; стойкий, непоколебимый; firm step твердая поступь; firm prices устойчивые цены; (as) firm as a rock твердый или неподвижный как скала firm укреплять(ся); уплотнять(ся); to firm the ground after planting утрамбовать землю после посадки растений furniture removal firm фирма по перевозке мебели heavy goods firm фирма, изготавливающая крупногабаритные изделия import firm импортирующая фирма law firm адвокатская фирма law firm контора адвокатов law firm юридическая фирма firm фирма, торговый дом; long firm компания мошенников mail-order firm компания посылочной торговли multiunit firm фирма с несколькими отделениями on firm за счет фирмы original firm главная фирма parent firm фирма, владеющая контрольным пакетом другой корпорации; фирма-учредитель personally owned firm фирма, находящаяся в личном владении principal firm основная фирма private security firm частная страховая фирма publishing firm издательская фирма removal firm транспортная фирма rival firm конкурирующая фирма sales firm сбытовая фирма securities firm фирма, ведущая операции с ценными бумагами security firm фирма, ведущая операции с ценными бумагами shipping firm судостроительная фирма shipping firm судоходная фирма single-unit firm компания, владеющая одним предриятием stockbroking firm фирма, ведущая операции с фондовыми ценностями trading firm торговая фирма wholesale firm оптовая фирма

    English-Russian short dictionary > firm

  • 10 principal

    ˈprɪnsəpəl
    1. сущ.
    1) а) глава, начальник;
    патрон б) ректор( университета) ;
    директор колледжа/школы в) принципал (лицо, уполномочивающее другое лицо действовать в качестве агента;
    глава, хозяин)
    2) а) ведущий актер;
    ведущая актриса;
    звезда б) муз. ведущий исполнитель;
    солист Syn: star
    3) юр. а) главный виновник, главный обвиняемый б) доверитель;
    комитент;
    заказчик
    4) экон. основная сумма, капитал (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты) principal and interestкапитал и проценты
    5) строит. а) главный элемент несущей конструкции б) стропильная ферма
    6) вчт. администратор доступа (напр. к базе данных)
    2. прил.
    1) а) главный, основной;
    грам. главный principal activityосновная деятельность principal clauseглавное предложение Syn: chief, main б) ведущий principal officer ≈ главный/ведущий сотрудник
    2) кардинальный, принципиальный глава, начальник;
    патрон, принципиал - the * of a firm глава фирмы ректор университета директор колледжа директор школы "звезда", ведущий актер или ведущая актриса дуэлист, участник дуэли главный должник (юридическое) главный преступник, виновник ( юридическое) доверитель;
    комитент;
    заказчик участник договора - *s to contract непосредственные участники договора( финансовое) капитальная сумма;
    основная сумма;
    капитал (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты) - * and interest капитал и проценты (финансовое) номинал векселя (строительство) стропильная ферма( музыкальное) ведущий исполнитель солист главный, основной - * cause главная причина - * towns главные города - * sum (финансовое) капитальная сумма;
    основная сумма;
    капитал (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты) - * office главная контора - the * citizens of a town отцы города - * axis (специальное) главная ось - * attack( военное) главный удар - * reserves( военное) общий резерв - * rafter( строительство) главная стропильная нога ведущий - * boy (театроведение) травести, актриса, исполняющая ведущую роль мальчика или юноши (в детском спектакле) - * dancer прима-балерина (грамматика) главный - * clause главное предложение - * parts of the verb основные формы глагола principal вчт. администратор доступа ~ ведущий;
    principal staff ответственные сотрудники или работники ~ ведущий актер;
    ведущая актриса ~ глава, начальник;
    патрон;
    принципал ~ глава ~ главная вещь (в отличие от принадлежности) ~ грам. главный;
    principal clause главное предложение;
    principal parts of the verb основные формы глагола ~ главный, основной;
    principal sum основной капитал ~ главный, основной ~ вчт. главный ~ главный ~ юр. главный виновник ~ главный виновник ~ главный преступник ~ директор колледжа ~ директор школы ~ доверитель ~ заказчик ~ исполнитель преступления ~ капитал (в отличие от доходов на капитал) ~ капитальная сумма ~ начальник ~ общая сумма ~ эк. основная сумма, капитал (сумма, на которую начисляются проценты) ~ основная сумма (в отличие от процентов) ~ основная сумма ~ основной ~ основной должник( в отличие от поручителя) ~ основной должник ~ партнер фирмы, отвечающей за ее обязательства и в полной мере участвующей в прибылях ~ принципал, доверитель ~ принципал ~ ректор университета;
    директор колледжа или школы ~ ректор университета ~ стр. стропильная ферма ~ участник договора ~ of first degree исполнитель первой степени ~ of first degree лицо, фактически совершающее преступление ~ of loan основная сумма долга ~ грам. главный;
    principal clause главное предложение;
    principal parts of the verb основные формы глагола ~ ведущий;
    principal staff ответственные сотрудники или работники ~ главный, основной;
    principal sum основной капитал undisclosed ~ неназванный принципиал

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > principal

  • 11 principal

    n
    1) глава, начальник, руководитель
    3) капитал, основная сумма
    4) развед. жарг. агент-связник
    - principal of the firm
    - principals of the contract

    Politics english-russian dictionary > principal

  • 12 PRINCIPAL-AGENT THEORY

    Теория взаимоотношений между принципалом и агентом
    Изучение проблем, связанных с тем, что при найме принципалом (например владельцем компании) агента (например менеджера) для управления своей компанией на контрактной основе может возникнуть конфликт интересов, выражающийся в преследовании принципалом и агентом разных целей. В большинстве случаев в трудовых контрактах строго не оговариваются права и обязанности сторон (так называемые неполные контракты (incomplete contracts)), что открывает агентам возможность действовать в своих собственных интересах, иногда в ущерб интересам принципала. Следовательно, задача принципала состоит в создании условий для максимально эффективной работы агента через систему стимулирования (см. Executive share option scheme, Employee share ownership plans). Взаимоотношения между принципалом и агентом свидетельствуют о наличии асимметричной информации (см. Asymmetric information). См. также Managerial theories of the firm, Managementutility maximization, Behavioural theory of thr firm, Satisficing theory, Firm objectives.

    Новый англо-русский словарь-справочник. Экономика. > PRINCIPAL-AGENT THEORY

  • 13 principal of the firm

    Politics english-russian dictionary > principal of the firm

  • 14 Messel, Rudolf

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 14 January 1848 Darmstadt, Germany
    d. 18 April 1920 London, England
    [br]
    German industrial chemist.
    [br]
    Messel served three years as an apprentice to the chemical manufacturers E.Lucius of Frankfurt before studying chemistry at Zürich, Heidelberg and Tübingen. In 1870 he travelled to England to assist the distinguished chemist Sir Henry Roscoe, but was soon recalled to Germany on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. After hostilities ceased, Messel returned to London to join the firm of manufacturers of sulphuric acid Dunn, Squire \& Company of Stratford, London. The firm amalgamated with Spencer Chapman, and after Messel became its Managing Director in 1878 it was known as Spencer, Chapman \& Messel Ltd.
    Messel's principal contribution to chemical technology was the invention of the contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Earlier processes for making this essential product, now needed in ever-increasing quantities by the new processes for making dyestuffs, fertilizers and explosives, were based on the oxidation of sulphur dioxide by oxides of nitrogen, developed by Joshua Ward and John Roebuck. Attempts to oxidize the dioxide to the trioxide with the oxygen in the air in the presence of a suitable catalyst had so far failed because the catalyst had become "poisoned" and ineffective; Messel avoided this by using highly purified gases. The contact process produced a concentrated form of sulphuric acid called oleum. Until the outbreak of the First World War, Messel's firm was the principal manufacturer, but then the demand rose sharply, so that other firms had to engage in its manufacture. Production thereby increased from 20,000 to 450,000 tons per year.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1912. President, Society of Chemical Industry 1911–12, 1914.
    Further Reading
    1931, Special jubilee issue, Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry (July). G.T.Morgan and D.D.Pratt, 1938, The British Chemical Industry, London.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Messel, Rudolf

  • 15 фирма

    жен. firm дистрибьюторная фирмаdistributorship издательская фирмаpublishing firm, publishing house
    фирм|а - ж. firm, company, concern, house;
    арендная ~ leasing company, lessor;
    аудиторская ~ auditor firm;
    внешнеторговая ~ foreign trade company;
    государственная ~ state firm;
    дочерняя ~ affiliated firm, subsidiary;
    страховая ~ insurance company;
    строительная ~ civil engineering firm, constructors;
    туристическая ~ travel company;
    экспортная ~ export firm;
    бланк ~ы form of a company;
    главаexecutive director;
    principal of a firm;
    senior partner;
    деятельность ~ы firm`s/company`s operations/activity;
    капиталcapital of a firm;
    ликвидация ~ы liquidation/closing down/of a firm/company;
    структура ~ы setup/structure of a company;
    основывать ~у establish/set up, found a company/ firm;
    сотрудничать с ~ой cooperate/do* business with a firm;
    ~енный the firm`s own;
    ~енное блюдо specialty of the house;
    ~енный бланк letterhead;
    ~енная этикетка proprietary label.

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > фирма

  • 16 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
    ————————————————————————————————————————

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 17 Bollée, Ernest-Sylvain

    [br]
    b. 19 July 1814 Clefmont (Haute-Marne), France
    d. 11 September 1891 Le Mans, France
    [br]
    French inventor of the rotor-stator wind engine and founder of the Bollée manufacturing industry.
    [br]
    Ernest-Sylvain Bollée was the founder of an extensive dynasty of bellfounders based in Le Mans and in Orléans. He and his three sons, Amédée (1844–1917), Ernest-Sylvain fils (1846–1917) and Auguste (1847-?), were involved in work and patents on steam-and petrol-driven cars, on wind engines and on hydraulic rams. The presence of the Bollées' car industry in Le Mans was a factor in the establishment of the car races that are held there.
    In 1868 Ernest-Sylvain Bollée père took out a patent for a wind engine, which at that time was well established in America and in England. In both these countries, variable-shuttered as well as fixed-blade wind engines were in production and patented, but the Ernest-Sylvain Bollée patent was for a type of wind engine that had not been seen before and is more akin to the water-driven turbine of the Jonval type, with its basic principle being parallel to the "rotor" and "stator". The wind drives through a fixed ring of blades on to a rotating ring that has a slightly greater number of blades. The blades of the fixed ring are curved in the opposite direction to those on the rotating blades and thus the air is directed onto the latter, causing it to rotate at a considerable speed: this is the "rotor". For greater efficiency a cuff of sheet iron can be attached to the "stator", giving a tunnel effect and driving more air at the "rotor". The head of this wind engine is turned to the wind by means of a wind-driven vane mounted in front of the blades. The wind vane adjusts the wind angle to enable the wind engine to run at a constant speed.
    The fact that this wind engine was invented by the owner of a brass foundry, with all the gear trains between the wind vane and the head of the tower being of the highest-quality brass and, therefore, small in scale, lay behind its success. Also, it was of prefabricated construction, so that fixed lengths of cast-iron pillar were delivered, complete with twelve treads of cast-iron staircase fixed to the outside and wrought-iron stays. The drive from the wind engine was taken down the inside of the pillar to pumps at ground level.
    Whilst the wind engines were being built for wealthy owners or communes, the work of the foundry continued. The three sons joined the family firm as partners and produced several steam-driven vehicles. These vehicles were the work of Amédée père and were l'Obéissante (1873); the Autobus (1880–3), of which some were built in Berlin under licence; the tram Bollée-Dalifol (1876); and the private car La Mancelle (1878). Another important line, in parallel with the pumping mechanism required for the wind engines, was the development of hydraulic rams, following the Montgolfier patent. In accordance with French practice, the firm was split three ways when Ernest-Sylvain Bollée père died. Amédée père inherited the car side of the business, but it is due to Amédée fils (1867– 1926) that the principal developments in car manufacture came into being. He developed the petrol-driven car after the impetus given by his grandfather, his father and his uncle Ernest-Sylvain fils. In 1887 he designed a four-stroke single-cylinder engine, although he also used engines designed by others such as Peugeot. He produced two luxurious saloon cars before putting Torpilleur on the road in 1898; this car competed in the Tour de France in 1899. Whilst designing other cars, Amédée's son Léon (1870–1913) developed the Voiturette, in 1896, and then began general manufacture of small cars on factory lines. The firm ceased work after a merger with the English firm of Morris in 1926. Auguste inherited the Eolienne or wind-engine side of the business; however, attracted to the artistic life, he sold out to Ernest Lebert in 1898 and settled in the Paris of the Impressionists. Lebert developed the wind-engine business and retained the basic "stator-rotor" form with a conventional lattice tower. He remained in Le Mans, carrying on the business of the manufacture of wind engines, pumps and hydraulic machinery, describing himself as a "Civil Engineer".
    The hydraulic-ram business fell to Ernest-Sylvain fils and continued to thrive from a solid base of design and production. The foundry in Le Mans is still there but, more importantly, the bell foundry of Dominique Bollée in Saint-Jean-de-Braye in Orléans is still at work casting bells in the old way.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    André Gaucheron and J.Kenneth Major, 1985, The Eolienne Bollée, The International Molinological Society.
    Cénomane (Le Mans), 11, 12 and 13 (1983 and 1984).
    KM

    Biographical history of technology > Bollée, Ernest-Sylvain

  • 18 Arup, Sir Ove

    [br]
    b. 16 April 1895 Newcastle upon Tyne, England
    d. 5 February 1988 Highgate, London, England
    [br]
    English consultant engineer.
    [br]
    Of Scandinavian parentage, Arup attended school in Germany and Denmark before taking his degree in mathematics and philosophy at Copenhagen University in 1914. He then graduated as a civil engineer from the Royal Technical College in the same city, specializing in the theory of structures.
    Arup retained close ties with Europe for some time, working in Hamburg as a designer for the Danish civil engineering firm of Christiani \& Nielsen. Then, in the 1930s, he began what was to be a long career in England as an engineering consultant to a number of architects who were beginning to build with modern materials (par-ticularly concrete) and methods of construction. He became consultant to the famous firm of Tecton (under the direction of Berthold Lubetkin) and was closely associated with the leading projects of that firm at the time, notably the High-point flats at Highgate, the Finsbury Health Centre and the award-winning Penguin Pool at the Regent's Park Zoological Gardens, all in London.
    In 1945 Arup founded his own firm, Ove Arup \& Partners, working entirely as a consultant to architects, particularly on structural schemes, and in 1963 he set up a partnership of architects and engineers, Arup Associates. The many and varied projects with which he was concerned included Coventry Cathedral and the University of Sussex with Sir Basil Spence, the Sydney Opera House with Joern Utzon and St Catherine's College, Oxford, with Arne Jacobsen.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    CBE 1953. Commander of the Order of Danneborg, awarded by King Frederik of Denmark, 1975. Honorary Doctorate Tekniske Hojskole, Lyngby, Denmark 1954. Honorary DSc Durham University 1967, University of East Anglia 1968, Heriot-Watt University 1976. RIBA Gold Medal 1966. Institution of Structural Engineers Gold Medal 1973. Fellow of the American Concrete Institution 1975.
    Further Reading
    J.M.Richards, 1953, An Introduction to Modern Architecture, London: Penguin. H.Russell-Hitchcock, 1982, Architecture, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, London: Pelican.
    C.Jencks, 1980, Late-Modern Architecture, London: Academy Editions.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Arup, Sir Ove

  • 19 Cubitt, William

    [br]
    b. 1785 Dilham, Norfolk, England
    d. 13 October 1861 Clapham Common, Surrey, England
    [br]
    English civil engineer and contractor.
    [br]
    The son of a miller, he received a rudimentary education in the village school. At an early age he was helping his father in the mill, and in 1800 he was apprenticed to a cabinet maker. After four years he returned to work with his father, but, preferring to leave the parental home, he not long afterwards joined a firm of agricultural-machinery makers in Swanton in Norfolk. There he acquired a reputation for making accurate patterns for the iron caster and demonstrated a talent for mechanical invention, patenting a self-regulating windmill sail in 1807. He then set up on his own as a millwright, but he found he could better himself by joining the engineering works of Ransomes of Ipswich in 1812. He was soon appointed their Chief Engineer, and after nine years he became a partner in the firm until he moved to London in 1826. Around 1818 he invented the treadmill, with the aim of putting prisoners to useful work in grinding corn and other applications. It was rapidly adopted by the principal prisons, more as a means of punishment than an instrument of useful work.
    From 1814 Cubitt had been gaining experience in civil engineering, and upon his removal to London his career in this field began to take off. He was engaged on many canal-building projects, including the Oxford and Liverpool Junction canals. He accomplished some notable dock works, such as the Bute docks at Cardiff, the Middlesborough docks and the coal drops on the river Tees. He improved navigation on the river Severn and compiled valuable reports on a number of other leading rivers.
    The railway construction boom of the 1840s provided him with fresh opportunities. He engineered the South Eastern Railway (SER) with its daringly constructed line below the cliffs between Folkestone and Dover; the railway was completed in 1843, using massive charges of explosive to blast a way through the cliffs. Cubitt was Consulting Engineer to the Great Northern Railway and tried, with less than his usual success, to get the atmospheric system to work on the Croydon Railway.
    When the SER began a steamer service between Folkestone and Boulogne, Cubitt was engaged to improve the port facilities there and went on to act as Consulting Engineer to the Boulogne and Amiens Railway. Other commissions on the European continent included surveying the line between Paris and Lyons, advising the Hanoverian government on the harbour and docks at Hamburg and directing the water-supply works for Berlin.
    Cubitt was actively involved in the erection of the Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition of 1851; in recognition of this work Queen Victoria knighted him at Windsor Castle on 23 December 1851.
    Cubitt's son Joseph (1811–72) was also a notable civil engineer, with many railway and harbour works to his credit.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1851. FRS 1830. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1850 and 1851.
    Further Reading
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Cubitt, William

  • 20 Elder, John

    [br]
    b. 9 March 1824 Glasgow, Scotland
    d. 17 September 1869 London, England
    [br]
    Scottish engineer who introduced the compound steam engine to ships and established an important shipbuilding company in Glasgow.
    [br]
    John was the third son of David Elder. The father came from a family of millwrights and moved to Glasgow where he worked for the well-known shipbuilding firm of Napier's and was involved with improving marine engines. John was educated at Glasgow High School and then for a while at the Department of Civil Engineering at Glasgow University, where he showed great aptitude for mathematics and drawing. He spent five years as an apprentice under Robert Napier followed by two short periods of activity as a pattern-maker first and then a draughtsman in England. He returned to Scotland in 1849 to become Chief Draughtsman to Napier, but in 1852 he left to become a partner with the Glasgow general engineering company of Randolph Elliott \& Co. Shortly after his induction (at the age of 28), the engineering firm was renamed Randolph Elder \& Co.; in 1868, when the partnership expired, it became known as John Elder \& Co. From the outset Elder, with his partner, Charles Randolph, approached mechanical (especially heat) engineering in a rigorous manner. Their knowledge and understanding of entropy ensured that engine design was not a hit-and-miss affair, but one governed by recognition of the importance of the new kinetic theory of heat and with it a proper understanding of thermodynamic principles, and by systematic development. In this Elder was joined by W.J.M. Rankine, Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow University, who helped him develop the compound marine engine. Elder and Randolph built up a series of patents, which guaranteed their company's commercial success and enabled them for a while to be the sole suppliers of compound steam reciprocating machinery. Their first such engine at sea was fitted in 1854 on the SS Brandon for the Limerick Steamship Company; the ship showed an improved performance by using a third less coal, which he was able to reduce still further on later designs.
    Elder developed steam jacketing and recognized that, with higher pressures, triple-expansion types would be even more economical. In 1862 he patented a design of quadruple-expansion engine with reheat between cylinders and advocated the importance of balancing reciprocating parts. The effect of his improvements was to greatly reduce fuel consumption so that long sea voyages became an economic reality.
    His yard soon reached dimensions then unequalled on the Clyde where he employed over 4,000 workers; Elder also was always interested in the social welfare of his labour force. In 1860 the engine shops were moved to the Govan Old Shipyard, and again in 1864 to the Fairfield Shipyard, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west on the south bank of the Clyde. At Fairfield, shipbuilding was commenced, and with the patents for compounding secure, much business was placed for many years by shipowners serving long-distance trades such as South America; the Pacific Steam Navigation Company took up his ideas for their ships. In later years the yard became known as the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company Ltd, but it remains today as one of Britain's most efficient shipyards and is known now as Kvaerner Govan Ltd.
    In 1869, at the age of only 45, John Elder was unanimously elected President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland; however, before taking office and giving his eagerly awaited presidential address, he died in London from liver disease. A large multitude attended his funeral and all the engineering shops were silent as his body, which had been brought back from London to Glasgow, was carried to its resting place. In 1857 Elder had married Isabella Ure, and on his death he left her a considerable fortune, which she used generously for Govan, for Glasgow and especially the University. In 1883 she endowed the world's first Chair of Naval Architecture at the University of Glasgow, an act which was reciprocated in 1901 when the University awarded her an LLD on the occasion of its 450th anniversary.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland 1869.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1869, Engineer 28.
    1889, The Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith Elder \& Co. W.J.Macquorn Rankine, 1871, "Sketch of the life of John Elder" Transactions of the
    Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.
    Maclehose, 1886, Memoirs and Portraits of a Hundred Glasgow Men.
    The Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Works, 1909, London: Offices of Engineering.
    P.M.Walker, 1984, Song of the Clyde, A History of Clyde Shipbuilding, Cambridge: PSL.
    R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (covers Elder's contribution to the development of steam engines).
    RLH / FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Elder, John

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