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81 Критерий устойчивости равновесия плавающего тела
Русско-английский словарь по прикладной математике и механике > Критерий устойчивости равновесия плавающего тела
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82 stiff
жесткий имя прилагательное:неэластичный (inelastic, stiff)одеревенелый (stiff, stiffened)одеревеневший (stiff, stiffened)окостенелый (ossified, stiff)имя существительное:поддельный чек (stiff, stumer)наречие: -
83 homéostasie
Tendance de l'organisme à maintenir constantes les conditions physiologiques.The maintenance of stable conditions in a cell or in the body. -
84 твёрдый
прл1) жёсткий hard; крепкий, прочный firm; solidтвёрдое те́ло — solid (body)
твёрдая по́чва — firm ground
2) сильный firm; решительный resoluteтвёрдый хара́ктер — firm/strong character
твёрдое реше́ние — firm decision
твёрдая подде́ржка — unequivocal lit support
твёрдые зна́ния — sound knowledge sg
твёрдые це́ны — fixed/set/ стабильные stable prices
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85 machine
1) машина; механизм; станок; агрегат2) машинка; устройство; аппарат3) машинный; станочный4) обрабатывать механически; обрабатывать резанием•- absorption refrigerating machine - approved shot-firing machine - automatic arc-welding machine - automatic assembly machine - automatic bar-stock machine - automatic cam-controlled machine - automatic casting machine - automatic chain-bending machine - automatic checking machine - automatic chucking machine - automatic cocoon-reading machine - automatic drawing-in machine - automatic half-hose machine - automatic hopper-feed machine - automatic hosiery machine - automatic multistation machine - automatic single-spindle machine - automatic single-station machine - automatic sorting machine - automatic tracer machine - automatic weighing machine - automatic welding machine - automatic winding machine - autonomous sequential machine - carton feeding machine - case assembling machine - case making machine - cask windlassing machine - casting cleaning machine - chain testing machine - cigarette making machine - cigarette packing machine - circular warp-knitting machine - claw trussing machine - cloth mellowing machine - cocoon winding machine - coil winding machine - compound-table milling machine - concentrate charging machine - conditional probability machine - continuous dyeing machine - continuously operating machine - core roll-over machine - cylinder sizing machine - cylinder warping machine - double-cutter shearing machine - double-faced winding machine - double-knife cutting machine - dough dividing machine - dough forming machine - dough molding machine - dough rolling machine - dough rounding machine - drop roller machine - dropwire cleaning machine - drum winding machine - duplex calculating machine - elevator washing machine - fish dressing machine - fish packing machine - flame-shape cutting machine - flat-and-back stripping machine - flax scutching machine - flax spreading machine - gang drilling machine - gantry cutting machine - machine with input - meat tenderizing machine - mechanical interlock machine - medium-range sprinkling machine - multiple-spot welding machine - multiroll straightening machine - network access machine - overhead charging machine - paddle wool-washing machine - pattern recognition machine - penetrating-type dyeing machine - reversed torsion machine - roller printing machine - roof ripping machine - rotary cutting machine - rotary filling machine - saddle stitch machine - section warping machine - shot blasting machine - shot welding machine - soap milling machine - stitch welding machine - syrup filling machine - tablet compressing machine - tape sizing machine - tobacco ripping machine - tobacco stringing machine - vacuum kneading machine - vacuum packing machine - vacuum refrigerating machine - vacuum seaming machine - yeast extruding machine -
86 structure
1) конструкция; строение; структура || структурировать2) сооружение, здание; строительная конструкция3) состав4) текстура5) геол. формация•- finitely generated structure - fish protection structure - locally convex structure - recursively presentable structure - redundant logical structure - strictly finer structure - strongly undecidable structure - weakly saturated structure -
87 platform
1. n платформа; помост2. n воен. артиллерийская площадка, позиция3. n воен. орудийная платформа4. n ж. -д. платформа; перрон5. n трибуна; сцена6. n президиум7. n трибуна, форумthe United Nations is meant to be a platform for all nations — ООН предназначена роль форума для всех государств
8. n трамплинthe college gave the man a platform to pursue advanced studies — колледж дал ему хорошую возможность продолжать образование
9. n политическая платформа, позиция10. n предвыборная платформа11. n площадка12. n амер. тамбур13. n вестибюль14. n геогр. плато15. n терраса, уступ16. n возвышение17. n вышка18. n редк. основные положения религиозного учения или веры19. n подошва туфель типа «платформа»20. n туфли на толстой подошве, на «платформе»platform man — грузчик, работающий на платформе склада
21. a относящийся к трибунеСинонимический ряд:1. beliefs (noun) beliefs; principles; tenets2. creed (noun) creed; policies; position; program3. landing (noun) dais; landing; pulpit; rostrum; scaffold; scaffolding; stage; stand -
88 set
1. n комплект, набор; коллекцияin sets — в комплектах, в наборах
2. n сервиз3. n гарнитурtwin set — гарнитур, состоящий из жакета и джемпера
4. n комплект изданияa set of Pravda — комплект «Правды»
5. n серия, рядset of diagrams — ряд диаграмм, снятых одновременно
6. n совокупность7. n группа; составa poor set of players — плохая команда, плохие игроки
8. n набор, состав9. n компания, кругgambling set — картёжники, завсегдатаи игорных домов
10. n банда, шайка11. n театр. кино декорацияset designer — художник по декорациям; художник кинофильма
12. n кино съёмочная площадка13. n спец. прибор, аппарат; установка, агрегат14. n приёмник15. n фигура; последовательность фигурtest set — набор тестов; тестовая последовательность
16. n завивка и укладка волос17. n сюита духовной музыкиwords set to music — слова, положенные на музыку
18. n дор. брусчатка, каменная шашка19. n спорт. партия20. n спорт. сет21. n спорт. спорт. расстановка игроков22. n спорт. геол. свита23. n спорт. горн. оклад крепи24. n спорт. мат. множество25. n спорт. мат. семействоset of curves — семейство характеристик; семейство кривых
26. n спорт. полигр. гарнитура шрифта27. n тк. общие очертания, линияgeneral purpose shop set — комплект инструмента и оборудования ремонтной мастерской общего назначения
28. n строение; конфигурация; сложение29. n тк. g30. n направление31. n направленность; тенденция32. n психол. направленность, установка33. n наклон, отклонение34. n тк. поэт. заход, закатset agoing — пустил в ход; пущенный в ход
35. n музыкальный вечер36. n сад. молодой побег; завязь37. n с. -х. посадочный материал38. n с. -х. охот. стойка39. n с. -х. тех. разводка для пил, развод зубьев пилы, ширина развода40. n с. -х. тех. остаточная деформация41. n с. -х. тех. обжимка, державка42. n с. -х. полигр. толщина43. a неподвижный; застывший44. a определённый, твёрдо установленный, постоянныйset wage — твёрдый оклад, постоянная заработная плата
set on edge — устанавливать на ребро; установленный на ребро
set solid — текст, набранный с постоянным интерлиньяжем
set form — установленная форма; формуляр, бланк
45. a неизменный, постоянный; незыблемый46. a шаблонный; стереотипный47. a установленный48. a заранее установленный, оговорённый49. a упрямый, настойчивый; упорный50. a умышленный, преднамеренный51. a разг. готовый, горящий желаниемwe were set for an early morning start — мы подготовились к тому, чтобы выступить рано утром
52. a встроенный, прикреплённый53. v ставить, помещать, класть; положить, поставитьset the limit — устанавливать предел; положить конец
54. v обыкн. помещаться, располагатьсяa house set in a beautiful garden — дом, стоящий в прекрасном саду
a little town set north of London — маленький городок, расположенный к северу от Лондона
blue eyes set deep in a white face — голубые, глубоко посаженные глаза на бледном лице
set up — помещать, ставить, класть
set out — помещать, ставить, выставлять
55. v сажать, усаживать56. v насаживать, надевать57. v вставлять58. v направлять; поворачивать59. v иметь направление, тенденциюpublic opinion is setting with him — общественное мнение за него, общественное мнение складывается в его пользу
60. v подготавливать; снаряжать; приводить в состояние готовностиto set the stage for the application of a new method of therapy — подготовить почву для нового метода лечения
I was all set for the talk — я готовился к этому разговору; я знал, что меня ждёт этот разговор
set in order — приводить в порядок; исправлять
61. v устанавливать, определять, назначать62. v диал. ирон. часто идти, быть к лицуdo you think this bonnet sets me? — как вы думаете, идёт мне эта шляпка?
a man set in authority — лицо, облечённое властью
63. v редк. сидетьthe jacket sets badly — жакет плохо устанавливать, регулировать
64. v мор. пеленговать65. v стр. производить кладку66. программа поиска внеземного разумаСинонимический ряд:1. express (adj.) especial; express; special; specific2. fast (adj.) fast; secure; tenacious; tight3. fixed (adj.) bent; certain; common; customary; decided; decisive; determined; established; firm; fixed; habitual; intent; resolute; solid; stable; stated; stipulated; usual4. little (adj.) borne; ineffectual; limited; little; mean; narrow; paltry; small5. predetermined (adj.) foreordained; predetermined; prefixed; prescribed; resolved6. ready (adj.) prepared; primed; ready7. rigid (adj.) immovable; obstinate; relentless; rigid; stiff; stubborn; unyielding8. settled (adj.) confirmed; entrenched; ingrained; inveterate; settled9. situated (adj.) located; placed; positioned; sited; situate; situated10. bearing (noun) address; air; bearing; comportment; demeanor; deportment; mien; port; presence11. collection (noun) assemblage; assortment; collection; kit; outfit; pack; series12. gang (noun) circle; clique; crowd; gang13. gift (noun) aptness; bump; faculty; flair; genius; gift; head; knack; nose; talent; turn14. group (noun) array; batch; battery; body; bunch; bundle; circle; clique; clot; clump; cluster; clutch; company; coterie; crowd; faction; group; knot; lot; organisation; organization; parcel; passel; platoon; push; sect; sort; suite15. inclination (noun) appearance; aspect; attitude; bent; direction; disposition; inclination; position16. order (noun) category; class; classification; order17. scenery (noun) backdrop; decoration; mise-en-scene; scene; scenery; setting; stage; stage set; stage setting18. belong (verb) belong; fit; go19. brood (verb) brood; cover; hatch; incubate; sit20. call (verb) approximate; call; estimate; reckon21. coagulate (verb) clot; coagulate; gel; gelate; gelatinize; jell; jellify; jelly22. dictate (verb) decree; dictate; impose; lay down; ordain; prescribe23. dictated (verb) decreed; dictated; imposed; laid down; ordained; prescribed24. direct (verb) address; aim; aimed; cast; direct; head; incline; level; point; present; train; turn; zero in25. establish (verb) appoint; assign; determine; establish; fix; laid; lay; place; post; spread; station; stick; stuck26. fixed (verb) arrange; conclude; fixed; negotiate; settle27. harden (verb) cake; concrete; congeal; dried; dry; gelled; harden; indurate; petrified; solidified; solidify; stiffen; thicken28. incite (verb) abet; foment; incite; instigate; provoke; raise; set on; stir up; whip up29. install (verb) adjust; attune; calibrate; frame; install; mount; order; regulate; tune30. put (verb) locate; position; put; site; situate31. sink (verb) decline; dip; go down; sink; wane32. value (verb) evaluate; price; prize; rate; value33. went (verb) bet; betted; gamble; game; play; put on; risk; stake; venture; wager; wentАнтонимический ряд:approximate; disorder; loosen; melt; mollify; mount; move; rise; run; soar; soften; stir; uncertain; unstable; variable -
89 training
1. n воспитание; формирование2. n обучение; подготовка; образование3. n выучка, образование; познания, знания4. n тренировкаbridge training — упражнения в положении «мост»
5. n занятиеmanual training — занятия трудом, уроки труда
6. n дрессировка7. n спорт. тренированность, подготовленность; форма8. n сад. формирование9. n воен. наводка10. a учебный11. a тренировочныйСинонимический ряд:1. credentials (noun) academic accomplishment; background; credentials; experience; grounding; indoctrination; knowledge; qualifications2. instruction (noun) class; course; instruction; practice session; preparation; seminar; workshop3. schooling (noun) education; pedagogy; schooling; teaching; tuition; tutelage; tutoring4. study (noun) drill; exercise; practice; rehearsal; study5. directing (verb) addressing; aiming; casting; directing; heading; inclining; laying; leveling or levelling; levelling; pointing; presenting; setting; turning; zero in; zeroing in6. dragging (verb) dragging; trailing; training7. luring (verb) alluring; baiting; decoying; enticing; entrapping; inveigling; leading on; luring; seducing; tempting; tolling8. teaching (verb) disciplining; educating; instructing; schooling; teaching; tutoring -
90 равновесие
1. с. balance2. с. equilibrium -
91 σχέσις
A state, condition, σ. τοῦ σώματος habit of body, much like διάθεσις, which is alterable, opp. ἕξις (constitution or temperament, which is permanent), Hp.Art.8; hence ἐν σχέσει, of temporary, passing conditions, opp. those which have become constitutional ([etym.] ἐν ἕξει), Gal.10.533; τί διαφέρει σ. ἕξεως; Luc.Symp.23, cf. Herm.81; σ. ἀθλητική the habit of an athlete, D.L.5.67.b stationary condition, whether stable or not, opp. κίνησις, Stoic.3.19, 2.115 (pl.), Apollod.ib.3.260, Plot.3.1.7; ἐν σχέσει, opp. ἐν κινήσει, but inclusive of ἐν ἕξει, Stoic.3.26.2 generally, nature, quality, οὔτ' εἶδος,.. οὔθ' ὅπλων ς. A.Th. 507; ἡ τῆς ὁπλίσεως αὐτῶν ς. Pl.Ti. 24b;τριχῶν καὶ ἐσθῆτος X.Smp.4.57
;ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ σ. διάγει τὸν βίον D.45.68
, cf. Epicur.Nat.2.2;κρεᾴδια.. δροσώδη τὴν σχέσιν Alex.124.12
.3 expression, attitude, Phld.Acad.Ind.pp.50,53 M.; position, posture, as in dancing, Plu.2.747c.4 relation, Arist.Fr. 182, Zeno Stoic.1.49, etc.; ἡ πρός τι ς. D.L.9.87: abs., Sch.Ar.Pl.2: also, relationship, Arr.Epict.4.6.26 (but σχέσιν ἀδελφικὴν ἔχειν πρός τινα to be fraternally disposed towards.., POsl.55.6 (ii/iii A.D.); φιλικὴ ς. POxy.1588.3 (iv A.D.)).b Gramm., relation, A.D.Adv. 183.3, al.: also in Metric, κατὰ σχέσιν εἶναι or γεγράφθαι or be relative, i.e. composed with strophic correspondence, Aristid.Quint.1.29, Heph.Poëm.3, Sch.Ar.Nu. 518.5 αἱ δέκα σ., = the ten categories or σχήματα τῆς κατηγορίας, Theol.Ar.59, Iamb.in Nic.p.11P.6 αὗται αἱ σ., ἑπτὰ οὖσαι the seven positions (sc. ἄνω, κάτω κτλ.), Cleom. 1.1; 'up' and 'down' were not relative ([etym.] οὐ κατὰ σχέσιν) according to the Stoics, Stoic.2.176.II checking, retention, τῆς καθάρσιος (pus or phlegm) Hp.Aph.7.80;τοῦ οὔρου Id.Epid.5.79
; opp. ῥοή, Pl.Cra. 424a. -
92 flow
1. течение; истечение; поток; обтекание/ течь; протекать2. расход <жидкости, газа>3. ход; процессflow along a cornerflow in chemical equilibriumflow of momentumadiabatic flowafterburner fuel flowafterburner main fuel flowafterburner pilot fuel flowair injection mass flowairfoil flowarrival flowattached flowaxisymmetric flowaxisymmetrical flowbackward-facing step flowbaroclinic flowbarotropic flowbase flowblade flowBlasius flowbleed flowblood flowbody-glove flowboundary layer flowbypass flowcavitation flowcavity flowchannel flowchemically reacting flowchoked flowCoanda flowcombusting flowcompressible flowconical flowconically symmetric flowcontinuum fluid flowcore flowCouette flowcross flowcurved flowdata flowdissociated flowdivergent flowengine fuel flowentrained flowentrainment induced flowentrance flowequilibrium flowexhaust flowforebody flowfountain flowfree molecular flowfrozen flowfuel flowfully attached flowfully detached flowfully developed turbulent flowground idle fuel flowheat flowhigh-Reynolds number flowhigh-Reynolds-number flowhigh-speed flowhot flowhypersonic flowideal thrust mass flowidle fuel flowinboard flowincompressible flowinlet flowinlet mass flowintake flowintermittent flowinviscid flowirrotational flowisentropic flowisothermal flowjet flowlaminar flowleading-edge flowlift-producing flowlow-energy flowlow-speed flowlow-temperature flowlower-surface flowmain burner fuel flowmain engine fuel flowmass flowmean flowmelt flowmixed flowmultiphase flowmultishocked flownear-critical flownear-wake flownear-wall flownearly choked flowNewtonian flownonisentropic flownonequilibrium flownozzle flownozzle mass flowone-dimensional flowone-phase flowoptical flowoscillatory flowover-the-wing flowparticle-laden flowpassenger flowperturbed flowPoiseuille flowpotential flowprimary flowprotuberance-induced flowrarefied flowrecirculating flowrecirculation flowreversal flowreverse flowreverser mass flowroot flowrotating flowrotational flowrotor flowsecondary flowseparated flowseparating flowseparation flowseparation-induced flowshear flowshock interference flowshocked flowsinusoidally perturbed flowslip flowspanwise flowspiral flowstable flowsteady flowsubcritical flowsubcritical mass flowsubsonic flowsuction flowsuction mass flowsudden expansion flowsupercritical flowsupersonic flowswirling flowtailplane flowthree-dimensional flowtip flowtraffic flowtranquil flowtransient flowtransitional flowtransonic flowturbulent flowtwo-dimensional flowtwo-phase flowunblown flowunconfined flowuniform flowunsteady flowup-wash flowviscous flowviscous-dominated flowvortex flowvortex-dominated flowvortex-free flowvortex-like flowvortex-type flowvortical flowwake-like flowwall-bounded flowwing flowzero-lift flow -
93 point
1. точка; пункт < маршрута>2. место; пункт; ориентир; положение; координата4. режим; условия <напр. полета>6. узел < расчетной сетки>point of regardpoint of sweep initiationpoint of taper initiationaircraft reference pointangle-of-attack pointbegin cruise pointbifurcation pointbrake release pointbranching pointcontact pointcontinuously computed impact pointcritical decision pointdata pointdesign pointeffective flight pointequilibrium pointfin n% chord pointflash pointflight pointflutter pointfrequency pointfuel match pointglidepath intercept pointgrid pointhalf-span pointhigh-AOA trim pointhigh-stress pointholding pointimpingement pointinspection pointintercept pointlanding pointlanding decision pointliftoff pointmaneuver pointmaneuver point, pitch motivator fixedmaneuver point, pitch motivator freemaneuver point, stick freemaximum thickness pointmesh pointmid-mission pointminimum pressure pointmultiple refuelling pointsn% chord pointneutral pointneutral point, pitch motivator fixedneutral point, pitch motivator freeneutral point, stick fixedneutral point, stick freeNewtonian stagnation pointobserver pointoff-body pointpivot pointrating pointreattachment pointreference pointreference noise measurement pointrefuel/defuel pointroll-reversal pointrotation pointsaddle pointsensing pointseparation pointservicing pointstable trim pointstagnation pointstall pointsteer pointstick-fixed maneuver pointstick-fixed neutral pointstick-free maneuver pointstick-free neutral pointtakeoff critical decision pointtest pointtip pointTMA entering pointtouchdown pointtrim pointtriple pointturning pointwing fold tie-down pointwing support pointwing to fuselage attachment pointwireframe point -
94 area
площадь; участок; пространство; область, район, зона; поверхность"gold-plated" area of instrument panel — наиболее легко обозреваемый (лётчиком) участок приборной доски
area of high pressure — метео. область высокого давления, антициклон
area of low pressure — метео. область низкого давления, циклон
assembly and test area — ркт. сборочно-проверочная площадка
booster (engine) disposal area — район сброса [падения] стартовых двигателей [ускорителей]
booster (engine) impact area — район сброса [падения] стартовых двигателей [ускорителей]
disc area of main rotor — верт. площадь диска несущего винта
exhaust jet area — площадь выходного сечения сопла; площадь сечения струи истекающих газов
floor area between the ramps — площадь пола грузовой кабины между (передним и задним) грузовыми трапами
guidance and control area — ркт. площадка управления пуском и наведением
— fin area— VFR area -
95 orbit
орбита; полет по орбите; круг; полет по кругу; двигаться по орбите; лететь по кругу; кружить(ся); выводить на орбиту; барражировать ( над определённой точкой) ; лететь по маршруту ожиданияnonrendezvous optimal transfer orbit — ксм. орбита оптимального перехода без встречи
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96 оси (геометрические)
axes
-, взаимно перпендикулярные — mutually perpendicular axes
- жестко связанные с землей (координатные) — earth-fixed axes, axes fixed in earth
- координат — co-ordinate axes
- координат, жестко связанные с землей — earth-fixed axes, axes (of frame of reference) fixed in the earth
данные оси могут быть неподвижными или перемещаться вместе с ла. — the earth axes may remain fixed or may move with the aircraft.
- ла (крена, курса и тангажа) — (гоll, yaw and pitch) axes
the aircraft is free to rotate about the roll, pitch and yaw axes.
- поточной системы координат — wind axes
система координатных осей с началом, расположенным в ла, и направлением, заданным относительным воздушным потоком. — а system of co-ordinate axes with the origin in the aircraft and the direction fixed by that of the relative airflow.
- связанные с гироплатформой — stable platform fixed /-centered/ axes
- связанной системы координат самолета — body axes
система координатных осей, связанная с ла. — а system of co-ordinate axes fixed in the aircraft.
- скоростной системы координат самолета — wind axes
- с началом в центре земли — axes originated in the center of the earthРусско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > оси (геометрические)
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97 Psychology
We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)"Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)The subject matter of psychology is as old as reflection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology
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