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or+(more+formally)

  • 21 tamper-proof

    Slightly more formally, we can say that a smart card is a portable, tamper-proof computer with a programmable data store. — Несколько более формально можно сказать, что смарт-карта - это защищённый от злонамеренного вмешательства миниатюрный компьютер с программируемым хранением данных.

    Syn:

    Англо-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > tamper-proof

  • 22 approach

    A n
    1 ( route of access) (to town, island) voie f d'accès ; Mil approche f ; all the approachs to the city have been sealed off toutes les voies d'accès de la ville ont été bouclées ; the approach to the house le chemin or l'allée qui mène à la maison ;
    2 ( advance) ( of person) approche f, arrivée f ; (of season, old age) approche f ;
    3 ( way of dealing) approche f ; an approach to doing une façon de faire ; an original approach to the problem une façon originale d'aborder le problème ; a new approach to child psychology une nouvelle façon d'aborder la psychologie de l'enfant, une nouvelle approche de la psychologie de l'enfant ; we need to try a different approach nous devons essayer une méthode différente ; I don't care for their approach je n'aime pas leur façon de s'y prendre ; she is very Freudian in her approach elle a une optique très freudienne ;
    4 ( overture) démarche f ; ( proposal to buy etc) proposition f ; to make approaches to sb gen, Comm faire des démarches auprès de qn ;
    5 ( approximation) this was the nearest approach to a solution/a cease-fire c'était ce qui ressemblait le plus à une solution/un cessez-le-feu ;
    B vtr
    1 ( draw near to) s'approcher de [person, place] ; ( verge on) approcher de ; it was approaching dawn l'aube approchait ; it was approaching midnight il était presque minuit ; he is approaching sixty il approche (de) la soixantaine ; a woman approaching middle age/retirement une femme approchant de la cinquantaine/de la retraite ; gales approaching speeds of 200 km per hour des vents qui atteignaient presque les 200 km à l'heure ; he looked at her with something approaching admiration il la regardait presque avec admiration ; a profit of something approaching five million dollars un bénéfice de près de cinq millions de dollars ;
    2 ( deal with) aborder [problem, topic, subject] ;
    3 ( make overtures to) s'adresser à [person] ; ( more formally) faire des démarches auprès de [person, company] ; (with offer of job, remuneration) solliciter (about au sujet de) ; she was approached by a man in the street elle a été abordée par un homme dans la rue ; the company has been approached by several buyers la compagnie a été contactée par plusieurs acheteurs, plusieurs acheteurs ont fait des démarches auprès de la compagnie ; he has been approached by several publishers il a reçu des propositions de plusieurs maisons d'édition.
    C vi [person, animal, car] (s')approcher ; [event, season, date] approcher ; the time is fast approaching when… le moment est imminent où…

    Big English-French dictionary > approach

  • 23 celebrate

    A vtr
    1 fêter [occasion] ; ( more formally) célébrer ; there's nothing/there's something to celebrate il n'y a pas de quoi/il y a de quoi se réjouir ;
    2 Relig célébrer [mass] ; to celebrate Easter célébrer Pâques ;
    3 ( pay tribute to) célébrer [person, life, love].
    B vi faire la fête ; let's celebrate! il faut fêter ça!

    Big English-French dictionary > celebrate

  • 24 send

    send vtr ( prét, pp sent)
    1 ( dispatch) gen envoyer [letter, parcel, goods, message, person] ; Radio envoyer [signal] ; to send help envoyer des secours ; to send sth to sb, to send sb sth envoyer qch à qn ; to send sth to the cleaner's faire nettoyer qch ; to send sb to do sth envoyer qn faire qch ; she sent him to the supermarket for some milk elle l'a envoyé au supermarché acheter du lait ; they'll send a car for you ils enverront une voiture vous chercher ; to send sb home (from school, work) renvoyer qn chez lui ; to send sb to bed envoyer qn se coucher ; to send sb to prison mettre qn en prison ; send her my love! embrasse-la de ma part ; send them my regards/best wishes transmettez-leur mes amitiés/meilleurs vœux ; Kirsten sends her regards tu as le bonjour de Kirsten ; ( more formally) vous avez les amitiés de Kirsten ; to send word that faire dire que ;
    2 ( cause to move) envoyer ; the explosion sent debris in all directions l'explosion a envoyé des débris dans toutes les directions ; the blow sent him crashing to the ground le coup l'a envoyé rouler par terre ; the noise sent people running in all directions le bruit a fait courir les gens dans toutes les directions ; to send share prices soaring/plummeting faire monter/s'effondrer le cours des actions ; the impact sent the car over the cliff le choc a fait basculer la voiture du haut de la falaise ; the collision sent the car straight into a wall/into a hedge la collision a été si forte que la voiture a embouti un mur/est rentrée dans une haie ; the fire sent flickers of light across the room le feu lançait des lueurs à travers la pièce ; to send shivers down sb's spine donner froid dans le dos à qn ;
    3 ( cause to become) rendre ; to send sb mad/berserk rendre qn fou/fou furieux ; to send sb into a rage mettre qn dans une rage folle ; to send sb to sleep endormir qn ; to send sb into fits of laughter faire éclater de rire qn ;
    4 ○ ( excite) she really sends me! elle me botte ○ or m'emballe ○ vraiment! ; this music really sends me! cette musique me botte ○ or me plaît vraiment!
    to send sb packing ○ , to send sb about her/his business ○ envoyer balader qn ○
    ▶ send [sb/sth] along, send along [sb/sth] envoyer ; send him/the documents along to room three envoyez-le/les documents à la salle trois.
    ■ send away:
    ▶ send away for [sth] commander [qch] par correspondance ;
    ▶ send [sb/sth] away faire partir, renvoyer [person] ;
    ▶ to send a child away to boarding school envoyer un enfant en pension ; to send an appliance away to be mended envoyer un appareil chez le fabricant pour le faire réparer.
    ■ send down:
    ▶ send [sb/sth] down, send down [sb/sth] envoyer ; send him down to the second floor dites-lui de descendre au deuxième étage ; can you send it down to me? pouvez-vous me le faire parvenir? ;
    ▶ send [sb] down
    1 GB Univ renvoyer [qn] de l'université (for pour ; for doing pour avoir fait) ;
    2 ○ GB ( put in prison) mettre or envoyer qn en prison ; he was sent down for ten years for armed robbery il a été condamné à dix ans pour vol à main armée.
    ■ send for:
    ▶ send for [sb/sth] appeler, faire venir [doctor, taxi, plumber] ; demander [reinforcements] ; the headmaster has sent for you le directeur te réclame.
    ▶ send forth [sb/sth] littér envoyer [messenger, army, ray of light].
    ■ send in:
    ▶ send [sb/sth] in, send in [sb/sth] envoyer [letter, form] ; envoyer [police, troops] ; faire entrer [visitor] ; to send in one's application poser sa candidature.
    ■ send off:
    ▶ send off for [sth] commander [qch] par correspondance ;
    ▶ send [sth] off, send off [sth] ( post) envoyer, expédier [letter, parcel, form] ;
    ▶ send [sb] off, send off [sb] Sport expulser [player] (for pour ; for doing pour avoir fait) ;
    ▶ send [sb] off to envoyer [qn] à [shops, school] ; to send [sb] off to do envoyer [qn] faire.
    ■ send on:
    ▶ send [sb] on (ahead) Mil ( as scout) envoyer [qn] en éclaireur ; send him on ahead to open up the shop dites-lui de partir devant ouvrir le magasin ;
    ▶ send [sth] on, send on [sth]
    1 ( send in advance) expédier [qch] à l'avance [luggage] ;
    2 ( forward) faire suivre [letter, mail].
    ■ send out:
    ▶ send out for [sth] envoyer quelqu'un chercher [sandwich, newspaper] ;
    ▶ send [sth] out, send out [sth]
    1 ( post) envoyer [letters, leaflets] ;
    2 ( emit) émettre [light, heat, flames] ; ( produce) [tree, plant] produire [leaf, bud, creeper] ;
    ▶ send [sb] out faire sortir [pupil] ;
    ▶ send [sb] out for envoyer [qn] chercher [pizza, sandwich].
    ■ send round GB:
    ▶ send [sb/sth] round, send round [sb/sth]
    1 ( circulate) faire circuler [letter, memo etc] ;
    2 ( cause to go) envoyer [person, object] ; I've sent him round to my neighbour's je l'ai envoyé chez le voisin.
    ■ send up:
    ▶ send [sth] up ( post) envoyer ; send your ideas up to the BBC envoyez vos idées à la BBC ;
    ▶ send [sb] up ○ US ( put in prison) mettre or envoyer [qn] en prison ;
    ▶ send [sb/sth] up, send up [sb/sth]
    1 (into sky, space) envoyer [astronaut, probe] ;
    2 ( to upper floor) you can send him up now vous pouvez lui dire de monter maintenant ; can you send it up to me? pouvez-vous me le faire parvenir? ;
    3 ○ GB ( parody) parodier [person, institution].

    Big English-French dictionary > send

  • 25 Colours

    Not all English colour terms have a single exact equivalent in French: for instance, in some circumstances brown is marron, in others brun. If in doubt, look the word up in the dictionary.
    Colour terms
    what colour is it?
    = c’est de quelle couleur? or (more formally) de quelle couleur est-il?
    it’s green
    = il est vert or elle est verte
    to paint sth green
    = peindre qch en vert
    to dye sth green
    = teindre qch en vert
    to wear green
    = porter du vert
    dressed in green
    = habillé de vert
    Colour nouns are all masculine in French:
    I like green
    = j’aime le vert
    I prefer blue
    = je préfère le bleu
    red suits her
    = le rouge lui va bien
    it’s a pretty yellow!
    = c’est un joli jaune!
    have you got it in white?
    = est-ce que vous l’avez en blanc?
    a pretty shade of blue
    = un joli ton de bleu
    it was a dreadful green
    = c’était un vert affreux
    a range of greens
    = une gamme de verts
    Most adjectives of colour agree with the noun they modify:
    a blue coat
    = un manteau bleu
    a blue dress
    = une robe bleue
    blue clothes
    = des vêtements bleus
    Some that don’t agree are explained below.
    Words that are not true adjectives
    Some words that translate English adjectives are really nouns in French, and so don’t show agreement:
    a brown shoe
    = une chaussure marron
    orange tablecloths
    = des nappes fpl orange
    hazel eyes
    = des yeux mpl noisette
    Other French words like this include: cerise ( cherry-red), chocolat ( chocolate-brown) and émeraude ( emerald-green).
    Shades of colour
    Expressions like pale blue, dark green or light yellow are also invariable in French and show no agreement:
    a pale blue shirt
    = une chemise bleu pâle
    dark green blankets
    = des couvertures fpl vert foncé
    a light yellow tie
    = une cravate jaune clair
    bright yellow socks
    = des chaussettes fpl jaune vif
    French can also use the colour nouns here: instead of une chemise bleu pâle you could say une chemise d’un bleu pâle ; and similarly des couvertures d’un vert foncé (etc). The nouns in French are normally used to translate English adjectives of this type ending in -er and -est:
    a darker blue
    = un bleu plus foncé
    the dress was a darker blue
    = la robe était d’un bleu plus foncé
    Similarly:
    a lighter blue
    = un bleu plus clair (etc.)
    In the following examples, blue stands for most basic colour terms:
    pale blue
    = bleu pâle
    light blue
    = bleu clair
    bright blue
    = bleu vif
    dark blue
    = bleu foncé
    deep blue
    = bleu profond
    strong blue
    = bleu soutenu
    Other types of compound in French are also invariable, and do not agree with their nouns:
    a navy-blue jacket
    = une veste bleu marine
    These compounds include: bleu ciel ( sky-blue), vert pomme ( apple-green), bleu nuit ( midnight-blue), rouge sang ( blood-red) etc. However, all English compounds do not translate directly into French. If in doubt, check in the dictionary.
    French compounds consisting of two colour terms linked with a hyphen are also invariable:
    a blue-black material
    = une étoffe bleu-noir
    a greenish-blue cup
    = une tasse bleu-vert
    a greeny-yellow dress
    = une robe vert-jaune
    English uses the ending -ish, or sometimes -y, to show that something is approximately a certain colour, e.g. a reddish hat or a greenish paint. The French equivalent is -âtre:
    blue-ish
    = bleuâtre
    greenish or greeny
    = verdâtre
    greyish
    = grisâtre
    reddish
    = rougeâtre
    yellowish or yellowy
    = jaunâtre
    etc.
    Other similar French words are rosâtre, noirâtre and blanchâtre. Note however that these words are often rather negative in French. It is better not to use them if you want to be complimentary about something. Use instead tirant sur le rouge/jaune etc.
    To describe a special colour, English can add -coloured to a noun such as raspberry (framboise) or flesh (chair). Note how this is said in French, where the two-word compound with couleur is invariable, and, unlike English, never has a hyphen:
    a chocolate-coloured skirt
    = une jupe couleur chocolat
    raspberry-coloured fabric
    = du tissu couleur framboise
    flesh-coloured tights
    = un collant couleur chair
    Colour verbs
    English makes some colour verbs by adding -en (e.g. blacken). Similarly French has some verbs in -ir made from colour terms:
    to blacken
    = noircir
    to redden
    = rougir
    to whiten
    = blanchir
    The other French colour terms that behave like this are: bleu (bleuir), jaune (jaunir), rose (rosir) and vert (verdir). It is always safe, however, to use devenir, thus:
    to turn purple
    = devenir violet
    Describing people
    Note the use of the definite article in the following:
    to have black hair
    = avoir les cheveux noirs
    to have blue eyes
    = avoir les yeux bleus
    Note the use of à in the following:
    a girl with blue eyes
    = une jeune fille aux yeux bleus
    the man with black hair
    = l’homme aux cheveux noirs
    Not all colours have direct equivalents in French. The following words are used for describing the colour of someone’s hair (note that les cheveux is plural in French):
    fair
    = blond
    dark
    = brun
    blonde or blond
    = blond
    brown
    = châtain inv
    red
    = roux
    black
    = noir
    grey
    = gris
    white
    = blanc
    Check other terms such as yellow, ginger, auburn, mousey etc. in the dictionary.
    Note these nouns in French:
    a fair-haired man
    = un blond
    a fair-haired woman
    = une blonde
    a dark-haired man
    = un brun
    a dark-haired woman
    = une brune
    The following words are useful for describing the colour of someone’s eyes:
    blue
    = bleu
    light blue
    = bleu clair inv
    light brown
    = marron clair inv
    brown
    = marron inv
    hazel
    = noisette inv
    green
    = vert
    grey
    = gris
    greyish-green
    = gris-vert inv
    dark
    = noir

    Big English-French dictionary > Colours

  • 26 Illnesses, aches and pains

    Where does it hurt?
    where does it hurt?
    = où est-ce que ça vous fait mal? or (more formally) où avez-vous mal?
    his leg hurts
    = sa jambe lui fait mal
    ( Do not confuse faire mal à qn with the phrase faire du mal à qn, which means to harm sb.)
    he has a pain in his leg
    = il a mal à la jambe
    Note that with avoir mal à French uses the definite article (la) with the part of the body, where English has a possessive (his), hence:
    his head was aching
    = il avait mal à la tête
    English has other ways of expressing this idea, but avoir mal à fits them too:
    he had toothache
    = il avait mal aux dents
    his ears hurt
    = il avait mal aux oreilles
    Accidents
    she broke her leg
    = elle s’est cassé la jambe
    Elle s’est cassé la jambe means literally she broke to herself the leg ; because the se is an indirect object, the past participle cassé does not agree. This is true of all such constructions:
    she sprained her ankle
    = elle s’est foulé la cheville
    they burned their hands
    = ils se sont brûlé les mains
    Chronic conditions
    Note that the French often use fragile (weak) to express a chronic condition:
    he has a weak heart
    = il a le cœur fragile
    he has kidney trouble
    = il a les reins fragiles
    he has a bad back
    = il a le dos fragile
    Being ill
    Mostly French uses the definite article with the name of an illness:
    to have flu
    = avoir la grippe
    to have measles
    = avoir la rougeole
    to have malaria
    = avoir la malaria
    This applies to most infectious diseases, including childhood illnesses. However, note the exceptions ending in -ite (e.g. une hépatite, une méningite) below.
    When the illness affects a specific part of the body, French uses the indefinite article:
    to have cancer
    = avoir un cancer
    to have cancer of the liver
    = avoir un cancer du foie
    to have pneumonia
    = avoir une pneumonie
    to have cirrhosis
    = avoir une cirrhose
    to have a stomach ulcer
    = avoir un ulcère à l’estomac
    Most words in -ite ( English -itis) work like this:
    to have bronchitis
    = avoir une bronchite
    to have hepatitis
    = avoir une hépatite
    When the illness is a generalized condition, French tends to use du, de l’, de la or des:
    to have rheumatism
    = avoir des rhumatismes
    to have emphysema
    = avoir de l’emphysème
    to have asthma
    = avoir de l’asthme
    to have arthritis
    = avoir de l’arthrite
    One exception here is:
    to have hay fever
    = avoir le rhume des foins
    When there is an adjective for such conditions, this is often preferred in French:
    to have asthma
    = être asthmatique
    to have epilepsy
    = être épileptique
    Such adjectives can be used as nouns to denote the person with the illness, e.g. un/une asthmatique and un/une épileptique etc.
    French has other specific words for people with certain illnesses:
    someone with cancer
    = un cancéreux/une cancéreuse
    If in doubt check in the dictionary.
    English with is translated by qui a or qui ont, and this is always safe:
    someone with malaria
    = quelqu’un qui a la malaria
    people with Aids
    = les gens qui ont le Sida
    Falling ill
    The above guidelines about the use of the definite and indefinite articles in French hold good for talking about the onset of illnesses.
    French has no general equivalent of to get. However, where English can use catch, French can use attraper:
    to catch mumps
    = attraper les oreillons
    to catch malaria
    = attraper la malaria
    to catch bronchitis
    = attraper une bronchite
    to catch a cold
    = attraper un rhume
    Similarly where English uses contract, French uses contracter:
    to contract Aids
    = contracter le Sida
    to contract pneumonia
    = contracter une pneumonie
    to contract hepatitis
    = contracter une hépatite
    For attacks of chronic illnesses, French uses faire une crise de:
    to have a bout of malaria
    = faire une crise de malaria
    to have an asthma attack
    = faire une crise d’asthme
    to have an epileptic fit
    = faire une crise d’épilepsie
    Treatment
    to be treated for polio
    = se faire soigner contre la polio
    to take something for hay fever
    = prendre quelque chose contre le rhume des foins
    he’s taking something for his cough
    = il prend quelque chose contre la toux
    to prescribe something for a cough
    = prescrire un médicament contre la toux
    malaria tablets
    = des cachets contre la malaria
    to have a cholera vaccination
    = se faire vacciner contre le choléra
    to be vaccinated against smallpox
    = se faire vacciner contre la variole
    to be immunized against smallpox
    = se faire immuniser contre la variole
    to have a tetanus injection
    = se faire vacciner contre le tétanos
    to give sb a tetanus injection
    = vacciner qn contre le tétanos
    to be operated on for cancer
    = être opéré d’un cancer
    to operate on sb for appendicitis
    = opérer qn de l’appendicite

    Big English-French dictionary > Illnesses, aches and pains

  • 27 Time units

    = une seconde
    a minute
    = une minute
    an hour
    = une heure
    a day
    = un jour
    a week
    = une semaine
    a month
    = un mois
    a year
    = un an/une année
    a century
    = un siècle
    How long?
    Note the various ways of translating take into French.
    how long does it take?
    = combien de temps faut-il?
    it took me a week
    = cela m’a pris une semaine or il m’a fallu une semaine
    I took an hour to finish it
    = j’ai mis une heure pour le terminer
    it’ll only take a moment
    = c’est l’affaire de quelques instants
    Translate both spend and have as passer:
    to have a wonderful evening
    = passer une soirée merveilleuse
    to spend two days in Paris
    = passer deux jours à Paris
    Use dans for in when something is seen as happening in the future:
    I’ll be there in an hour
    = je serai là dans une heure
    in three weeks’ time
    = dans trois semaines
    Use en for in when expressing the time something took or will take:
    he did it in an hour
    = il l’a fait en une heure
    The commonest translation of for in the ‘how long’ sense is pendant:
    I worked in the factory for a year
    = j’ai travaillé à l’usine pendant un an
    But use pour for for when the length of time is seen as being still to come:
    we’re here for a month
    = nous sommes là pour un mois
    And use depuis for for when the action began in the past and is or was still going on:
    she has been here for a week
    = elle est ici depuis huit jours
    she had been there for a year
    = elle était là depuis un an
    I haven’t seen her for years
    = je ne l’ai pas vue depuis des années
    Note the use of de when expressing how long something lasted or will last:
    a two-minute delay
    = un retard de deux minutes
    an eight-hour day
    = une journée de huit heures
    five weeks’ pay
    = cinq semaines de salaire
    When?
    In the past
    when did it happen?
    = quand est-ce que c’est arrivé?
    two minutes ago
    = il y a deux minutes
    a month ago
    = il y a un mois
    years ago
    = il y a des années
    it’ll be a month ago on Tuesday
    = ça fera un mois mardi
    it’s years since he died
    = il y a des années qu’il est mort
    a month earlier
    = un mois plus tôt
    a month before
    = un mois avant or un mois auparavant
    the year before
    = l’année d’avant or l’année précédente
    the year after
    = l’année d’après or l’année suivante
    a few years later
    = quelques années plus tard
    after four days
    = au bout de quatre jours
    last week
    = la semaine dernière
    last month
    = le mois dernier
    last year
    = l’année dernière
    a week ago yesterday
    = il y a eu huit jours hier
    a week ago tomorrow
    = il y aura huit jours demain
    the week before last
    = il y a quinze jours
    over the past few months
    = au cours des derniers mois
    In the future
    when will you see him?
    = quand est-ce que tu le verras?
    in a few days
    = dans quelques jours (see also above, the phrases with in translated by dans)
    any day now
    = d’un jour à l’autre
    next week
    = la semaine prochaine
    next month
    = le mois prochain
    next year
    = l’année prochaine
    this coming week
    = la semaine qui vient or (more formally) au cours de la semaine à venir
    over the coming months
    = au cours des mois à venir
    a month from tomorrow
    = dans un mois demain
    How often?
    how often does it happen?
    = cela arrive tous les combien?
    every Thursday
    = tous les jeudis
    every week
    = toutes les semaines
    every year
    = tous les ans
    every second day
    = tous les deux jours
    every third month
    = tous les trois mois
    day after day
    = jour après jour
    year after year
    = année après année
    the last Thursday of the month
    = le dernier jeudi du mois
    twice a month
    = deux fois par mois
    once every three months
    = une fois tous les trois mois
    How much an hour (etc)?
    how much do you get an hour?
    = combien gagnez-vous de l’heure?
    I get $20
    = je gagne 20 dollars de l’heure
    to be paid $20 an hour
    = être payé 20 dollars de l’heure
    but note:
    to be paid by the hour
    = être payé à l’heure
    how much do you earn a month?
    = combien gagnez-vous par mois?
    $3,000 a month
    = 3000 dollars par mois
    Forms in -ée: an/année, matin/matinée etc.
    The -ée forms are often used to express a rather vague amount of time passing or spent in something, and so tend to give a subjective slant to what is being said, as in:
    a long day/evening/year
    = une longue journée/soirée/année
    a whole day
    = toute une journée or une journée entière
    we spent a lovely day there
    = nous y avons passé une journée merveilleuse
    When an exact number is specified, the shorter forms are generally used, as in:
    it lasted six days
    = cela a duré six jours
    two years’ military service
    = deux ans de service militaire
    However there is no strict rule that applies to all of these words. If in doubt, check in the dictionary.

    Big English-French dictionary > Time units

  • 28 boss

    Gen Mgt
    the person in charge of a job, process, department, or organization, more formally known as a manager or supervisor

    The ultimate business dictionary > boss

  • 29 could

    [ forma debole kəd] [ forma forte kʊd]

    it could be that... — potrebbe essere che

    could be — colloq. forse

    "did she know?" - "no, how could she?" — "lo sapeva?" - "no, come avrebbe potuto?"

    you couldn't come earlier, could you? — non potresti arrivare prima, vero?

    6) (expressing likelihood, assumption)

    I could murder him! — colloq. l'ammazzerei!

    ••
    Note:
    Could is formally the past tense and the conditional of can. As the past tense of can, could is translated by the appropriate past tense in the indicative: I couldn't leave the children = non potevo lasciare i bambini / non potei lasciare i bambini; few people could read or write = poche persone sapevano leggere o scrivere; he couldn't sleep for weeks = non è riuscito a dormire per settimane; we could hear them laughing = li sentivamo ridere. When preceded by and dependent on a verb in the past tense, could + verb is translated by the past conditional of the appropriate Italian verb: I was sure you could do it = ero sicuro che saresti riuscito a farlo. In reported speech, could is translated by the appropriate past tense, according to the rules of Italian grammar (see the note 1.dire): she never told us she could speak Chinese = non ci ha mai detto che sapeva parlare il cinese. - For more examples, particular usages and all other uses of could see the entry below
    * * *
    [kud]
    negative short form - couldn't; verb
    1) (past tense of can: They asked if I could drive a car; I said I couldn't; She asked if she could go.) potere
    2) (used to express a possibility: I could go but I'm not going to; I could do it next week if you helped me.) potere
    •
    * * *
    [ forma debole kəd] [ forma forte kʊd]

    it could be that... — potrebbe essere che

    could be — colloq. forse

    "did she know?" - "no, how could she?" — "lo sapeva?" - "no, come avrebbe potuto?"

    you couldn't come earlier, could you? — non potresti arrivare prima, vero?

    6) (expressing likelihood, assumption)

    I could murder him! — colloq. l'ammazzerei!

    ••
    Note:
    Could is formally the past tense and the conditional of can. As the past tense of can, could is translated by the appropriate past tense in the indicative: I couldn't leave the children = non potevo lasciare i bambini / non potei lasciare i bambini; few people could read or write = poche persone sapevano leggere o scrivere; he couldn't sleep for weeks = non è riuscito a dormire per settimane; we could hear them laughing = li sentivamo ridere. When preceded by and dependent on a verb in the past tense, could + verb is translated by the past conditional of the appropriate Italian verb: I was sure you could do it = ero sicuro che saresti riuscito a farlo. In reported speech, could is translated by the appropriate past tense, according to the rules of Italian grammar (see the note 1.dire): she never told us she could speak Chinese = non ci ha mai detto che sapeva parlare il cinese. - For more examples, particular usages and all other uses of could see the entry below

    English-Italian dictionary > could

  • 30 present

    I 'preznt adjective
    1) (being here, or at the place, occasion etc mentioned: My father was present on that occasion; Who else was present at the wedding?; Now that the whole class is present, we can begin the lesson.) presente
    2) (existing now: the present moment; the present prime minister.) presente
    3) ((of the tense of a verb) indicating action now: In the sentence `She wants a chocolate', the verb is in the present tense.) presente
    •
    - the present
    - at present
    - for the present
    II pri'zent verb
    1) (to give, especially formally or ceremonially: The child presented a bunch of flowers to the Queen; He was presented with a gold watch when he retired.) entregar, hacer entrega de
    2) (to introduce: May I present my wife (to you)?) presentar (a)
    3) (to arrange the production of (a play, film etc): The Elizabethan Theatre Company presents `Hamlet', by William Shakespeare.) presentar
    4) (to offer (ideas etc) for consideration, or (a problem etc) for solving: She presents (=expresses) her ideas very clearly; The situation presents a problem.) presentar
    5) (to bring (oneself); to appear: He presented himself at the dinner table half an hour late.) presentarse
    •
    - presentable
    - presentation
    - present arms
    III 'preznt noun
    (a gift: a wedding present; birthday presents.) regalo, presente, obsequio
    present1 adj
    1. presente
    is Janet present? ¿está Janet?
    2. actual
    present2 n regalo
    at present en este momento / actualmente
    present3 vb presentar / entregar
    tr['prezənt]
    1 (in attendance) presente
    2 (current) actual
    3 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL presente
    1 (now) presente nombre masculino, actualidad nombre femenino
    1 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL presente nombre masculino
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    at present actualmente, en este momento
    for the present de momento, por el momento, por ahora
    present company excepted exceptuando a los presentes
    there's no time like the present no dejes para mañana lo que puedas hacer hoy
    to be present (at event, class, etc) estar presente, asistir 2 (see) presenciar
    ————————
    tr[ (vb) prɪ'zent; (n) 'prezənt]
    1 (make presentation) entregar, hacer entrega de; (give - as gift) regalar; (- formally) obsequiar
    2 (offer - report, petition, bill, cheque) presentar; (- argument, ideas, case) presentar, exponer
    3 formal use (offer - apologies, respects) presentar; (- compliments, greetings) dar
    4 (give - difficulty, problem) plantear; (constitute) suponer, constituir, ser; (provide) presentar, ofrecer
    5 (introduce) presentar
    ■ may I present Mr Brown? le presento al Sr. Brown
    6 (play) representar; (programme) presentar
    1 (gift) regalo; (formal) obsequio
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to present oneself presentarse
    present [pri'zɛnt] vt
    1) introduce: presentar
    to present oneself: presentarse
    2) : presentar (una obra de teatro, etc.)
    3) give: entregar (un regalo, etc.), regalar, obsequiar
    4) show: presentar, ofrecer
    it presents a lovely view: ofrece una vista muy linda
    present ['prɛzənt] adj
    1) : actual
    present conditions: condiciones actuales
    2) : presente
    all the students were present: todos los estudiantes estaban presentes
    present ['prɛzənt] n
    1) gift: regalo m, obsequio m
    2) : presente m
    at present: en este momento
    3) or present tense : presente m
    adj.
    • actual adj.
    • circunstante adj.
    • concurrente adj.
    • corriente adj.
    • presente adj.
    n.
    • actualidad s.f.
    • cortesía s.f.
    • cumplido s.m.
    • dádiva s.f.
    • oferta s.f.
    • presente s.m.
    • regalo s.m.
    v.
    • deparar v.
    • obsequiar v.
    • ofrecer v.
    • presentar v.

    I
    1. prɪ'zent
    1)
    a) (give, hand over)

    to present something to somebody — entregarle* algo a alguien, hacerle* entrega de algo a alguien (frml)

    to present somebody WITH something — obsequiar a alguien con algo (frml), obsequiarle algo a alguien (esp AmL frml)

    b) ( confront)

    to present somebody WITH something: it presents me with a whole host of problems esto me plantea toda una serie de problemas; we were presented with a very difficult situation — nos vimos frente a una situación muy difícil

    2) \<\<ticket/passport/account/motion/bill\>\> presentar; \<\<ideas\>\> presentar, exponer*
    3)
    a) ( constitute) ser*, constituir*
    b) ( provide) \<\<view/perspective\>\> presentar, ofrecer*
    4) (Cin, Theat, Rad, TV) presentar
    5) ( introduce) (frml) presentar
    6) ( Mil)

    2.
    v refl
    a) ( arise) \<\<problem/opportunity\>\> presentarse, surgir*
    b) ( appear) (frml) \<\<person\>\> presentarse
    c) (display, show) presentarse

    3.
    vi ( Med) \<\<patient/disease\>\> presentarse

    II 'prezṇt
    1) ( at scene) (pred)

    to be present — estar* presente

    how many were present? — ¿cuántas personas había?

    2) (before n)
    a) ( current) actual

    at the present time o moment — en este momento

    b) ( Ling)

    III 'prezṇt
    1) u

    at present — en este momento, actualmente

    for the present — por ahora, por el momento

    there's no time like the present — (set phrase) no dejes para mañana lo que puedas hacer hoy

    b) ( Ling)
    2) c ( gift) regalo m

    to give somebody a present — regalarle algo a alguien, hacerle* un regalo a alguien


    I ['preznt]
    1. ADJ
    1) [person]

    to be present — (in place) estar presente; (at function) asistir, estar presente

    how many others were present? — ¿cuántos más había?, ¿cuántos más estuvieron presentes?

    nobody else was present — no había nadie más, nadie más estuvo presente

    is there a doctor present? — ¿hay un médico (presente)?

    present! — ¡presente!

    ssh! there are ladies present — ¡sss! hay señoras delante

    • to be present at — [+ function] asistir a, estar presente en; [+ scene, accident] presenciar

    • present company excepted — exceptuando a los presentes

    • all present and correct — (Mil) todos presentes; hum somos todos los que estamos y estamos todos los que somos

    • those present — los presentes

    2)

    to be present — [thing, substance] encontrarse

    in some areas, fluoride is naturally present in the water supply — en algunas zonas, el flúor se encuentra de forma natural en el agua

    3) (=current) actual

    how long have you been in your present job? — ¿cuánto tiempo llevas en tu puesto actual?

    • from Roman times to the present day — desde los tiempos romanos hasta nuestros días

    • at the present time — (=at this instant) en este momento; (=currently) actualmente, hoy día

    (up) to the present time — hasta nuestros días, hasta los tiempos actuales

    present-day
    4) (Gram) presente
    2. N
    1) (=present time)

    • for the present — de momento, por lo pronto

    that will be all for the present — de momento or por lo pronto esto es todo

    • up to the present — hasta ahora

    - live for the present
    - no time like the present
    2)

    at present — (=at this instant) en este momento; (=currently) ahora, actualmente

    Mr Young isn't here at present — el Sr. Young no está aquí en este momento

    as things are at present — como están las cosas ahora, como están las cosas actualmente

    3) (Gram) (tiempo m) presente m
    4) (Jur)
    3.
    CPD

    present participle N — participio m activo, participio m (de) presente


    II
    ['preznt]
    N (=gift) regalo m, obsequio m frm, presente m frm, liter

    to make sb a present of sth — regalar algo a algn; (fig) dar algo a algn medio regalado, servir algo a algn en bandeja

    birthday, Christmas, wedding
    III [prɪ'zent]
    1. VT
    1) (=give)
    a) [+ prize, award] entregar, hacer entrega de

    to present sth to sb — entregar algo a algn, hacer entrega de algo a algn

    they have presented a petition to Parliament — han hecho entrega de or han presentado una petición al parlamento

    b) [+ gift]

    to present sb with sth, present sth to sb — regalar algo a algn, obsequiar a algn con algo more frm, obsequiar algo a algn (LAm)

    2) (=introduce) presentar

    may I present Miss Clark?, allow me to present Miss Clark — frm permítame presentarle a or le presento a la Srta. Clark

    it gives me great pleasure to present... — es para mí un honor or placer presentarles a...

    to be presented at court — (Brit) ser presentada en la corte

    3) (=offer formally)

    • to present one's apologies (to sb) — presentar sus excusas (ante algn)

    • to present one's compliments (to sb) — presentar or ofrecer sus saludos (a algn)

    • to present one's credentials (to sb) — [diplomat] presentar sus credenciales (ante algn)

    4) (=show) [+ documents, tickets] presentar, mostrar
    5) (=put forward, communicate) [+ report, proposal, evidence] presentar; [+ case, argument] exponer; (Parl) [+ bill] presentar

    • the party has to present a more professional image — el partido debe presentar or proyectar una imagen más profesional

    • she presented her plan to the meeting — expuso su proyecto a la reunión

    6) (=pose) [+ challenge] representar; [+ opportunity] presentar, ofrecer; [+ sight] ofrecer

    if you are old, getting fit can present a challenge — si es usted mayor, ponerse en forma puede representar un reto

    • the boy presents a problem — el chico nos plantea un problema

    • the patrol presented an easy target — la patrulla era un blanco fácil

    7) (=provide, confront)

    to present sb with sth: the author presents us with a vivid chronicle of contemporary America — el autor nos brinda or ofrece una vívida crónica de la América contemporánea

    • she bought a new car and presented me with the bill — se compró un coche nuevo y me pasó la factura

    • to present sb with a daughter/ son — frm, hum ofrecer a algn una hija/un hijo

    8) (=represent, portray) presentar
    9) (Comm) (=tender, submit) [+ bill] presentar, pasar; [+ cheque] presentar
    10) (Rad, TV) [+ programme] presentar; (Theat) [+ play] presentar, ofrecer el montaje de; (Art) [+ exhibition] exponer, presentar
    11) (Mil)

    present arms! — ¡presenten armas!

    12)

    to present o.s. — [person] presentarse

    • to present o.s. as sth, he presents himself as a moderate, but he's not — se define a sí mismo como un moderado, pero no lo es

    • to present o.s. for examination — presentarse a (un) examen

    • to present o.s. for (an) interview — presentarse a una entrevista

    13)

    to present itself — [opportunity, problem] surgir, presentarse

    a problem has presented itself — ha surgido or se ha presentado un problema

    2.
    VI
    (Med)

    to present with sth — [patient] presentarse con algo

    to present with or as sth — [condition] presentarse en forma de algo

    * * *

    I
    1. [prɪ'zent]
    1)
    a) (give, hand over)

    to present something to somebody — entregarle* algo a alguien, hacerle* entrega de algo a alguien (frml)

    to present somebody WITH something — obsequiar a alguien con algo (frml), obsequiarle algo a alguien (esp AmL frml)

    b) ( confront)

    to present somebody WITH something: it presents me with a whole host of problems esto me plantea toda una serie de problemas; we were presented with a very difficult situation — nos vimos frente a una situación muy difícil

    2) \<\<ticket/passport/account/motion/bill\>\> presentar; \<\<ideas\>\> presentar, exponer*
    3)
    a) ( constitute) ser*, constituir*
    b) ( provide) \<\<view/perspective\>\> presentar, ofrecer*
    4) (Cin, Theat, Rad, TV) presentar
    5) ( introduce) (frml) presentar
    6) ( Mil)

    2.
    v refl
    a) ( arise) \<\<problem/opportunity\>\> presentarse, surgir*
    b) ( appear) (frml) \<\<person\>\> presentarse
    c) (display, show) presentarse

    3.
    vi ( Med) \<\<patient/disease\>\> presentarse

    II ['prezṇt]
    1) ( at scene) (pred)

    to be present — estar* presente

    how many were present? — ¿cuántas personas había?

    2) (before n)
    a) ( current) actual

    at the present time o moment — en este momento

    b) ( Ling)

    III ['prezṇt]
    1) u

    at present — en este momento, actualmente

    for the present — por ahora, por el momento

    there's no time like the present — (set phrase) no dejes para mañana lo que puedas hacer hoy

    b) ( Ling)
    2) c ( gift) regalo m

    to give somebody a present — regalarle algo a alguien, hacerle* un regalo a alguien

    English-spanish dictionary > present

  • 31 meet

    mi:t
    1. past tense, past participle - met; verb
    1) (to come face to face with (eg a person whom one knows), by chance: She met a man on the train.) encontrar, encontrarse con
    2) ((sometimes, especially American, with with) to come together with (a person etc), by arrangement: The committee meets every Monday.) enocontar, reunirse con, citarse, quedar
    3) (to be introduced to (someone) for the first time: Come and meet my wife.) conocer
    4) (to join: Where do the two roads meet?) unirse
    5) (to be equal to or satisfy (eg a person's needs, requirements etc): Will there be sufficient stocks to meet the public demand?) satisfacer
    6) (to come into the view, experience or presence of: A terrible sight met him / his eyes when he opened the door.) encontrar
    7) (to come to or be faced with: He met his death in a car accident.) encontrar
    8) ((with with) to experience or suffer; to receive a particular response: She met with an accident; The scheme met with their approval.) sufrir; recibir
    9) (to answer or oppose: We will meet force with greater force.) responder (a)

    2. noun
    (a gathering, especially of sportsmen: The local huntsmen are holding a meet this week.) encuentro
    - meet someone halfway
    - meet halfway
    meet vb
    1. encontrarse con
    2. conocer
    3. reunirse / verse
    4. quedar
    tr[miːt]
    transitive verb (pt & pp met tr[met])
    1 (by chance) encontrar, encontrarse con; (in street) cruzar con, topar con
    ■ guess who I met today! ¡a que no sabes con quién he topado hoy!
    2 (by arrangement) encontrar, reunirse con, citarse, quedar con; (formally) entrevistarse con; (informally) ver
    ■ have you met my wife? ¿conoces a mi mujer?
    4 (collect) ir a buscar, pasar a buscar; (await arrival of) esperar; (receive) ir a recibir
    5 (face - danger, difficulty) encontrar; (- problem) hacer frente a
    6 SMALLSPORT/SMALL (opponent) enfrentarse con
    7 (touch) tocar
    8 (fulfil - standards, demands, wishes) satisfacer; (- obligations, deadline) cumplir con; (- requirements) reunir, cumplir
    9 (bill, debt) pagar; (deficit) cubrir; (cost, expenses) hacerse cargo de
    1 (by chance) encontrarse
    2 (by arrangement) reunirse, verse, quedar, encontrarse; (formally) entrevistarse
    ■ where shall we meet? ¿dónde quedamos?, ¿dónde nos encontramos?
    3 (get acquainted) conocerse
    ■ where did you meet? ¿dónde os conocisteis?
    4 SMALLSPORT/SMALL enfrentarse
    5 (join) unirse; (touch) tocarse; (rivers) confluir; (roads) empalmar; (eyes) cruzarse
    1 SMALLSPORT/SMALL encuentro
    2 SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL (hunting) partida de caza
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be more to something than meets the eye ser más complicado,-a de lo que parece
    to make ends meet familiar llegar a fin de mes
    to meet one's death encontrar la muerte, morir
    to meet somebody's eye mirar a alguien a la cara
    to meet somebody halfway llegar a un acuerdo con alguien
    meet ['mi:t] v, met ['mɛt] ; meeting vt
    1) encounter: encontrarse con
    2) join: unirse con
    3) confront: enfrentarse a
    4) satisfy: satisfacer, cumplir con
    to meet costs: pagar los gastos
    5) : conocer
    I met his sister: conocí a su hermana
    meet vi
    assemble: reunirse, congregarse
    meet n
    : encuentro m
    n.
    • concurso s.m.
    adj.
    • conveniente adj.
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: met) = carear v.
    • confluir v.
    • conocer v.
    (§pres: conozco, conoces...)
    • empalmar v.
    • encontrar v.
    • encontrarse v.
    • enfrentar v.
    • juntar v.

    I
    1. miːt
    (past & past p met) transitive verb
    1)
    a) ( encounter) encontrarse* con

    to meet somebody halfway o in the middle — llegar* a un arreglo con alguien

    b) ( welcome) recibir; ( collect on arrival) ir* a buscar

    he met me off the train — me fue a buscar or a esperar a la estación

    c) ( oppose) \<\<opponent/enemy\>\> enfrentarse a
    2) ( make acquaintance of) conocer*

    John, meet Mr Clark — (frml) John, le presento al señor Clark

    pleased to meet you — encantado de conocerlo, mucho gusto

    3)
    a) (come up against, experience) encontrar*, toparse con

    to be met BY/WITH something — encontrarse* con algo

    b) (counter, respond to)
    4) \<\<demands/wishes\>\> satisfacer*; \<\<deadline/quota\>\> cumplir con; \<\<debt\>\> satisfacer*, pagar*; \<\<obligation\>\> cumplir con; \<\<requirements\>\> reunir*, cumplir; \<\<cost\>\> hacerse* cargo de
    5)
    a) (come together with, join)

    she could not meet his eye o gaze — no se atrevía a mirarlo a la cara

    b) ( strike) dar* contra

    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( encounter each other) encontrarse*

    where shall we meet? — ¿dónde nos encontramos?, ¿dónde quedamos? (esp Esp)

    b) ( hold meeting) \<\<club\>\> reunirse*; \<\<heads of state/ministers\>\> entrevistarse
    c) ( make acquaintance) conocerse*

    have you two already met? — ¿ya se conocen?, ¿ya los han presentado?

    d) ( as opponents) enfrentarse

    where the three roads meet — en el empalme or en la confluencia de las tres carreteras

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    a) (AmE Sport) encuentro m
    b) ( in hunting) partida f (de caza)

    I [miːt] (pt, pp met)
    1. VT
    1) (by arrangement) quedar con, verse con; (by chance) encontrarse con, tropezarse con

    I had arranged to meet her in town — había quedado con ella en el centro, había acordado en verla en el centro

    you'll never guess who I met on the bus today! — ¿a que no sabes con quién me encontré or me tropecé hoy en el autobús?

    we will be meeting the ambassador tomorrow to discuss the situation — mañana tendremos un encuentro or una reunión con el embajador para discutir la situación, mañana nos entrevistaremos or nos reuniremos con el embajador para discutir la situación

    2) (=go/come to get) ir/venir a buscar; (=welcome) recibir
    halfway 1., 1)
    3) (=get to know, be introduced to) conocer

    nice to have met you! — ¡encantado de conocerlo!

    pleased to meet you! — ¡mucho gusto!, ¡encantado de conocerlo!

    4) (=come together with)

    what a scene met my eyes! — ¡el escenario que se presentó ante mis ojos!

    eye 1., 1)
    5) (=come across) [+ problem] encontrarse con
    6) (=confront) [+ opponent] enfrentarse con; (in duel) batirse con; [+ problem] hacer frente a

    he met his death or his end in 1800 — halló or encontró la muerte en 1800

    to meet sth head-on — enfrentarse de lleno con algo, hacer frente or plantar cara directamente a algo

    match II, 1., 3)
    7) (=satisfy) [+ need] satisfacer, cubrir; [+ demand] atender a, satisfacer; [+ wish] satisfacer; [+ requirement] cumplir con; [+ debt] pagar; [+ expense, cost] correr con, hacer frente a; [+ obligation] atender a, cumplir con; [+ target, goal] alcanzar; [+ challenge] hacer frente a; [+ expectations] estar a la altura de

    he offered to meet the full cost of the repairs — se ofreció a correr con or hacer frente a todos los gastos de la reparación

    deadline
    2. VI
    1) (=encounter each other) (by arrangement) quedar, verse; (by chance) encontrarse; (=hold meeting) reunirse; [ambassador, politician] (with interested parties) entrevistarse, reunirse

    we could meet for a drink after work — podríamos vernos or quedar para tomar una copa después del trabajo

    what time shall we meet? — ¿a qué hora quieres que quedemos or nos veamos?

    until we meet again! — ¡hasta la vista!, ¡hasta pronto!

    2) (=convene) [Parliament, club, committee] reunirse
    3) (=get to know one another, be introduced) conocerse

    have we met? — ¿nos conocemos de antes?

    4) (=come together, join) [two ends] unirse; [rivers] confluir; [roads] empalmar
    end 1., 1), twain
    5) (=confront each other) [teams, armies] enfrentarse

    Bilbao and Valencia will meet in the final — el Bilbao se enfrentará con el Valencia en la final, Bilbao y Valencia se disputarán la final

    3.
    N (Hunting) cacería f ; (esp US) (Sport) encuentro m

    II
    [miːt]
    ADJ [liter] conveniente, apropiado

    it is meet that... — conviene que... + subjun

    * * *

    I
    1. [miːt]
    (past & past p met) transitive verb
    1)
    a) ( encounter) encontrarse* con

    to meet somebody halfway o in the middle — llegar* a un arreglo con alguien

    b) ( welcome) recibir; ( collect on arrival) ir* a buscar

    he met me off the train — me fue a buscar or a esperar a la estación

    c) ( oppose) \<\<opponent/enemy\>\> enfrentarse a
    2) ( make acquaintance of) conocer*

    John, meet Mr Clark — (frml) John, le presento al señor Clark

    pleased to meet you — encantado de conocerlo, mucho gusto

    3)
    a) (come up against, experience) encontrar*, toparse con

    to be met BY/WITH something — encontrarse* con algo

    b) (counter, respond to)
    4) \<\<demands/wishes\>\> satisfacer*; \<\<deadline/quota\>\> cumplir con; \<\<debt\>\> satisfacer*, pagar*; \<\<obligation\>\> cumplir con; \<\<requirements\>\> reunir*, cumplir; \<\<cost\>\> hacerse* cargo de
    5)
    a) (come together with, join)

    she could not meet his eye o gaze — no se atrevía a mirarlo a la cara

    b) ( strike) dar* contra

    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( encounter each other) encontrarse*

    where shall we meet? — ¿dónde nos encontramos?, ¿dónde quedamos? (esp Esp)

    b) ( hold meeting) \<\<club\>\> reunirse*; \<\<heads of state/ministers\>\> entrevistarse
    c) ( make acquaintance) conocerse*

    have you two already met? — ¿ya se conocen?, ¿ya los han presentado?

    d) ( as opponents) enfrentarse

    where the three roads meet — en el empalme or en la confluencia de las tres carreteras

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    II
    a) (AmE Sport) encuentro m
    b) ( in hunting) partida f (de caza)

    English-spanish dictionary > meet

  • 32 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 33 report

    1. transitive verb
    1) (relate) berichten/(in writing) einen Bericht schreiben über (+ Akk.) [Ereignis usw.]; (state formally also) melden

    somebody is/was reported to be... — jemand soll... sein/gewesen sein

    report somebody missing — jemanden als vermisst melden

    2) (repeat) übermitteln (to Dat.) [Botschaft]; wiedergeben (to Dat.) [Worte, Sinn]

    he is reported as having said that... — er soll gesagt haben, dass...

    3) (name or notify to authorities) melden (to Dat.); (for prosecution) anzeigen (to bei)
    2. intransitive verb
    1) Bericht erstatten (on über + Akk.); berichten (on über + Akk.); (Radio, Telev.)

    [this is] John Tally reporting [from Delhi] — John Tally berichtet [aus Delhi]

    2) (present oneself) sich melden (to bei)
    3) (be responsible)
    3. noun
    1) (account) Bericht, der (on, about über + Akk.); (in newspaper etc. also) Reportage, die (on über + Akk.)
    2) (Sch.) Zeugnis, das
    3) (sound) Knall, der
    4) (rumour) Gerücht, das
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/90918/report_back">report back
    * * *
    [rə'po:t] 1. noun
    1) (a statement or description of what has been said, seen, done etc: a child's school report; a police report on the accident.) der Bericht
    2) (rumour; general talk: According to report, the manager is going to resign.) das Gerücht
    3) (a loud noise, especially of a gun being fired.) der Knall
    2. verb
    1) (to give a statement or description of what has been said, seen, done etc: A serious accident has just been reported; He reported on the results of the conference; Our spies report that troops are being moved to the border; His speech was reported in the newspaper.) berichten
    2) (to make a complaint about; to give information about the misbehaviour etc of: The boy was reported to the headmaster for being rude to a teacher.) melden
    3) (to tell someone in authority about: He reported the theft to the police.) melden
    4) (to go (to a place or a person) and announce that one is there, ready for work etc: The boys were ordered to report to the police-station every Saturday afternoon; Report to me when you return; How many policemen reported for duty?) sich melden
    •
    - reporter
    - reported speech
    - report back
    * * *
    re·port
    [rɪˈpɔ:t, AM -ˈpɔ:rt]
    I. n
    1. (news) Meldung f (on über + akk)
    newspaper \report Zeitungsbericht m, Zeitungsmeldung f
    \reports in the newspaper/press Zeitungs-/Presseberichte pl
    2. (formal statement) Bericht m (on über + akk)
    the project leader gave a progress \report on what had been achieved so far der Projektleiter erstattete Bericht über die bisher gemachten Fortschritte
    [school] \report BRIT Schulzeugnis nt
    stock market/weather \report Börsen-/Wetterbericht m
    annual/financial \report [of a company] Jahres-/Rechenschaftsbericht m [einer Firma]
    weekly/yearly \report wöchentlicher/jährlicher Bericht
    to give [or make] [or submit] a \report einen Bericht vorlegen
    3. (unproven claim) Gerücht nt
    according to \reports... Gerüchten zufolge...
    4. ( form: sound of gunshot) Knall m
    \report of a gun Knallen nt eines Gewehrs
    sharp \report durchdringender Knall
    II. vt
    1. (communicate information)
    ▪ to \report sth [to sb] [jdm] etw berichten [o melden]
    the assassination was \reported in all the cities über den Mordanschlag wurde in allen Städten berichtet
    he was \reported missing in action er wurde als vermisst gemeldet
    to \report profits/losses Gewinne/Verluste ausweisen
    to \report casualties Verluste melden
    to \report a crime/break-in/theft [to the police] ein Verbrechen/einen Einbruch/einen Diebstahl anzeigen [o [der Polizei] melden]
    to \report information to the authorities Informationen an die Behörden weiterleiten
    to \report having seen sth aussagen, dass man etw gesehen hat
    several people \reported having seen the stolen car mehrere Leute gaben an, das gestohlene Auto gesehen zu haben
    ▪ to \report sb jdn melden
    the foreman \reported the lorry driver to the boss der Vorarbeiter meldete den Lastwagenfahrer beim Chef
    to \report sb to the police jdn anzeigen
    ▪ sb/sth is \reported to be sth jd/etw soll etw sein
    the new management are \reported to be more popular among the staff es heißt, dass die neue Geschäftsleitung bei der Belegschaft beliebter sei
    ▪ to \report sth etw wiedergeben
    I heard that the account \reported in the press is completely false ich habe gehört, der Bericht in der Presse sei völlig falsch
    III. vi
    1. (make public) Bericht erstatten
    ▪ to \report on sb/sth to sb [or to sb on sb/sth] (once) jdm über jdn/etw Bericht erstatten; (ongoing) jdn über jdn/etw auf dem Laufenden halten
    I want you to \report on progress every Friday ich möchte, dass sie mir jeden Freitag über die gemachten Fortschritte Bericht erstatten
    ▪ to \report [that]... mitteilen, [dass]...
    2. ADMIN (be accountable to sb)
    ▪ to \report to sb jdm unterstehen
    you will \report directly to the boss Sie sind direkt dem Chef unterstellt
    3. (arrive at work)
    to \report for duty/work sich akk zum Dienst/zur Arbeit melden
    to \report sick esp BRIT sich akk krankmelden
    4. (present oneself formally)
    ▪ to \report to [or at] somewhere/sb sich akk irgendwo/bei jdm melden, irgendwo/bei jdm vorsprechen
    some young offenders have to \report to the police station once a month manche jugendliche Straftäter müssen sich einmal im Monat bei der Polizei melden
    * * *
    [rɪ'pɔːt]
    1. n
    1) (= account, statement) Bericht m (on über +acc); (PRESS, RAD, TV) Reportage f, Bericht m (on über +acc)

    to give a report on sth — Bericht über etw (acc) erstatten; (Rad, TV) eine Reportage über etw (acc) machen

    (school) report — Zeugnis nt

    chairman's report — Bericht m des Vorsitzenden

    2)

    (= rumour) to know sth only by report — etw nur vom Hörensagen kennen

    there are reports that... — es wird gesagt, dass...

    3) (= reputation) Ruf m
    4) (of gun) Knall m

    with a loud report — mit lautem Knall

    2. vt
    1) results, findings berichten über (+acc); (= announce officially) melden; losses verzeichnen

    to report that... — berichten, dass...

    he is reported as having said... — er soll gesagt haben...

    it is reported that a prisoner has escaped, a prisoner is reported to have escaped —

    it is reported from the White House that... — aus dem Weißen Haus wird berichtet or gemeldet, dass...

    2) (to sb jdm) (= notify authorities of) accident, crime, suspect, criminal, culprit melden; (to police) melden, anzeigen; one's position angeben
    3. vi
    1) (= announce oneself) sich melden
    2) (= give a report) berichten, Bericht erstatten (on über +acc); (= work as journalist) Reporter(in) m(f) sein
    * * *
    report [rıˈpɔː(r)t; US auch rıˈpəʊərt]
    A s
    1. a) allg Bericht m (on, into über akk)
    report stage PARL Erörterungsstadium n (einer Gesetzesvorlage) (vor der 3. Lesung);
    give a report Bericht erstatten;
    month under report Berichtsmonat m
    2. Referat n, Vortrag m
    3. (Presse) Bericht m, (-)Meldung f, Nachricht f
    4. SCHULE Br Zeugnis n
    5. Anzeige f ( auch JUR), Meldung f (zur Bestrafung)
    6. MIL Meldung f
    7. JUR → law report
    8. Gerücht n:
    the report goes that …, report has it that … es geht das Gerücht, dass …
    9. Ruf m:
    be of good (evil) report in gutem (schlechtem) Rufe stehen;
    through good and evil report BIBEL in guten und bösen Tagen
    10. Knall m (einer Pistole etc)
    B v/t
    1. berichten ( to sb jemandem):
    report progress to sb jemandem über den Stand der Sache berichten;
    move to report progress PARL Br die Debatte unterbrechen
    2. berichten über (akk), Bericht erstatten über (akk) (beide auch in der Presse, im Rundfunk etc), erzählen:
    it is reported that … es heißt(, dass …);
    he is reported to be ill es heißt, er sei krank; er soll krank sein;
    he is reported as saying er soll gesagt haben;
    reported speech LING indirekte Rede
    3. einen Unfall etc melden:
    report o.s. sich melden (to bei);
    report a missing person eine Vermisstenanzeige aufgeben;
    the car is reported stolen der Wagen ist als gestohlen gemeldet; → missing 2
    4. (to) jemanden (zur Bestrafung) melden (dat), anzeigen (bei jemandem)( for wegen):
    report sb to the police Anzeige gegen jemanden erstatten
    5. PARL (US auch report out) eine Gesetzesvorlage (wieder) vorlegen (Ausschuss)
    C v/i
    1. berichten, einen Bericht geben oder erstatten oder vorlegen, referieren ( alle:
    on über akk)
    2. als Berichterstatter arbeiten, schreiben ( beide:
    for für):
    he reports for the “Times”
    3. Nachricht geben, sich melden
    4. (to) sich melden, sich einfinden (bei), sich (der Polizei etc) stellen:
    report for duty sich zum Dienst melden;
    report back to work sich wieder zur Arbeit melden;
    report sick sich krankmelden
    5. report to US jemandem (disziplinarisch) unterstehen oder unterstellt sein
    rep. abk
    rept abk
    rpt abk
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (relate) berichten/ (in writing) einen Bericht schreiben über (+ Akk.) [Ereignis usw.]; (state formally also) melden

    somebody is/was reported to be... — jemand soll... sein/gewesen sein

    2) (repeat) übermitteln (to Dat.) [Botschaft]; wiedergeben (to Dat.) [Worte, Sinn]

    he is reported as having said that... — er soll gesagt haben, dass...

    3) (name or notify to authorities) melden (to Dat.); (for prosecution) anzeigen (to bei)
    2. intransitive verb
    1) Bericht erstatten (on über + Akk.); berichten (on über + Akk.); (Radio, Telev.)

    [this is] John Tally reporting [from Delhi] — John Tally berichtet [aus Delhi]

    2) (present oneself) sich melden (to bei)
    3. noun
    1) (account) Bericht, der (on, about über + Akk.); (in newspaper etc. also) Reportage, die (on über + Akk.)
    2) (Sch.) Zeugnis, das
    3) (sound) Knall, der
    4) (rumour) Gerücht, das
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    n.
    Bericht -e m.
    Referat -e n.
    Reportage f. v.
    berichten v.
    sich melden v.
    verkünden v.

    English-german dictionary > report

  • 34 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 35 tell

    tel
    1) (to inform or give information to (a person) about (something): He told the whole story to John; He told John about it.) contar
    2) (to order or command; to suggest or warn: I told him to go away.) decir, mandar
    3) (to say or express in words: to tell lies / the truth / a story.) decir, contar
    4) (to distinguish; to see (a difference); to know or decide: Can you tell the difference between them?; I can't tell one from the other; You can tell if the meat is cooked by/from the colour.) ver (la diferencia), distinguir, reconocer
    5) (to give away a secret: You mustn't tell or we'll get into trouble.) contar, revelar
    6) (to be effective; to be seen to give (good) results: Good teaching will always tell.) notarse, hacerse notar
    •
    - telling
    - tellingly
    - telltale
    - I told you so
    - tell off
    - tell on
    - tell tales
    - tell the time
    - there's no telling
    - you never can tell
    tell vb
    1. contar
    2. decir
    I told you so ¿no te lo dije?
    tr[tel]
    transitive verb (pt & pp told tr[təʊld])
    1 (gen) decir
    ■ why didn't you tell me? ¿por qué no me lo dijiste?
    ■ could you tell me where the station is, please? ¿me podría indicar dónde está la estación, por favor?
    2 (story, joke) contar; (truth, lies, secret) decir
    ■ tell us a joke, Fred cuéntanos un chiste, Fred
    ■ telling lies is bad mentir es malo, decir mentiras es malo
    3 (talk about) hablar de
    4 formal use comunicar, informar
    ■ we regret to tell you that... lamentamos comunicarle que...
    5 (assure) asegurar, garantizar
    ■ it's true, I tell you es verdad, te lo aseguro
    6 (order) decir, mandar
    ■ you'll do as you're told! ¡harás lo que yo te digo!
    7 (show) indicar; (in writing) explicar
    8 (distinguish) distinguir
    ■ can you tell the difference between Gruyère and Emmental? ¿sabes distinguir entre el gruyere y el emmental?
    9 (know) saber, notarse
    1 (reveal secret) hablar, soplar
    ■ promise you won't tell? ¿me prometes que no lo dirás?
    ■ no matter what you do to me, I'll never tell podéis hacerme lo que queráis, porque no hablaré
    2 (have effect) notarse, hacerse notar
    3 (know) saber
    ■ who can tell? ¿quién sabe?
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as far as I can tell que yo sepa, por lo que yo sé
    I'll tell you what escucha lo que digo
    I told you so ya te lo dije, ya lo decía yo
    tell me another! ¡anda ya!, ¡eso no te lo crees ni tú!
    there's no telling no se sabe, vete a saber
    time will tell el tiempo lo dirá
    to tell somebody where to get off cantarle las cuarenta a alguien, decirle cuatro cosas a alguien
    to tell the time saber decir la hora
    you can never tell nunca se sabe
    you're telling me a mí me lo dices, ni que lo digas
    tell ['tɛl] v, told ['to:ld] ; telling vt
    1) count: contar, enumerar
    all told: en total
    2) instruct: decir
    he told me how to fix it: me dijo cómo arreglarlo
    they told her to wait: le dijeron que esperara
    3) relate: contar, relatar, narrar
    to tell a story: contar una historia
    4) divulge, reveal: revelar, divulgar
    he told me everything about her: me contó todo acerca de ella
    5) discern: discernir, notar
    I can't tell the difference: no noto la diferencia
    tell vi
    1) say: decir
    I won't tell: no voy a decírselo a nadie
    2) know: saber
    you never can tell: nunca se sabe
    3) show: notarse, hacerse sentir
    the strain is beginning to tell: la tensión se empieza a notar
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: told) = contar (Decir) v.
    • decir v.
    (§pres: digo, dices...) pret: dij-
    pp: dicho
    fut/c: dir-•)
    • desembuchar v.
    • hablar v.
    • narrar v.
    • relatar v.
    tel
    1.
    (past & past p told) transitive verb
    1) (inform, reveal) decir*

    he was told that... — le dijeron que...

    could you tell me the way to the station? — ¿me podría decir or indicar cómo se llega a la estación?

    tell me when you've finished — dime or avísame cuando hayas terminado

    I am pleased to be able to tell you that... — ( Corresp) me complace comunicarle or informarle que...

    it's not easy, I can tell you — no es fácil, te lo aseguro or garantizo

    you're telling me! — (colloq) me lo vas a decir a mí!

    I told you so! — ¿no te lo dije?

    2) (recount, relate) \<\<joke/tale\>\> contar*

    the poem tells how... — el poema cuenta or (frml) narra or relata cómo...

    to tell somebody ABOUT somebody/something: she's told me all about you me ha hablado mucho de ti; tell us about Lima — cuéntanos cómo es Lima (or qué tal te fue en Lima etc)

    3) (instruct, warn) decir*

    do as o what you're told — haz lo que se te dice

    to tell somebody to + INF — decirle* a alguien que (+ subj)

    4)
    a) (ascertain, know)

    to be able to tell the time — saber* decir la hora

    to tell something/somebody (FROM something/somebody) — distinguir* algo/a alguien (de algo/alguien)

    I can't tell the difference — yo no veo or no noto ninguna diferencia

    5) ( count)

    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( reveal)

    promise you won't tell? — ¿prometes que no se lo vas a contar or decir a nadie?

    ah, that would be telling — ah, eso es un secreto

    to tell ON somebody (TO somebody) — (colloq) acusar a alguien (a or con alguien)

    b) ( relate) (liter)
    2) ( know) saber*
    3) (count, have an effect)

    to tell AGAINST somebody/something — obrar en contra de alguien/algo

    to tell ON somebody: the strain is beginning to tell on him — la tensión lo está empezando a afectar

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    [tel] (pt, pp told)
    1. VT
    1) [+ story, experiences] contar; [+ truth] decir; [+ secret] contar, divulgar frm; (formally) comunicar, informar

    to tell sb whether/how/why etc — decir a algn si/cómo/por qué etc

    to tell sb that... — decir a algn que...

    I have been told that... — me han dicho que..., se me ha dicho que... frm

    I am pleased to tell you that... — frm me complace comunicarle que..., me es grato comunicarle que...

    I tell you it isn't! — ¡te digo que no!

    let me tell you, I didn't enjoy it — si te digo la verdad, no me gustó nada

    there were three, I tell you, three — había tres, ¿me oyes?, tres

    • I told him about the missing money — le dije lo del dinero que faltaba, le informé acerca del dinero que faltaba frm

    • tell me another! * — ¡cuéntaselo a tu abuela! *

    • he's no saint, I can tell you! — ¡no es ningún santo, te lo aseguro!

    • I cannot tell you how pleased I am — no encuentro palabras para expresarle lo contento que estoy

    • I could tell you a thing or two about him — hay cosas de él que yo me sé

    • don't tell me you can't do it! — ¡no me vayas a decir or no me digas que no lo puedes hacer!

    • to tell sb's fortune, tell sb the future — decir a algn la buenaventura

    • to tell a lie — mentir

    • you're telling me! * — ¡a quién se lo cuentas!, ¡a mí no me lo vas a contar!

    • I told you so! — ¡ya lo decía yo!

    didn't I tell you so? — ¿no te lo dije ya?

    • (I) tell you what, let's go now — sabes qué, vámonos ya

    I tell you what! — ¡se me ocurre una idea!

    marine
    2) (=order)

    to tell sb to do sth — decir a algn que haga algo, mandar a algn a hacer algo

    • do as you are told! — ¡haz lo que te digo!

    • he won't be told — no acepta consejos de nadie, no quiere hacer caso de nadie

    • I told you not to — te dije que no lo hicieras

    3) (=indicate) [sign, dial, clock] indicar
    4) (=distinguish) distinguir

    • I couldn't tell them apart — no sabía distinguirlos

    • to tell the difference between A and B — distinguir entre A y B

    • to tell right from wrong — distinguir el bien del mal

    time 1., 5)
    5) (=know, be certain) saber

    • you can tell he's a German — se (le) nota que es alemán

    how can I tell what she will do? — ¿cómo voy a saber lo que ella hará?

    • I couldn't tell how it was done — no sabía cómo se hizo

    • there is no telling what he will do — es imposible saber qué va a hacer

    6) (=count)
    2. VI
    1) (=speak)

    • "did you love her?" - "more than words can tell" — -¿la amabas? -más de lo que pueda expresar con palabras

    it hurt more than words can tell — dolió una barbaridad, dolió lo indecible

    • I hear tell that... — dicen que...

    2) * (=sneak, tell secrets)

    please don't tell! — ¡no vayas contándolo or soplándolo * por ahí!

    that would be telling! — ¡es un secreto!

    3) (=know, be certain) saber

    how can I tell? — ¿cómo lo voy a saber?, ¿yo qué sé?

    I can't tell — (me) es imposible saberlo, no le puedo decir, no sabría decirle

    who can tell? — ¿quién sabe?

    time 1., 1)
    4) (=have an effect)

    stamina tells in the long run — a la larga importa or vale más la resistencia

    • to tell against sb — obrar en contra de algn

    • the strain is beginning to tell on him — la tensión está empezando a afectarle

    * * *
    [tel]
    1.
    (past & past p told) transitive verb
    1) (inform, reveal) decir*

    he was told that... — le dijeron que...

    could you tell me the way to the station? — ¿me podría decir or indicar cómo se llega a la estación?

    tell me when you've finished — dime or avísame cuando hayas terminado

    I am pleased to be able to tell you that... — ( Corresp) me complace comunicarle or informarle que...

    it's not easy, I can tell you — no es fácil, te lo aseguro or garantizo

    you're telling me! — (colloq) me lo vas a decir a mí!

    I told you so! — ¿no te lo dije?

    2) (recount, relate) \<\<joke/tale\>\> contar*

    the poem tells how... — el poema cuenta or (frml) narra or relata cómo...

    to tell somebody ABOUT somebody/something: she's told me all about you me ha hablado mucho de ti; tell us about Lima — cuéntanos cómo es Lima (or qué tal te fue en Lima etc)

    3) (instruct, warn) decir*

    do as o what you're told — haz lo que se te dice

    to tell somebody to + INF — decirle* a alguien que (+ subj)

    4)
    a) (ascertain, know)

    to be able to tell the time — saber* decir la hora

    to tell something/somebody (FROM something/somebody) — distinguir* algo/a alguien (de algo/alguien)

    I can't tell the difference — yo no veo or no noto ninguna diferencia

    5) ( count)

    2.
    vi
    1)
    a) ( reveal)

    promise you won't tell? — ¿prometes que no se lo vas a contar or decir a nadie?

    ah, that would be telling — ah, eso es un secreto

    to tell ON somebody (TO somebody) — (colloq) acusar a alguien (a or con alguien)

    b) ( relate) (liter)
    2) ( know) saber*
    3) (count, have an effect)

    to tell AGAINST somebody/something — obrar en contra de alguien/algo

    to tell ON somebody: the strain is beginning to tell on him — la tensión lo está empezando a afectar

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-spanish dictionary > tell

  • 36 accept

    transitive verb
    1) (be willing to receive) annehmen; aufnehmen [Mitglied]; (take formally) entgegennehmen [Dank, Spende, Auszeichnung]; übernehmen [Verantwortung, Aufgabe]; (agree to) annehmen [Vorschlag, Plan, Heiratsantrag, Einladung]

    accept somebody for a job/school — jemandem eine Einstellungszusage geben/jemanden in eine Schule aufnehmen

    accept somebody for a course — jemanden in einen Lehrgang aufnehmen

    2) (approve) akzeptieren

    accept somebody as a member of the group — jemanden als Mitglied der Gruppe anerkennen

    3) (acknowledge) akzeptieren

    it is accepted that... — es ist unbestritten, dass...

    4) (believe)

    accept something [from somebody] — [jemandem] etwas glauben

    5) (tolerate) hinnehmen
    * * *
    [ək'sept]
    1) (to take (something offered): He accepted the gift.) annehmen
    2) (to believe in, agree to or acknowledge: We accept your account of what happened; Their proposal was accepted; He accepted responsibility for the accident.) akzeptieren
    •
    - academic.ru/317/acceptable">acceptable
    - acceptably
    - acceptance
    - accepted
    * * *
    ac·cept
    [əkˈsept]
    I. vt
    1. (take when offered)
    ▪ to \accept sth etw annehmen
    to \accept sb's advice/an apology/a suggestion jds Ratschlag/eine Entschuldigung/einen Vorschlag annehmen
    to \accept an award eine Auszeichnung entgegennehmen
    to \accept a bribe sich akk bestechen lassen
    to \accept a gift/an invitation/a job/an offer ein Geschenk/eine Einladung/eine Stelle/ein Angebot annehmen
    to \accept sb as a member jdn als Mitglied aufnehmen
    2. (take in payment)
    ▪ to \accept sth etw annehmen
    do you \accept credit cards? kann man bei Ihnen mit Kreditkarte zahlen?
    this telephone \accepts only coins an diesem Telefon kann man nur mit Münzen telefonieren
    ▪ to \accept sth etw glauben; (more official) etw dat Glauben schenken
    ▪ to \accept sth etw anerkennen
    she refused to \accept all the blame sie weigerte sich, die ganze Schuld auf sich zu nehmen
    to \accept responsibility Verantwortung übernehmen
    ▪ to \accept [that]... akzeptieren, dass...
    I \accept that I've made a mistake ich sehe ein, dass ich einen Fehler gemacht habe
    5. (resign oneself to)
    ▪ to \accept sth etw akzeptieren [o hinnehmen]
    to \accept sb's decision jds Entscheidung akzeptieren
    to \accept one's fate/a situation sich akk mit seinem Schicksal/einer Situation abfinden
    ▪ to \accept [the fact] that... [die Tatsache] akzeptieren, dass..., sich akk damit abfinden, dass...
    6. (include socially)
    ▪ to \accept sb jdn akzeptieren
    II. vi zusagen, annehmen
    ▪ to \accept to do sth einwilligen, etw zu tun
    * * *
    [ək'sept]
    1. vt
    1) akzeptieren; apology, offer, gift, invitation annehmen; responsibility übernehmen; (= believe) story glauben

    a photograph of the President accepting the award —

    to accept sb into society — jdn in die Gesellschaft aufnehmen

    2) (= recognize) need einsehen, anerkennen; person, duty akzeptieren, anerkennen

    it is generally or widely accepted that... — es ist allgemein anerkannt, dass...

    we must accept the fact that... — wir müssen uns damit abfinden, dass...

    I accept that it might take a little longer — ich sehe ein, dass es etwas länger dauern könnte

    the government accepted that the treaty would on occasions have to be infringed — die Regierung akzeptierte, dass der Vertrag gelegentlich verletzt werden würde

    to accept that sth is one's responsibility/duty — etw als seine Verantwortung/Pflicht akzeptieren

    3) (= allow, put up with) behaviour, fate, conditions hinnehmen
    4) (COMM) cheque, orders annehmen; delivery annehmen, abnehmen
    2. vi
    annehmen; (with offers also) akzeptieren; (with invitations also) zusagen
    * * *
    accept [əkˈsept; æk-; US auch ıkˈs-]
    A v/t
    1. ein Geschenk etc annehmen, auch Huldigungen etc entgegennehmen, Münzen annehmen (Automat etc)
    2. eine Einladung, einen Rat etc annehmen, jemanden, etwas akzeptieren:
    accept life das Leben bejahen;
    accepted pairing anlehnende Werbung
    3. hinnehmen, sich abfinden mit, akzeptieren:
    accept to do sth einwilligen, etwas zu tun;
    you must accept the fact that … du musst dich damit abfinden, dass …
    4. eine Meinung etc akzeptieren, anerkennen, gelten lassen:
    accepted anerkannt (Tatsache etc);
    in the accepted sense (of the word) im landläufigen oder gebräuchlichen Sinne;
    accepted text offizieller Text;
    it is (generally) accepted that … es ist unbestritten, dass …
    5. aufnehmen ( into in akk)
    6. glauben ( auch that dass)
    7. eine Verantwortung etc auf sich nehmen
    8. einen Wechsel annehmen, akzeptieren
    9. ZOOL ein männliches Tier (zur Begattung) annehmen
    B v/i (das Angebot) annehmen oder akzeptieren, (damit) einverstanden sein, zusagen
    * * *
    transitive verb
    1) (be willing to receive) annehmen; aufnehmen [Mitglied]; (take formally) entgegennehmen [Dank, Spende, Auszeichnung]; übernehmen [Verantwortung, Aufgabe]; (agree to) annehmen [Vorschlag, Plan, Heiratsantrag, Einladung]

    accept somebody for a job/school — jemandem eine Einstellungszusage geben/jemanden in eine Schule aufnehmen

    2) (approve) akzeptieren
    3) (acknowledge) akzeptieren

    it is accepted that... — es ist unbestritten, dass...

    accept something [from somebody] — [jemandem] etwas glauben

    5) (tolerate) hinnehmen
    * * *
    v.
    akzeptieren v.
    annehmen v.
    auf sich nehmen ausdr.
    einsehen v.
    entgegennehmen v.
    hinnehmen v.
    zusagen v.

    English-german dictionary > accept

  • 37 thank

    1. I
    have oneself to thank быть виноватым; you have yourself to thank вы сами во всем виноваты, вам некого винить, кроме самого себя
    2. III
    thank smb., smth. thank you благодарю вас, спасибо; no more, thank you больше не надо, спасибо /благодарю вас/; there is [really] no need to thank me меня [,действительно,] не стоит благодарить; he (you) may thank himself (yourself) винить он (вы) может (можете) только себя
    3. IV
    thank smb. in some manner thank smb. heartily (formally, humbly, sincerely, warmly, effusively, volubly, etc.) сердечно /от всего сердца/ и т.д. благодарить кого-л.; I can't thank you enough я вам бесконечно благодарен, я не знаю, как вас благодарить
    4. VII
    thank smb. to do smth. in the Future tense, now usually iron. implying reproach1)
    I will thank you to shut /to close/ the door (to wipe your boots, to be a little more polite, etc.) будьте добры, закройте дверь, я бы попросил вас закрыть дверь и т.д.; I will thank you to hold your tongue (to mind your own business, to leave my affairs alone, etc.) не угодно ли вам попридержать язык и т.д.?
    2)
    have smb. to thank for smth. you have got John to thank for it благодарите Джона за это, во всем этом виноват Джон, вам некого винить, кроме Джона; I have only myself to thank for this mess я сам виноват, что заварил эту кашу
    5. XI
    be thanked Heaven God/ be thanked слава богу
    6. XXI1
    1) thank smb. for smth. thank smb. for the gift (for the beautiful red necktie, for the information, for the letter, for help, etc.) благодарить кого-л. за подарок и т.д.; please thank him for the trouble taken пожалуйста, поблагодарите его за заботу; I wouldn't say thank you for it вот за это я бы вам спасибо не сказал; he (you, etc.) may thank himself for it iron. благодарить за это он может только себя; thank you for nothing iron, спасибо и на том, благодарю покорно; thank smb. for smb. thank him for me поблагодарите его за меня
    2) thank smb. for smth. thank you for the salt, please передайте, пожалуйста, соль; I'll /I should, I win/ thank you for some more tea (for that book, etc.) нельзя ли мне еще чашечку чаю и т.д.?
    7. XXII
    thank smb. for doing smth. thank smb. for posting one's letters (for bringing the news, for including smb. in the party, etc.) благодарить кого-л. за отправку своих писем /за то, что он отправил письма/ и т.д.; did you thank him for coming? вы его поблагодарили за то, что он пришел?
    8. XXV
    thank that... he has only himself to thank that he is bankrupt ему некого винить, кроме себя, за то, что он сейчас банкрот
    9. XXVIII1
    thank smb. for what... thank smb. for what he has done благодарить кого-л. за то, что он сделал

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > thank

  • 38 Misericórdia

       Historic, Catholic charitable institution, formally, Holy Houses of Mercy, which ministered welfare, medical, and other types of assistance to the poor and to prisoners beginning in the Middle Ages in Portugal. Although its origins lay in Christian charitable brotherhoods in medieval Portugal, the Hospitals of Mercy (Misericórdia) began in the late 15th century under royal patronage of Queen Leonor (1458-1525), wife of King João II, who founded the first Misericórdia in Lisbon. From the capital, this institution spread into other towns and regions of Portugal. She also founded the Misericórdia at Caldas da Rainha, a town north of Lisbon, where reputedly it became the world's first thermal (waters) treatment hospital, with more than 100 beds for patients. The Holy Houses of Mercy were responsible also for assisting orphans, invalids, and foundlings, as well as for feeding prisoners in jails and burying the executed. The administration of clerical brotherhood staff of these institutions increasingly was composed of persons of high social and professional standing in their communities.
       After 1500, the Misericórdias spread beyond continental Portugal to the Atlantic islands of Portugal, as well as to the overseas empire in Brazil, Cape Verdes, Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese India, Macau, and Japan. In Brazil alone, for example, there were more than 300 such places. Their activities went beyond hospital and other charity work and extended into education, learning, the founding of convents and presses, and patronage of the arts. More secular than religious today, the Houses of Mercy still function in Portugal by means of dispensing private welfare and mutual aid.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Misericórdia

  • 39 Weight measurement

    Note that French has a comma where English has a decimal point.
    1 oz
    = 28,35 g* (grammes)
    1 lb†
    = 453,60 g
    1 st
    = 6,35 kg (kilos)
    1 cwt
    = 50,73 kg
    1 ton
    = 1014,60 kg
    * There are three ways of saying 28,35 g, and other measurements like it: vingt-huit virgule trente-cinq grammes, or (less formally) vingt-huit grammes virgule trente-cinq, or vingt-huit grammes trente-cinq.
    For more details on how to say numbers ⇒ Numbers.
    † English a pound is translated by une livre in French, but note that the French livre is actually 500 grams (half a kilo).
    People
    what’s his weight?
    = combien pèse-t-il?
    how much does he weigh?
    = combien pèse-t-il?
    he weighs 10 st (or 140 lbs)
    = il pèse 63 kg 500 (soixante-trois kilos et demi)
    he weighs more than 20 st
    = il pèse plus de 127 kilos
    Things
    what does the parcel weigh?
    = combien pèse le colis?
    how heavy is it?
    = quel poids fait-il?
    it weighs ten kilos
    = il pèse dix kilos
    about ten kilos
    = environ dix kilos
    it was 2 kilos overweight
    = il pesait deux kilos de trop
    A weighs more than B
    = A pèse plus lourd que B
    A is heavier than B
    = A est plus lourd que B
    B is lighter than A
    = B est plus léger que A
    A is as heavy as B
    = A est aussi lourd que B
    A is the same weight as B
    = A a le même poids que B
    A and B are the same weight
    = A et B ont le même poids
    6 lbs of carrots
    = six livres de carottes
    2 kilos of butter
    = deux kilos de beurre
    11/2 kilos of tomatoes
    = un kilo cinq cents de tomates
    sold by the kilo
    = vendu au kilo
    there are about two pounds to a kilo
    = il y a à peu près deux livres anglaises dans un kilo
    Note the French construction with de, coming after the noun it describes:
    a 3-lb potato
    = une pomme de terre de trois livres
    a parcel 3 kilos in weight
    = un colis de trois kilos

    Big English-French dictionary > Weight measurement

  • 40 Language

       Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)
       It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)
       It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)
       Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)
       It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)
       [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]
       Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it
       Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another
       LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)
       We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)
       We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.
       The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)
       9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language
       The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)
       It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)
       In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)
       In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)
       [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)
       he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.
       The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)
       The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.
       But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)
       The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)
        t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)
       A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)
       Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)
       It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)
       First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....
       Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)
       If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)
        23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction
       Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)
       By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)
       Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

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