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population+has+fallen+away

  • 1 fall\ away

    1. I
    population has fallen away население уменьшилось /сократилось/
    2. XVI
    fall away from smb. all his old friends fell away from him все старые друзья отошли /отвернулись/ от него; fall away in smth. it has certainly fallen away in public interest интерес общественности к этому заметно ослабел /остыл/

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > fall\ away

  • 2 fall

    1. noun
    1) (act or manner of falling) Fallen, das; (of person) Sturz, der

    fall of snow/rain — Schnee-/Regenfall, der

    2) (collapse, defeat) Fall, der; (of dynasty, empire) Untergang, der; (of government) Sturz, der
    3) (slope) Abfall, der (to zu, nach)
    4) (Amer.): (autumn) Herbst, der
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) fallen; [Person:] [hin]fallen, stürzen; [Pferd:] stürzen

    fall off something, fall down from something — von etwas [herunter]fallen

    fall down [into] something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]fallen

    fall down dead — tot umfallen

    fall down the stairs — die Treppe herunter-/hinunterfallen

    fall [flat] on one's face — (lit. or fig.) auf die Nase fallen (ugs.)

    fall into the trap — in die Falle gehen

    fall from a great height — aus großer Höhe abstürzen

    rain/snow is falling — es regnet/schneit

    2) (fig.) [Nacht, Dunkelheit:] hereinbrechen; [Abend:] anbrechen; [Stille:] eintreten
    3) (fig.): (be uttered) fallen
    4) (become detached) [Blätter:] [ab]fallen

    fall out — [Haare, Federn:] ausfallen

    5) (sink to lower level) sinken; [Barometer:] fallen; [Absatz, Verkauf:] zurückgehen

    fall into sin/temptation — eine Sünde begehen/der Versuchung er- od. unterliegen

    6) (subside) [Wasserspiegel, Gezeitenhöhe:] fallen; [Wind:] sich legen
    7) (show dismay)

    his/her face fell — er/sie machte ein langes Gesicht (ugs.)

    8) (be defeated) [Festung, Stadt:] fallen; [Monarchie, Regierung:] gestürzt werden; [Reich:] untergehen
    9) (perish) [Soldat:] fallen
    10) (collapse, break) einstürzen

    fall to pieces, fall apart — [Buch, Wagen:] auseinander fallen

    fall apart at the seams — an den Nähten aufplatzen

    11) (come by chance, duty, etc.) fallen (to an + Akk.)

    it fell to me or to my lot to do it — das Los, es tun zu müssen, hat mich getroffen

    fall into decay — [Gebäude:] verfallen

    fall into a swoon or faint — in Ohnmacht fallen

    12) [Auge, Strahl, Licht, Schatten:] fallen ( upon auf + Akk.)
    13) (have specified place) liegen (on, to auf + Dat., within in + Dat.)

    fall into or under a category — in od. unter eine Kategorie fallen

    14) (occur) fallen (on auf + Akk.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/26285/fall_about">fall about
    * * *
    [fo:l] 1. past tense - fell; verb
    1) (to go down from a higher level usually unintentionally: The apple fell from the tree; Her eye fell on an old book.) fallen
    2) ((often with over) to go down to the ground etc from an upright position, usually by accident: She fell (over).) fallen
    3) (to become lower or less: The temperature is falling.) fallen
    4) (to happen or occur: Easter falls early this year.) stattfinden
    5) (to enter a certain state or condition: She fell asleep; They fell in love.) fallen
    6) ((formal: only with it as subject) to come as one's duty etc: It falls to me to take care of the children.) überlassen bleiben
    2. noun
    1) (the act of falling: He had a fall.) der Sturz
    2) ((a quantity of) something that has fallen: a fall of snow.) der Fall
    3) (capture or (political) defeat: the fall of Rome.) der Fall
    4) ((American) the autumn: Leaves change colour in the fall.) der Herbst
    •
    - falls
    - fallout
    - his
    - her face fell
    - fall away
    - fall back
    - fall back on
    - fall behind
    - fall down
    - fall flat
    - fall for
    - fall in with
    - fall off
    - fall on/upon
    - fall out
    - fall short
    - fall through
    * * *
    [fɔ:l, AM esp fɑ:l]
    I. NOUN
    1. (tumble, drop) Fall m; (harder) Sturz m
    she broke her leg in the \fall sie brach sich bei dem Sturz das Bein
    to break sb's \fall jds Sturz abfangen
    to have a \fall hinfallen; (harder) stürzen
    to take a \fall stürzen; (from a horse) vom Pferd fallen
    to have [or take] a nasty \fall schwer stürzen
    2. no pl (descent) Fallen nt; of leaves Herabfallen nt geh; (drop) of an axe, a guillotine Herunterfallen nt; of a level also [Ab]sinken nt
    the audience roared at the \fall of the curtain das Publikum brüllte, als der Vorhang fiel
    at the \fall of the tide bei Ebbe f
    the rise and \fall of the tide Ebbe und Flut
    3. METEO, GEOG
    \fall of earth Erdrutsch m
    [heavy] \falls of rain/snow [heftige] Regen-/Schneefälle
    \fall of rock Steinschlag m
    4. SPORT (in wrestling) Schultersieg m
    5. no pl (slope) Gefälle nt
    6. no pl (decrease) Rückgang m (in + gen); in support Nachlassen nt (in + gen); in a level also Sinken nt (in + gen)
    there was a \fall in support for his party at the last election die Unterstützung für seine Partei hat bei den letzten Wahlen nachgelassen
    \fall in demand/price/temperature Nachfrage-/Preis-/Temperaturrückgang m
    there has been a slight \fall in the price of petrol der Benzinpreis ist leicht zurückgegangen
    sudden \fall in price Preissturz m
    \fall in pressure Druckabfall m
    \fall in moral standards Verfall m der Sitten
    a sharp \fall in temperature ein Temperaturabfall m, ein Temperatursturz m
    \fall in value Wertverlust m
    7. no pl (defeat) of a city Einnahme f; of a dictator, regime Sturz m
    the \fall of the Berlin Wall/Iron Curtain der Fall der Berliner Mauer/des Eisernen Vorhangs
    the \fall of Constantinople die Eroberung Konstantinopels
    the \fall of the Roman Empire der Untergang des Römischen Reiches
    \fall from power Entmachtung f
    ▪ the F\fall [of Man] der Sündenfall
    9. AM (autumn) Herbst m
    10. (waterfall)
    ▪ \falls pl Wasserfall m
    [the] Victoria F\falls die Viktoriafälle
    11.
    ▶ to be as innocent as Adam before the F\fall ( saying) so unschuldig sein wie Adam vor dem Sündenfall
    ▶ to take a [or the] \fall for sb/sth AM ( fam) für jdn/etw die Schuld auf sich akk nehmen, für jdn/etw einstehen
    AM (sun, weather) Herbst-
    \fall clothing Herbstkleidung f
    \fall collection Herbstkollektion f
    \fall plowing Wintersaat f
    <fell, fallen>
    1. (drop, tumble) fallen; (harder) stürzen; (topple) person hinfallen; (harder) stürzen; tree, post, pillar umfallen; (harder) umstürzen
    he fell badly and broke his arm er stürzte schwer und brach sich den Arm
    the bridge fell into the river die Brücke stürzte ins Wasser
    her horse fell at a fence ihr Pferd blieb an einem Hindernis hängen
    the bomb fell on the church and totally destroyed it die Bombe fiel auf die Kirche und zerstörte sie vollständig
    the picture's \fallen behind the piano das Bild ist hinter das Klavier gefallen
    to \fall into sb's/each other's arms jdm/sich in die Arme fallen
    to \fall into bed ins Bett fallen
    to \fall under a bus/train unter einen Bus/Zug geraten
    to \fall to one's death in den Tod stürzen
    to \fall flat on one's face aufs Gesicht [o fam auf die Nase] fallen
    to \fall on the floor/to the ground auf den Boden fallen
    to \fall to one's knees auf die Knie fallen
    to \fall down dead tot umfallen
    2. (hang) fallen
    to \fall loosely locker fallen
    ▪ to \fall around/on/to sth auf etw akk fallen [o geh herabhängen]
    his hair fell around his shoulders in golden curls sein Haar fiel ihm in goldenen Locken auf die Schulter
    her hair fell to her waist ihr Haar reichte ihr bis zur Taille
    ▪ to \fall into sth in etw akk fallen
    a curl/a strand of hair fell into her face eine Locke/Strähne fiel ihr ins Gesicht
    3. (descend) fallen; light, shadow
    ▪ to \fall across/on/over sth auf etw akk fallen; blow, weapon
    ▪ to \fall on sb/sth jdn/etw treffen; ( fig) darkness, night hereinbrechen; ( fig) silence
    ▪ to \fall on sb/sth jdn/etw überfallen
    the audience was still laughing as the curtain fell als der Vorhang fiel, lachte das Publikum immer noch
    the snow had been \falling all day es hatte den ganzen Tag über geschneit
    more rain had \fallen overnight über Nacht hatte es noch mehr geregnet
    darkness \falls early in the tropics in den Tropen wird es früh dunkel
    night was already \falling es begann bereits dunkel zu werden
    the blows continued to \fall on him die Schläge prasselten weiter auf ihn nieder
    the axe looks likely to \fall on 500 jobs 500 Stellen werden wahrscheinlich gestrichen werden
    silence fell on the group of men [ein] Schweigen überfiel die Männer
    4. (slope) [steil] abfallen
    5. (decrease) sinken; price, temperature, pressure, value also fallen; demand, sales, numbers also zurückgehen; ( fig) barometer fallen
    water supplies have \fallen to danger levels der Wasservorrat ist auf einen gefährlich niedrigen Stand abgesunken
    the attendance fell well below the expected figure die Besucherzahlen blieben weit hinter den erwarteten Zahlen zurück
    church attendance has \fallen dramatically die Anzahl der Kirchenbesucher ist drastisch zurückgegangen [o gesunken]
    \falling prices pl Preisrückgang m
    6. (be defeated) government, regime, politician gestürzt werden; empire untergehen; city, town eingenommen werden, fallen
    to \fall from power seines Amtes enthoben werden
    ▪ to \fall to sb jdm in die Hände fallen
    Basildon finally fell to Labour at the last election Basildon fiel in der letzten Wahl Labour zu
    7. (lose a position, status) fallen
    to \fall in the charts/the table in den Charts/der Tabelle fallen
    to have \fallen to the bottom of the league table ganz unten in der Tabelle stehen
    to \fall in sb's estimation in jds Achtung sinken
    8. (fail)
    to stand or \fall on sth mit etw dat stehen und fallen
    the proposal will stand or \fall on the possible tax breaks der Vorschlag wird mit den zu erwartenden Steuervergünstigungen stehen und fallen
    9. ( liter: die in a battle) fallen
    10. (be) liegen
    Easter \falls early/late this year Ostern ist dieses Jahr früh/spät
    this year, my birthday \falls on a Monday diese Jahr fällt mein Geburtstag auf einen Montag
    the accent \falls on the second syllable der Akzent liegt auf der zweiten Silbe
    11. (belong)
    ▪ to \fall into sth in etw akk fallen
    to \fall into a category/class in [o unter] eine Kategorie/Klasse fallen
    ▪ to \fall outside sth nicht in etw akk fallen
    this matter \falls outside the area for which we are responsible diese Sache fällt nicht in unseren Zuständigkeitsbereich
    ▪ to \fall under sth in etw akk fallen
    that side of the business \falls under my department dieser Geschäftsteil fällt in meinen Zuständigkeitsbereich
    that \falls under the heading... das fällt unter die Rubrik...
    ▪ to \fall within sth in etw akk fallen
    any offence committed in this state \falls within the jurisdiction of this court jedes Vergehen, das in diesem Staat begangen wird, fällt in den Zuständigkeitsbereich dieses Gerichts
    12. (be divided)
    ▪ to \fall into sth sich in etw akk gliedern
    the text \falls into three sections der Text gliedert sich in drei Kategorien
    to \fall prey [or victim] to sb/sth jdm/etw zum Opfer fallen
    to \fall asleep einschlafen
    to \fall due fällig sein
    to \fall foul of sb mit jdm Streit bekommen
    to \fall foul of a law [or regulation] ein Gesetz übertreten
    to \fall ill [or sick] krank werden
    to \fall open aufklappen
    to \fall silent verstummen
    to \fall vacant frei werden
    14. (enter a particular state)
    to \fall into debt sich akk verschulden
    to \fall into disrepair [or decay] verkommen
    to \fall into disrepute in Misskredit geraten
    to \fall into disuse nicht mehr benutzt werden
    to \fall into error/sin REL sich akk versündigen
    to \fall out of favour [or AM favor] [with sb] [bei jdm] nicht mehr gefragt sein
    to \fall into the habit of doing sth sich dat angewöhnen, etw zu tun
    to \fall into hysterics sich akk vor Lachen kringeln fam
    to \fall under the influence of sb/sth unter den Einfluss einer Person/einer S. gen geraten
    to \fall in love [with sb/sth] sich akk [in jdn/etw] verlieben
    to \fall out of love [with sb/sth] nicht mehr [in jdn/etw] verliebt sein
    to \fall into a reflective mood ins Grübeln kommen
    to have \fallen under the spell of sb/sth von jdm/etw verzaubert sein
    15.
    ▶ to \fall on deaf ears auf taube Ohren stoßen
    ▶ to \fall out of one's dress ( fam) aus allen Wolken fallen fam
    ▶ sb's face fell jd machte ein langes Gesicht
    ▶ to \fall into the hands [or clutches] of sb jdm in die Hände fallen
    ▶ to \fall on hard times harte Zeiten durchleben
    ▶ to \fall in [or into] line [with sth] sich akk [etw dat] anpassen
    ▶ to \fall to pieces plan, relationship in die Brüche gehen; person zerbrechen
    ▶ to \fall into place (work out) sich akk von selbst ergeben; (make sense) einen Sinn ergeben, [einen] Sinn machen fam
    ▶ to \fall short [of sth] etw nicht erreichen
    ▶ to \fall short of sb's expectations hinter jds Erwartungen zurückbleiben
    ▶ to \fall on stony ground auf felsigen Grund fallen liter
    ▶ to \fall among thieves ( old) unter die Räuber fallen veraltet
    ▶ to \fall into a/sb's trap in die/jdm in die Falle gehen
    I was afraid that I might be \falling into a trap ich hatte Angst, in eine Falle zu laufen
    they fell into the trap of overestimating their own ability sie haben ihre eigenen Fähigkeiten völlig überschätzt
    ▶ to \fall to a whisper in einen Flüsterton verfallen
    * * *
    [fɔːl] vb: pret fell, ptp fallen
    1. n
    1) (lit, fig: tumble) Fall m no pl, Sturz m; (= decline of empire etc) Untergang m

    to have a fall — (hin)fallen, stürzen

    2) (= defeat of town, fortress etc) Einnahme f, Eroberung f; (of Troy) Fall m; (of country) Zusammenbruch m; (of government) Sturz m
    3)

    fall of rain/snow — Regen-/Schneefall m

    4) (of night) Einbruch m
    5) (= lowering) Sinken nt; (in temperature) Abfall m, Sinken nt; (sudden) Sturz m; (of barometer) Fallen nt; (sudden) Sturz m; (in wind) Nachlassen nt; (in revs, population, membership) Abnahme f; (in graph) Abfall m; (in morals) Verfall m; (of prices, currency, gradual) Sinken nt; (sudden) Sturz m
    6) (= slope of roof, ground) Gefälle nt; (steeper) Abfall m
    7) (= waterfall also falls) Wasserfall m
    8) (WRESTLING) Schultersieg m
    9) (= hang of curtains etc) Fall m
    10) (US: autumn) Herbst m

    in the fall — im Herbst

    2. vi
    1) (lit, fig: tumble) fallen; (SPORT, from a height, badly) stürzen; (object, to the ground) herunterfallen
    2) (= hang down hair, clothes etc) fallen
    3) (snow, rain) fallen
    4) (= drop temperature, price) fallen, sinken; (population, membership etc) abnehmen; (voice) sich senken; (wind) sich legen, nachlassen; (land) abfallen; (graph, curve, rate) abnehmen; (steeply) abfallen
    5) (= be defeated country) eingenommen werden; (city, fortress) fallen, erobert or eingenommen werden; (government, ruler) gestürzt werden

    to fall to the enemy — vom Feind eingenommen werden; (fortress, town also) vom Feind erobert werden

    6) (= be killed) fallen
    7) (night) hereinbrechen; (silence) eintreten
    8) (BIBL) den Sündenfall tun; (old, girl) die Unschuld or Ehre verlieren (dated)
    9) (= occur birthday, Easter etc) fallen (on auf +acc); (accent) liegen (on auf +dat); (= be classified) gehören (under in +acc), fallen (under unter +acc)

    that falls within/outside the scope of... — das fällt in/nicht in den Bereich +gen..., das liegt innerhalb/außerhalb des Bereichs +gen...

    10) (= be naturally divisible) zerfallen, sich gliedern (into in +acc)
    11) (fig)

    where do you think the responsibility/blame for that will fall? — wem wird Ihrer Meinung nach die Verantwortung dafür/die Schuld daran gegeben?

    12) (= become) werden

    to fall ill — krank werden, erkranken (geh)

    to fall out of love with sb — aufhören, jdn zu lieben

    13)

    (= pass into a certain state) to fall into decline (building) — verkommen; (economy) schlechter werden

    to fall into a state of unconsciousness — das Bewusstsein verlieren, in Ohnmacht fallen

    to fall apart or to pieces (chairs, cars, book etc) — aus dem Leim gehen (inf); (clothes, curtains) sich in Wohlgefallen auflösen (inf); (house) verfallen; (system, company, sb's life) aus den Fugen geraten or gehen

    I fell apart when he left me — meine Welt brach zusammen, als er mich verließ

    14)

    (in set constructions see also n, adj etc) to fall into the hands of sb —

    * * *
    fall [fɔːl]
    A s
    1. Fall m, Sturz m, Fallen n:
    fall from ( oder out of) the window Sturz aus dem Fenster;
    have a bad ( oder heavy) fall schwer stürzen;
    a) verwegen reiten,
    b) auch head for a fall fig das Schicksal oder Unheil herausfordern, ins Unglück rennen;
    take the fall for sb umg für jemanden den Kopf hinhalten
    2. a) (Ab)Fallen n (der Blätter etc)
    b) besonders US Herbst m:
    in fall im Herbst;
    fall weather Herbstwetter n
    3. Fall m, Herabfallen n, Faltenwurf m (von Stoff)
    4. Fallen n (des Vorhangs)
    5. TECH Niedergang m (des Kolbens etc)
    6. Zusammenfallen n, Einsturz m (eines Gebäudes)
    7. PHYS
    a) → free fall
    b) Fallhöhe f, -strecke f
    8. a) (Regen-, Schnee) Fall m
    b) Regen-, Schnee-, Niederschlagsmenge f
    9. Fallen n, Sinken n (der Flut, Temperatur etc):
    fall in demand WIRTSCH Nachfragerückgang m;
    ( heavy oder sudden) fall in prices Preis-, Kurssturz m;
    speculate for a fall auf Baisse oder à la baisse spekulieren; → operate A 4
    10. Abfall(en) m(n), Gefälle n, Neigung f (des Geländes):
    a sharp fall ein starkes Gefälle
    11. (Wasser) Fall m:
    12. An-, Einbruch m (der Nacht etc)
    13. Fall m, Sturz m, Nieder-, Untergang m, Verfall m, Ende n:
    the fall of Troy der Fall von Troja;
    fall of life fig Herbst m des Lebens
    14. a) (moralischer) Verfall
    b) Fall m, Fehltritt m:
    the Fall, the fall of man BIBEL der (erste) Sündenfall
    15. JAGD
    a) Fall m, Tod m (von Wild)
    b) Falle f
    16. AGR, ZOOL Wurf m (Lämmer etc)
    17. Ringen: Niederwurf m:
    win by fall Schultersieg m;
    try a fall with sb fig sich mit jemandem messen
    B v/i prät fell [fel], pperf fallen [ˈfɔːlən]
    1. fallen:
    the curtain falls der Vorhang fällt
    2. (ab)fallen (Blätter etc)
    3. (herunter)fallen, abstürzen:
    he fell to his death er stürzte tödlich ab
    4. (um-, hin-, nieder)fallen, stürzen, zu Fall kommen, zu Boden fallen (Person):
    he fell badly ( oder heavily) er stürzte schwer; → flat1 C 1
    5. umfallen, -stürzen (Baum etc)
    6. (in Locken oder Falten etc) (herab)fallen
    7. fig fallen:
    a) (im Krieg) umkommen
    b) erobert werden (Stadt)
    c) gestürzt werden (Regierung)
    d) (moralisch) sinken
    e) die Unschuld verlieren, einen Fehltritt begehen (Frau)
    f) SPORT gebrochen werden (Rekord etc)
    8. fig fallen, sinken (Flut, Preis, Temperatur etc):
    the temperature has fallen (by) 10 degrees die Temperatur ist um 10 Grad gesunken;
    the wind falls der Wind legt sich oder lässt nach;
    his courage fell sein Mut sank;
    his voice (eyes) fell er senkte die Stimme (den Blick);
    his face fell er machte ein langes Gesicht;
    falling visitor numbers zurückgehende Besucherzahlen; → birthrate
    9. abfallen (toward[s] zu … hin) (Gelände etc)
    10. auch fall apart zerfallen:
    fall apart ( oder asunder, in two) auseinanderfallen, entzweigehen; → piece A 2
    11. (zeitlich) eintreten, fallen:
    Easter falls late this year Ostern ist oder fällt oder liegt dieses Jahr spät
    12. sich ereignen
    13. hereinbrechen (Nacht etc)
    14. fig fallen (Worte etc):
    the remark fell from him er ließ die Bemerkung fallen
    15. krank, fällig etc werden:
    fall heir to sth etwas erben
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (act or manner of falling) Fallen, das; (of person) Sturz, der

    fall of snow/rain — Schnee-/Regenfall, der

    2) (collapse, defeat) Fall, der; (of dynasty, empire) Untergang, der; (of government) Sturz, der
    3) (slope) Abfall, der (to zu, nach)
    4) (Amer.): (autumn) Herbst, der
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) fallen; [Person:] [hin]fallen, stürzen; [Pferd:] stürzen

    fall off something, fall down from something — von etwas [herunter]fallen

    fall down [into] something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]fallen

    fall down the stairs — die Treppe herunter-/hinunterfallen

    fall [flat] on one's face — (lit. or fig.) auf die Nase fallen (ugs.)

    rain/snow is falling — es regnet/schneit

    2) (fig.) [Nacht, Dunkelheit:] hereinbrechen; [Abend:] anbrechen; [Stille:] eintreten
    3) (fig.): (be uttered) fallen
    4) (become detached) [Blätter:] [ab]fallen

    fall out — [Haare, Federn:] ausfallen

    5) (sink to lower level) sinken; [Barometer:] fallen; [Absatz, Verkauf:] zurückgehen

    fall into sin/temptation — eine Sünde begehen/der Versuchung er- od. unterliegen

    6) (subside) [Wasserspiegel, Gezeitenhöhe:] fallen; [Wind:] sich legen

    his/her face fell — er/sie machte ein langes Gesicht (ugs.)

    8) (be defeated) [Festung, Stadt:] fallen; [Monarchie, Regierung:] gestürzt werden; [Reich:] untergehen
    9) (perish) [Soldat:] fallen
    10) (collapse, break) einstürzen

    fall to pieces, fall apart — [Buch, Wagen:] auseinander fallen

    11) (come by chance, duty, etc.) fallen (to an + Akk.)

    it fell to me or to my lot to do it — das Los, es tun zu müssen, hat mich getroffen

    fall into decay — [Gebäude:] verfallen

    fall into a swoon or faint — in Ohnmacht fallen

    12) [Auge, Strahl, Licht, Schatten:] fallen ( upon auf + Akk.)
    13) (have specified place) liegen (on, to auf + Dat., within in + Dat.)

    fall into or under a category — in od. unter eine Kategorie fallen

    14) (occur) fallen (on auf + Akk.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (US) n.
    Herbst -e m. (of a regime, society) n.
    Verfall -¨e m. n.
    Fall ¨-e m.
    Sturz ¨-e m. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: fell, fallen)
    = absinken v.
    fallen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: fiel, ist gefallen)
    purzeln v.
    stürzen v.

    English-german dictionary > fall

  • 3 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 4 fall

    I [fɔːl] 1. гл.; прош. вр. fell, прич. прош. вр. fallen
    1)
    а) = fall down / over падать ( с высоты)

    The apple fell from the tree. — Яблоко упало с дерева.

    He fell down the stairs. — Он упал с лестницы.

    The child has fallen down and hurt his knee. — Ребёнок упал и ушиб колено.

    The little girl fell over and hit her head. — Маленькая девочка упала и ударилась головой.

    We fell on our knees before her. — Мы упали перед ней на колени.

    I fell back and hurt my head. — Я упал назад и ушиб голову.

    The boy fell through the ice. — Мальчик провалился под лёд.

    The water's deep here, mind you don't fall in. — Здесь глубоко, смотри не упади в воду.

    The roof of the mine fell in, trapping the miners. — Кровля шахты провалилась, и шахтёры оказались отрезанными.

    He fell over a rock in his path. — Он споткнулся о камень, который лежал на его пути, и упал.

    Syn:
    б) = fall off отпадать, отваливаться

    My top button has fallen off. — У меня оторвалась и упала верхняя пуговица.

    2)
    а) упасть, потерять положение в обществе; пасть морально

    By going to the club Patrick fell among a bad group of people and started stealing people's money. — Патрик стал ходить в клуб, связался с какими-то подонками и стал грабить людей.

    Syn:
    б) потерять невинность, утратить целомудрие ( обычно о женщине); забеременеть

    We had been married eight months before I fell. — Мы были женаты восемь месяцев, прежде чем я забеременела.

    3) падать, идти (об осадках, звёздах)
    4) приходить, наступать (о беде, болезни, сне); охватить ( о чувстве)

    A great stillness fell upon the place. — Наступила мёртвая тишина.

    Wonder fell on all. — Все изумились.

    5) спускаться, наступать (о темноте, ночи)

    Night fell. — Спустилась ночь.

    Dusk is falling. — Спускаются сумерки.

    6) = fall out опадать; выпадать прям. и перен.

    Her hair fell, and her face looked older. — Её волосы поредели и лицо выглядело более старым.

    Your hair is beginning to fall out. — Ваши волосы начинают выпадать.

    7) опускаться, падать

    to let fall — опускать, спускать (якорь, занавес, паруса)

    8) ниспадать, (свободно) падать (об одежде, волосах)

    Her dress falls in pleats from the waist. — Её платье спадает от талии свободными складками.

    Syn:
    10) ( fall from) срываться, слетать с ( уст)

    every word that fell from her lips — каждое слово, которое слетало с её губ

    11) опускаться, убывать

    There were signs of clearing in the west, and the waves began to fall. — На западе стало проясняться, и волны стали успокаиваться.

    My spirits fell. — Моё настроение упало.

    I'm disappointed in your work: it has fallen below your usual standard. — Я недоволен вашей работой, обычно вы работали лучше.

    Your work has fallen from the level we expected from you. — Уровень вашей работы ниже, чем мы от вас ожидали.

    Syn:
    13)
    а) = fall down спускаться вниз по (чему-л.)
    б) = fall off спускаться, иметь наклон ( о местности)

    The land falls off here towards the river. — Здесь резкий спуск к реке.

    Syn:
    14) впадать (о реке, потоке)
    15) стихать, ослабевать, успокаиваться (о ветре, погоде)

    Flames leaped up suddenly and fell again. — Языки пламени внезапно взметнулись вверх и снова погасли.

    The storm fell before seven o'clock. — Буря затихла к семи часам.

    Syn:
    abate, calm 3.
    16) терять живость; вытягиваться ( о выражении лица)

    The countenance of the old man fell. — Лицо старика вытянулось.

    Caleb's face fell a full inch. — Лицо Калеба вытянулось на целый дюйм.

    17) наклоняться; опускаться ( о глазах)
    18) падать, снижаться (о температуре, ценах)

    The temperature has fallen below zero. —Температура упала ниже нуля.

    The cost of meat finally fell. — Цены на мясо наконец снизились.

    The class has fallen below ten students this year. — В этом году в классе осталось меньше десяти человек.

    Syn:
    19) пасть, сдаваться, капитулировать (о городе, крепости, корабле)

    On the third day of the attack, the town fell. — На третий день штурма город пал.

    Syn:
    20) пасть; быть сброшенным ( о власти); гибнуть

    The Ministry was certain to fall in a short time. — Было очевидно, что правительство падёт очень быстро.

    Syn:
    be overthrown, perish
    22) карт. быть взятой, быть битой ( более крупной картой)
    23) крим. быть арестованным; быть осуждённым; быть посаженным в тюрьму
    24) обваливаться, оседать (о здании и т. п.)

    One of the towers had fallen with its own weight. — Одна из башен развалилась под собственной тяжестью.

    25) ( fall into)
    а) делиться, распадаться на (что-л.)
    б) = fall under / within принадлежать к (какому-л. классу)

    to fall into the category — относиться к категории, подпадать под категорию

    The population that falls under the category of poor is less than 7%. — Менее семи процентов населения подпадают под категорию бедных.

    Your suggestion falls within the general area of reorganization. — Ваше предложение - из серии идей по реорганизации.

    26) падать, выпадать, доставаться

    to fall to smb.'s lot — выпадать на чью-л. долю

    The lot fell upon him. — Жребий пал на него.

    The expense must fall upon the purchaser. — Затраты должны падать на покупателя.

    They alone fall to be considered here. — Здесь только на них и следует обращать внимание.

    The property will fall to the eldest son. — Имущество достанется старшему сыну.

    The stress falls on the second syllable. — Ударение падает на второй слог.

    28) ( fall in(to)) впадать в (какое-л. состояние); оказываться в (каком-л. положении)

    Henry fell into one of his fearful rages. — Генри впал в один из своих страшных приступов бешенства.

    to fall in love — ( with) влюбиться (в кого-л.)

    to fall out of love — ( with) разлюбить (кого-л.)

    29) ( fall for) влюбиться в (кого-л.); полюбить (что-л.)

    Jim fell for Mary in a big way when they first met. — Джим по уши влюбился в Мэри с того самого дня, когда они встретились.

    I think you're going to fall for this film. — Мне кажется, тебе понравится этот фильм.

    30) ( fall for) попадаться на (удочку, уловку и пр.)

    Don't fall for that old trick, he's trying to persuade you to buy his goods. — Не поддайся на эту старую как мир уловку, он же хочет впарить тебе свой товар.

    31) (fall + гл., прил.) становиться, перейти в состояние (чего-л.)

    to fall astern — мор. отстать

    The memory of his faults had already fallen to be one of those old aches. — Память о его вине превратилась в застарелую боль.

    32) ( fall (up)on) приходиться, падать, происходить, иметь место

    My birthday falls on Sunday. — Мой день рождения попадает на воскресенье.

    New Year's Day falls on a Wednesday. — Новый Год приходится на среду.

    Syn:
    33) рубить, валить ( деревья); валиться ( о дереве)
    Syn:
    34) ( fall from) бросать, покидать (кого-л.), отказываться от верности (кому-л.)

    The followers of Louis were falling from him. — Сторонники Людовика покидали его.

    35) ( fall into) начинать (что-л.), приниматься за (что-л.); приобретать (привычку и т. п.)

    You have fallen into a bad habit of repeating yourself. — У вас появилась дурная привычка повторяться.

    I fell into conversation with an interesting man. — Я вступил в разговор с интересным собеседником.

    36) ( fall (up)on) нападать на (что-л.), налетать на (что-л.); набрасываться на (что-л.)

    The hungry children fell on the food. — Голодные дети набросились на еду.

    37) ( fall (up)on) выпадать на (чью-л. долю), доставаться (кому-л.)

    It falls on me to thank our chairman for his speech. — Мне выпала честь поблагодарить нашего председателя за его речь.

    The blame fell on me as usual. — Как обычно, всю вину возложили на меня.

    38) ( fall (up)on) работать над (чем-л.), разрабатывать (что-л.)

    He fell on the new idea and in the course of time wrote an important book about it. — Он принялся разрабатывать эту идею и через некоторое время написал большую книгу по этому вопросу.

    39) ( fall (up)on) достигать
    40) (fall under / within) попадать в (сферу действия чего-л.); подвергаться (чему-л.)

    to fall within one's jurisdiction — входить в чью-л. компетенцию

    to fall under smb.'s influence — попадать под чьё-л. влияние

    If the answer to your difficulty falls within my experience, I'll give you all the help I can. — Если ваш вопрос относится к сфере моего опыта, я окажу Вам всю возможную помощь.

    These states of matter will fall under our observation. — Данное положение дел будет контролироваться нами.

    41) ( fall to) приниматься за (что-л.), начинать делать (что-л.); набрасываться на (что-л.)

    They fell to work immediately. — Они сразу взялись за работу.

    I fell to thinking about the happy days of the past. — Я принялся думать о счастливых днях прошлого.

    Syn:
    •
    - fall abreast of
    - fall across
    - fall apart
    - fall away
    - fall back
    - fall behind
    - fall down
    - fall foul of     - fall out
    - fall through
    ••

    to fall into line / step with smb. — подчиняться, соглашаться с кем-л.

    to fall over one another / each other — драться, бороться, соперничать друг с другом

    to fall over backwards to do smth. — разг. лезть из кожи вон, чтобы сделать что-л.

    to fall prey / sacrifice / victim to — прям. и перен. пасть жертвой (чего-л.)

    - fall over oneself
    - fall over backwards
    - fall to the ground
    - fall to pieces
    - fall into place     2. сущ.

    bad / nasty fall — неудачное падение

    to have / take a fall — падать

    The net broke the tightrope walker's fall. — Сетка смягчила падение канатоходца.

    Syn:
    2) моральное падение; потеря чести; потеря невинности

    The play was about the fall of an honest man. — В пьесе говорилось о моральном падении честного человека.

    Syn:
    3) ( the Fall) рел. грехопадение (согласно Библии, утрата человеком изначальной чистоты и богоподобия в результате первого греха - непослушания Богу; соблазнённые сатаной в образе змея, Адам и Ева нарушили запрет и вкусили плод с древа познания добра и зла, за что были изгнаны из рая)

    the Fall of Man — грехопадение человека, грехопадение Адама

    4) падение, сбрасывание; выпадение (осадков, метеоритов); количество осадков, выпавших за один раз или за определённый период времени
    5) приближение, наступление (сумерек, ночи, зимы)
    6) выпадение (зубов и т. п.)
    7) амер. осень
    Syn:
    8) око́т, рождение (ягнят и т. п.)

    The principal fall of lambs takes place now. — Именно сейчас идёт основной окот овец.

    9) помёт, выводок
    Syn:
    11) упадок, закат
    Syn:
    12) заключительный период, завершающая часть (дня, года, жизни)
    14) ( falls) водопад

    We could see the spray from the falls. — Мы видели брызги от водопада.

    Syn:
    15)
    а) обрыв, склон, откос ( холма); скат, спуск

    The girls saw a little fall of the ground. — Девочки увидели небольшой откос.

    Syn:
    б) высота (обрыва, склона и т. п.)
    16) понижение, снижение, падение (температуры и т. п.)
    17) муз. каданс, каденция
    Syn:
    19) снижение, падение, понижение ( цен)

    Yesterday saw a sudden fall in stock prices. — Вчера произошло резкое падение биржевого курса.

    Syn:
    20) спорт.
    б) схватка, раунд
    21)
    б) лес, сваленный за один сезон
    22) = fall trap капкан, ловушка, западня
    Syn:
    23) падение, поражение, капитуляция ( о городе или крепости)

    The fall of the city followed heavy bombardment. — Сдаче города предшествовала сильная бомбардировка.

    Syn:

    And women rent their tresses for their great prince's fall. — И женщины рвали на себе волосы, горюя о смерти своего великого государя.

    Syn:
    25) крим.
    26)
    а) покрывало, вуаль
    28) тех.; = block and fall канат, цепь подъёмного блока
    29) мор. фал
    30) тех. напор; высота напора
    ••

    Pride will have a fall. посл. — Гордыня до добра не доводит.

    II [fɔːl] сущ.; диал.
    1) крик, издаваемый китобоями, когда кит оказывается в пределах видимости или в пределах загарпунивания

    Англо-русский современный словарь > fall

  • 5 fall

    fall [fɔ:l]
    chute ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (d), 1 (e), 1 (k) baisse ⇒ 1 (f), 1 (g) automne ⇒ 1 (j) tomber ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (f)-(h), 2 (j)-(m) se laisser tomber ⇒ 2 (b) s'écrouler ⇒ 2 (c) s'assombrir ⇒ 2 (i) cascade ⇒ 4
    (pt fell [fel], pp fallen ['fɔ:ln])
    1 noun
    (a) (tumble) chute f;
    ∎ have you had a fall? êtes-vous tombé?, avez-vous fait une chute?;
    ∎ a fall from a horse une chute de cheval;
    ∎ a forty-metre fall une chute de quarante mètres;
    ∎ literary the fall of night la tombée de la nuit;
    ∎ to be heading or riding for a fall courir à l'échec;
    ∎ the government is riding for a fall le gouvernement va au-devant de la défaite
    (b) (of rain, snow) chute f;
    ∎ there was a heavy fall of snow overnight il y a eu de fortes chutes de neige dans la nuit
    (d) (collapse → of building, wall) chute f, effondrement m; (→ of dirt, rock) éboulement m, chute f; (→ of city, country) chute f, capitulation f; (→ of regime) chute f, renversement m;
    ∎ the fall of the Roman Empire la chute de l'Empire romain;
    ∎ the fall of the Bastille la prise de la Bastille
    (e) (ruin → of person) perte f, ruine f;
    ∎ Religion the Fall (of Man) la chute (de l'homme)
    (f) (decrease → in price, income, shares, temperature) baisse f (in de); (→ in currency) dépréciation f, baisse f (in de); (more marked) chute f (in de); (→ of barometer, in pressure) chute f (in de)
    (g) (lowering → of water) décrue f, baisse f; (→ of voice) cadence f
    ∎ the fall of her gown le drapé de sa robe, la façon dont tombe sa robe
    (i) (slope) pente f, inclinaison f
    (j) American (autumn) automne m;
    ∎ in the fall en automne
    (k) Sport (in judo) chute f; (in wrestling) chute f
    (a) (barrier, cup, napkin, water, person) tomber;
    ∎ the napkin fell to the floor la serviette est tombée par terre;
    ∎ I slipped and fell on the ice j'ai dérapé sur la glace et je suis tombé;
    ∎ the child fell into the pond l'enfant est tombé dans la mare;
    ∎ she fell off the stool/out of the window elle est tombée du tabouret/par la fenêtre;
    ∎ to fall 20 feet tomber de 20 pieds;
    ∎ he fell over the pile of books il est tombé en butant contre le tas de livres;
    ∎ just let your arms fall to your sides laissez simplement vos bras pendre ou tomber sur les côtés;
    ∎ he fell in a heap on the floor il s'est affaissé ou il est tombé comme une masse;
    ∎ he fell full length il est tombé de tout son long;
    ∎ the crowd fell on or to their knees la foule est tombée à genoux;
    ∎ he fell at her feet to ask forgiveness il est tombé à genoux devant elle pour lui demander pardon;
    ∎ she did let fall a few hints elle a fait effectivement quelques allusions;
    ∎ the book fell open at page 20 le livre s'est ouvert à la page 20;
    ∎ also figurative to fall on one's feet retomber sur ses pieds;
    ∎ a cat always falls on its feet un chat retombe toujours sur ses pattes;
    ∎ I fell flat on my face je suis tombé à plat ventre ou face contre terre; familiar figurative je me suis planté;
    ∎ American very familiar also figurative he fell flat on his ass il s'est cassé la gueule;
    ∎ his only joke fell flat la seule plaisanterie qu'il a faite est tombée à plat;
    ∎ the scheme fell flat le projet est tombé à l'eau;
    ∎ despite all their efforts, the party fell flat en dépit de leurs efforts, la soirée a fait un flop;
    ∎ to fall to bits or to pieces tomber en morceaux;
    ∎ all her good intentions fell by the wayside toutes ses bonnes intentions sont tombées à l'eau;
    ∎ the job fell short of her expectations le poste ne répondait pas à ses attentes
    (b) (move deliberately) se laisser tomber;
    ∎ I fell into the armchair je me suis laissé tomber dans le fauteuil;
    ∎ they fell into one another's arms ils sont tombés dans les bras l'un de l'autre
    (c) (bridge, building) s'écrouler, s'effondrer
    (d) (err, go astray) s'écarter du droit chemin; Religion (sin) pécher;
    ∎ Religion to fall from grace perdre la grâce; figurative tomber en disgrâce
    (e) (ground) descendre, aller en pente
    (f) (government) tomber, être renversé; (city, country) tomber;
    ∎ after a long siege the city fell après un long siège, la ville a capitulé;
    ∎ Constantinople fell to the Turks Constantinople est tombée aux mains des Turcs
    (g) (darkness, light, night, rain, snow) tomber;
    ∎ as night fell à la tombée de la nuit;
    ∎ the tree's shadow fell across the lawn l'arbre projetait son ombre sur la pelouse
    (h) (land → eyes, blow, weapon) tomber;
    ∎ my eyes fell on the letter mon regard est tombé sur la lettre
    (i) (face, spirits) s'assombrir;
    ∎ at the sight of her, his face fell quand il l'a vue, son visage s'est assombri ou s'est allongé;
    ∎ my spirits fell tout d'un coup, j'ai perdu le moral
    (j) (hang down) tomber, descendre;
    ∎ the curtains fall right to the floor les rideaux tombent ou descendent jusqu'au sol;
    ∎ the fabric falls in gentle folds ce tissu retombe en faisant de jolis plis;
    ∎ his hair fell to his shoulders ses cheveux lui descendaient ou tombaient jusqu'aux épaules;
    ∎ his hair keeps falling into his eyes ses cheveux n'arrêtent pas de lui tomber dans les yeux
    (k) (decrease in level, value → price, temperature) baisser, tomber; (→ pressure) baisser, diminuer; (→ wind) tomber;
    ∎ the thermometer/temperature has fallen ten degrees le thermomètre/la température a baissé de dix degrés;
    ∎ their voices fell to a whisper ils se sont mis à chuchoter;
    ∎ the boss fell in our esteem le patron a baissé dans notre estime
    (l) (issue forth) tomber, s'échapper;
    ∎ curses fell from her lips elle laissa échapper des jurons;
    ∎ the tears started to fall il/elle se mit à pleurer
    (m) (occur) tomber;
    ∎ May Day falls on a Tuesday this year le Premier Mai tombe un mardi cette année;
    ∎ the accent falls on the third syllable l'accent tombe sur la troisième syllabe
    ∎ a great sadness fell over the town une grande tristesse s'abattit sur la ville;
    ∎ a hush fell among or over the crowd tout d'un coup, la foule s'est tue
    ∎ to fall asleep s'endormir;
    ∎ the child fell fast asleep l'enfant est tombé dans un profond sommeil;
    ∎ the bill falls due on the 6th la facture arrive à échéance le 6;
    ∎ he will fall heir to a vast fortune il va hériter d'une grande fortune;
    ∎ to fall ill or sick tomber malade;
    ∎ to fall pregnant tomber enceinte;
    ∎ to fall in love (with sb) tomber amoureux (de qn);
    ∎ to fall silent se taire;
    ∎ it falls vacant in February (job) il se trouvera vacant au mois de février; (apartment) il se trouvera libre ou il se libérera au mois de février;
    ∎ to fall victim to sth être victime de qch;
    ∎ she fell victim to depression elle a fait une dépression
    (p) (die) mourir;
    ∎ the young men who fell in battle les jeunes tombés au champ d'honneur
    ∎ the athletes fall into two categories les sportifs se divisent en deux catégories;
    ∎ these facts fall under another category ces faits entrent dans une autre catégorie;
    ∎ that falls outside my area of responsibility cela ne relève pas de ma responsabilité;
    ∎ that does not fall within the scope of our agreement ceci n'entre pas dans le cadre de ou ne fait pas partie de notre accord
    ∎ the fortune fell to his niece c'est sa nièce qui a hérité de sa fortune
    ∎ two English wickets fell on the first day deux batteurs anglais ont été éliminés le premier jour
    American (colours, weather) d'automne, automnal
    (waterfall) cascade f, chute f d'eau;
    ∎ Niagara Falls les chutes fpl du Niagara
    ►► familiar fall guy (dupe) pigeon m; (scapegoat) bouc m émissaire□ ;
    Hunting fall trap assommoir m
    British familiar se tordre de rire;
    ∎ they fell about (laughing) ils se tordaient de rire
    (a) (book, furniture) tomber en morceaux; figurative (nation) se désagréger; (conference) échouer; (system) s'écrouler, s'effondrer;
    ∎ her plans fell apart at the seams ses projets sont tombés à l'eau;
    ∎ her life was falling apart toute sa vie s'écroulait;
    ∎ their marriage is falling apart leur mariage est en train de se briser ou va à vau-l'eau
    (b) (person) s'effondrer;
    ∎ he more or less fell apart after his wife's death il a plus ou moins craqué après la mort de sa femme
    (a) (paint, plaster) s'écailler
    (b) (diminish in size → attendance, figures) diminuer; (→ fears) se dissiper, fondre
    (c) (defect) déserter;
    ∎ support for his policies is beginning to fall away dans la politique qu'il mène il commence à perdre ses appuis
    (d) (land, slope) s'affaisser
    (a) (fall) tomber à la renverse ou en arrière
    (b) (retreat, recede) reculer, se retirer; Military se replier, battre en retraite
    (c) (lag, trail) se laisser distancer, être à la traîne
    ∎ to fall back two points se replier de deux points
    ∎ to fall back on sth avoir recours à qch;
    ∎ it's good to have something to fall back on (skill) c'est bien de pouvoir se raccrocher à quelque chose; (money) il vaut mieux avoir d'autres ressources;
    ∎ he knew he could always fall back on his parents il savait qu'il pouvait compter sur ses parents
    se laisser distancer, être à la traîne; Sport se laisser distancer; (in cycling) décrocher;
    ∎ she fell behind in or with her work elle a pris du retard dans son travail;
    ∎ they've fallen behind with their reading ils ont pris du retard dans leurs lectures;
    ∎ we can't fall behind in or with the rent nous ne pouvons pas être en retard pour le loyer
    prendre du retard sur;
    ∎ he's fallen behind the rest of the class il a pris du retard sur le reste de la classe
    (a) (book, person, picture) tomber (par terre); (bridge, building) s'effondrer, s'écrouler;
    ∎ that house looks as if it's about to fall down on dirait que cette maison va s'écrouler
    (b) (argument, comparison) s'écrouler, s'effondrer;
    ∎ where the whole thing falls down is… là où plus rien ne tient debout ou où tout s'écroule c'est…
    ∎ to fall down on sth échouer à qch;
    ∎ he's been falling down on the job lately il n'était pas ou ne s'est pas montré à la hauteur dernièrement
    (a) (become infatuated with) tomber amoureux de□ ;
    ∎ they fell for each other ils sont tombés amoureux l'un de l'autre;
    ∎ they really fell for Spain in a big way ils ont vraiment été emballés par l'Espagne
    (b) (be deceived by) se laisser prendre par□ ;
    ∎ they really fell for it! ils ont vraiment mordu!, ils se sont vraiment fait avoir!;
    ∎ don't fall for that hard luck story of his ne te fais pas avoir quand il te raconte qu'il a la poisse;
    ∎ I'm not falling for that one! ça ne prend pas!, à d'autres!
    (a) (tumble) tomber;
    ∎ you'll fall in! tu vas tomber dedans!;
    ∎ he leant too far over the side of the boat and fell in il s'est trop penché hors du bateau et il est tombé
    (b) (roof) s'effondrer, s'écrouler
    (c) (line up) se mettre en rang, s'aligner; Military (troops) former les rangs; (one soldier) rentrer dans les rangs;
    ∎ fall in! à vos rangs!
    (a) (tumble into) tomber dans;
    ∎ they fell into the trap ils sont tombés dans le piège;
    ∎ to fall into sb's clutches or sb's hands tomber dans les griffes de qn, tomber entre les mains de qn;
    ∎ figurative the pieces began to fall into place les éléments ont commencé à se mettre en place
    ∎ she fell into conversation with the stranger elle est entrée en conversation avec l'étranger
    ∎ to fall in with sb se mettre à fréquenter qn;
    ∎ she fell in with a bad crowd elle s'est mise à fréquenter des gens louches
    (b) British (agree with → suggestion) accepter; (→ request) accéder à;
    ∎ I'll fall in with whatever you decide to do je me rangerai à ce que tu décideras
    ∎ the leaves of this plant are falling off les feuilles de cette plante tombent, cette plante perd ses feuilles;
    ∎ she fell off the bicycle/horse elle est tombée du vélo/de cheval
    (b) (diminish → attendance, exports, numbers, sales) diminuer, baisser; (→ profits) diminuer; (→ enthusiasm, production) baisser, tomber; (→ population, rate) baisser, décroître; (→ speed) ralentir; (→ interest, zeal) se relâcher; (→ popularity) baisser; (→ wind) tomber
    (a) (drop on) tomber sur;
    ∎ something fell on my head j'ai reçu quelque chose sur la tête
    (b) (attack) attaquer, se jeter sur;
    ∎ the starving children fell on the food les enfants, affamés, se sont jetés sur la nourriture;
    ∎ Military the guerrillas fell on the unsuspecting troops les guérilleros ont fondu sur ou attaqué les troupes sans qu'elles s'y attendent
    (c) (meet with) tomber sur, trouver;
    ∎ they fell on hard times ils sont tombés dans la misère, ils ont subi des revers de fortune
    (d) (of responsibility) revenir à, incomber à;
    ∎ suspicion falls on them c'est eux que l'on soupçonne;
    ∎ responsibility for looking after them falls on me c'est à moi qu'il incombe de prendre soin d'eux
    (a) (drop out) tomber;
    ∎ the keys must have fallen out of my pocket les clés ont dû tomber de ma poche;
    ∎ his hair is falling out ses cheveux tombent, il perd ses cheveux
    (b) (quarrel) se brouiller, se disputer;
    ∎ she's fallen out with her boyfriend elle est ou s'est brouillée avec son petit ami
    (c) (happen) se passer, advenir;
    ∎ as things fell out en fin de compte
    (d) Military rompre les rangs;
    ∎ fall out! rompez!
    (a) (lose balance → person) tomber (par terre); (→ thing) se renverser, être renversé
    ∎ she was falling over herself to make us feel welcome elle se mettait en quatre pour nous faire bon accueil;
    ∎ the men were falling over each other to help her les hommes ne savaient pas quoi inventer pour l'aider
    (fail) échouer;
    ∎ the deal fell through l'affaire n'a pas abouti;
    ∎ all our plans fell through at the last minute tous nos projets sont tombés à l'eau au dernier moment
    ➲ fall to
    (a) British (begin) se mettre à;
    ∎ we fell to work nous nous sommes mis à l'œuvre;
    ∎ we all fell to talking about the past nous nous sommes tous mis à parler du passé
    (b) (devolve upon) appartenir à, incomber à;
    ∎ the task that falls to us is not an easy one la tâche qui nous incombe ou revient n'est pas facile;
    ∎ it fell to her to break the news to him ce fut à elle de lui annoncer la nouvelle
    ∎ (eat) he brought in the food and they fell to il a apporté à manger et ils se sont jetés dessus;
    ∎ she fell to as if she hadn't eaten for a week elle a attaqué comme si elle n'avait rien mangé depuis huit jours
    (a) (attack) attaquer, se jeter sur;
    ∎ Military the army fell upon the enemy l'armée s'est abattue ou a fondu sur l'ennemi;
    ∎ they fell upon the food ils se sont jetés sur la nourriture
    (b) (meet with) tomber sur, trouver;
    ∎ the family fell upon hard times la famille a subi des revers de fortune
    ✾ Book 'The Fall of the House of Usher' Poe 'La Chute de la maison Usher'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > fall

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