hb+coimbra

   For a small country perched on the edge of western Europe but with an early history that began more than 2,000 years ago, there is a vast bibliography extant in many languages. Since general reference works with bibliography on Portugal are few, both principal and minor works are included. In the first edition, works in English, and a variety of Portuguese language works that are counted as significant if not always classic, were included. In the second and third editions, more works in Portuguese are added.

   It is appropriate that most of the works cited in some sections of the bibliograpy are in English, but this pattern should be put in historical perspective. Since the late 1950s, the larger proportion of foreign-language works on Portugal and the Portuguese have been in English. But this was not the case before World War II. As a whole, there were more studies in French, with a smaller number in German, Italian, and Spanish, than in English. Most of the materials published today on all aspects of this topic continue to be in Portuguese, but English-language works have come to outnumber the other non-Portuguese language studies. In addition to books useful to a variety of students, a selection of classic works of use to the visitor, tourist, and foreign resident of Portugal, as well as to those interested in Portuguese communities overseas, have been included.

   Readers will note that publishers' names are omitted from some Portuguese citations as well as from a number of French works. There are several reasons for this. First, in many of the older sources, publishers no longer exist and are difficult to trace. Second, the names of the publishers have been changed in some cases and are also difficult to trace. Third, in many older books and periodicals, printers' names but not publishers were cited, and identifying the publishers is virtually impossible.

   Some recommended classic titles for beginners are in historical studies: José Hermano Saraiva, Portugal: A Companion History (1997); A. H. de Oliveira Marques, History of Portugal (1976 ed.), general country studies in two different historical eras: Sarah Bradford, Portugal (1973) and Marion Kaplan, The Portuguese: The Land and Its People (2002 and later editions); political histories, Antônio de Figueiredo, Portugal: Fifty Years of Dictatorship (1975) and Douglas L. Wheeler, Republican Portugal: A Political History ( 1910-1926) (1978; 1998). On Portugal's Revolution of 25 April 1974 and contemporary history and politics: Kenneth Maxwell, The Making of Portuguese Democracy (1995); Phil Mailer, The Impossible Revolution (1977); Richard A. H. Robinson, Contemporary Portugal: A History (1979); Lawrence S. Graham and Douglas L. Wheeler (eds.), In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences (1983); Lawrence S. Graham and Harry M. Makler (eds.), Contemporary Portugal: The Revolution and its Antecedents (1979). On contemporary Portuguese society, see Antonio Costa Pinto (ed.), Contemporary Portugal: Politics, Society, Culture (2003).

   Enduring works on the history of Portugal's overseas empire include: C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 (1969 and later editions); and Bailey W. Diffie and George Winius, The Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580 (1977); on Portugal and the Age of Discoveries: Charles Ley (ed.), Portuguese Voyages 1498-1663 (2003). For a new portrait of the country's most celebrated figure of the Age of Discoveries, see Peter Russell, Prince Henry 'The Navigator': A Life (2000). A still useful geographical study about a popular tourist region is Dan Stanislawski's Portugal's Other Kingdom: The Algarve (1963). A fine introduction to a region of rural southern Portugal is José Cutileiro's A Portuguese Rural Society (1971).

   Early travel account classics are Almeida Garrett, Travels in My Homeland (1987) and William Beckford, Recollections of an Excursion to the Monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha (1969 and later editions). On travel and living in Portugal, see Susan Lowndes Marques and Ann Bridge, The Selective Traveller in Portugal (1968 and later editions); David Wright and Patrick Swift, Lisbon: A Portrait and Guide (1968 and later editions); Sam Ballard and Jane Ballard, Pousadas of Portugal (1986); Richard Hewitt, A Cottage in Portugal (1996);

   Ian Robertson, Portugal: The Blue Guide (1988 and later editions); and Anne de Stoop, Living in Portugal (1995). Fine reads on some colorful, foreign travellers in Portugal are found in Rose Macauley, They Went to Portugal (1946 and later editions) and They Went to Portugal Too (1990). An attractive blend of historical musing and current Portugal is found in Paul Hyland's, Backing Out of the Big World: Voyage to Portugal (1996); Datus Proper's The Last Old Place: A Search through Portugal (1992); and Portugal's 1998 Nobel Prize winner in Literature, José Sarmago, writes in Journey through Portugal (2001).

   For aspects of Portuguese literature in translation, see Aubrey F. G. Bell, The Oxford Book of Portuguese Verse (1952 edition by B. Vidigal); José Maria Eça de Queirós, The Maias (2007 and earlier editions); and José Sara-mago's Baltasar and Blimunda (1985 and later editions), as well as many other novels by this, Portugal's most celebrated living novelist. See also Landeg White's recent translation of the national 16th century epic of Luis de Camóes, The Lusiads (1997). A classic portrait of the arts in Portugal during the country's imperial age is Robert C. Smith's The Art of Portugal, 1500-1800 (1968).

   For those who plan to conduct research in Portugal, the premier collection of printed books, periodicals, and manuscripts is housed in the country's national library, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, in Lisbon. Other important collections are found in the libraries of the major universities in Coimbra, Lisbon, and Oporto, and in a number of foundations and societies. For the history of the former colonial empire, the best collection of printed materials remains in the library of Lisbon's historic Geography Society, the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, Lisbon; and for documents there is the state-run colonial archives, the Arquivo Historico Ultramarino, in Restelo, near Lisbon. Other government records are deposited in official archives, such as those for foreign relations in the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, housed in Necessidades Palace, Lisbon.

   For researchers in North America, the best collections of printed materials on Portugal are housed in the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; New York Public Library, New York City; Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois; and in university libraries including those of Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins, Brown, Indiana, Illinois, University of California at Los Angeles, University of California - Berkeley, University of California - Santa Barbara, Stanford, Florida State, Duke, University of New Hampshire, Durham, University of Toronto, University of Ottawa, McGill, and University of British Columbia. Records dealing with Portuguese affairs are found in U.S. government archives, including, for instance, those in the National Archives and Record Service (NARS), housed in Washington, D.C.

   BIBLIOGRAPHIES

   ■ Academia Portuguesa de História. Guia Bibliográfica Histórica Portuguesa. Vol. I-?. Lisbon, 1954-.

   ■ Anselmo, Antônio Joaquim. Bibliografia das bibliografias portuguesas. Lisbon: Biblioteca Nacional, 1923.

   ■ Bell, Aubrey F. G. Portuguese Bibliography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1922.

   ■ Borchardt, Paul. La Bibliographie de l'Angola, 1500-1900. Brussels, 1912. Chilcote, Ronald H., ed. and comp. The Portuguese Revolution of 25 April 1974. Annotated bibliography on the antecedents and aftermath. Coimbra: Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril, Universidade de Coimbra, 1987. Cintra, Maria Adelaide Valle. Bibliografia de textos medievais portugueses. Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Filolôgicos, 1960.

   ■ Costa, Mário. Bibliografia Geral de Moçambique. Lisbon, 1945. Coutinho, Bernardo Xavier da Costa. Bibliographie franco-portugaise: Essai d'une bibliographie chronologique de livres français sur le Portugal. Oporto: Lopes da Silva, 1939.

   ■ Diffie, Bailey W. "A Bibliography of the Principal Published Guides to Portuguese Archives and Libraries," Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Luso-Brazilian Studies. Nashville, Tenn., 1953. Gallagher, Tom. Dictatorial Portugal, 1926-1974: A Bibliography. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1979.

   ■ Gibson, Mary Jane. Portuguese Africa: A Guide to Official Publications. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1967. Greenlee, William B. "A Descriptive Bibliography of the History of Portugal." Hispanic American Historical Review XX (August 1940): 491-516. Gulbenkian, Fundação Calouste. Boletim Internacional de Bibliografia Luso-Brasileira. Vol. 1-15. Lisbon, 1960-74.

   ■ Instituto Camoes. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade De Coimbra. Repertorio Bibliografico da Historiografia Portuguesa ( 1974-1994). Coimbra:

   ■ Instituto Camoes; Universidade de Coimbra, 1995. Junta De Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar. Bibliografia Da Junta De Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar Sobre Ciências Humanas E Sociais. Lisbon: Junta de Investigações Científicas Do Ultramar, 1975. Kettenring, Norman E., comp. A Bibliography of Theses and Dissertations on Portuguese Topics Completed in the United States and Canada, 1861-1983.

   ■ Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1984. Kunoff, Hugo. Portuguese Literature from Its Origins to 1990: A Bibliography Based on the Collections at Indiana University. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

   ■ Laidlar, John. Lisbon. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 199. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1997.. Portugal. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 71, rev. ed. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2000.

   ■ Lomax, William. Revolution in Portugal: 1974-1976. A Bibliography. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1978.

   ■ McCarthy, Joseph M. Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde Islands: A Comprehensive Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1977.

   ■ Moniz, Miguel. Azores. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 221. Oxford: ABC-Clio, 1999.

   ■ Nunes, José Lúcio, and José Júlio Gonçalves. Bibliografia Histórico-Militar do Ultramar Portugües. Lisbon, 1956. Pélissier, René. Bibliographies sur l'Afrique Luso-Hispanophone 1800-1890.

   ■ Orgeval, France: 1980. Portuguese Studies. London. 1984-. Annual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Newsletter. No. 1-23 (1976-90). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Review. Vols. 1-9 (1991-2001). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal. Semi-Annual.. Vols. 10- (2002-). Durham, N.H.: Trent University; Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

   ■ Rocha, Natércia. Bibliografia geral da Literatura Portuguesa para Crianças. Lisbon: Edit. Comunicação, 1987.

   ■ Rogers, Francis Millet, and David T. Haberly. Brazil, Portugal and Other Portuguese-Speaking Lands: A List of Books Primarily in English. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968.

   ■ Santos, Manuel dos. Bibliografia geral ou descrição bibliográfica de livros tantos de autores portugueses como brasileiros e muitos outras nacionalidades, impressos desde o século XV até à actualidade, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1914-25.

   ■ Silva, J. Donald. A Bibliography on the Madeira Islands. Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1987.

   ■ Teixeira, Carlos, and G. Lavigne. Os portugueses no Canadá: Uma bibliografia ( 1953-1996). Lisbon: Direção-Geral dos Assuntos Consulares e Comunidades Portuguesas, 1998.

   ■ University of Coimbra, Faculty of Letters. Bibliografia Anual de História de Portugal. Vol. 1. [sources published beginning in 1989- ] Coimbra: Grupo de História; Faculdade de Letras; Universidade de Coimbra, 1992-.

   ■ Unwin, P. T. H., comp. Portugal. World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 71. Oxford, U.K.: ABC-Clio Press, 1987.

   ■ Viera, David J., et al., comp. The Portuguese in the United States ( Supplement to the 1976 Leo Pap Bibliography). Durham, N.H.: International Conference Group on Portugal, 1990.

   ■ Welsh, Doris Varner, comp. A Catalogue of the William B. Greenlee Collection of Portuguese History and Literature and the Portuguese Materials in the Newberry Library. Chicago: Newberry Library, 1953.

   ■ Wiarda, Iêda Siqueira, ed. The Handbook of Portuguese Studies. Washington, D.C.: Xlibris, 2000.

   ■ Wilgus, A. Curtis. Latin America, Spain & Portugal: A Selected & Annotated Bibliographical Guide to Books Published 1954-1974. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977.

   ■ Winius, George. "Bibliographical Essay: A Treasury of Printed Source Materials Pertaining to the XV and XVI Centuries." In George Winius, ed., Portugal, the Pathfinder: Journeys from the Medieval toward the Modern World, 1300-ca. 1600, 373-401. Madison, Wis.: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1995.

   ■ PERIODICALS RELATING TO PORTUGAL

   ■ Africana. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Africa Report. New York. Monthly or bimonthly.

   ■ Africa Today. Denver, Colo. Quarterly.

   ■ Agenda Cultural. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Almanaque do Exército. Lisbon, 1912-40.

   ■ American Historical Review. Washington, D.C. Quarterly.

   ■ Anais da Académia Portuguesa da História. Lisbon.

   ■ Anais das Bibliotecas e Arquivos. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Análise do sector público administrativo e empresarial. Lisbon. Quarterly. Análise Social. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Anglo-Portuguese News. Monte Estoril and Lisbon. 1937-2003. Biweekly and weekly.

   ■ Antropológicas. Oporto. 1998-. Semiannual. Anuário Católico de Portugal. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Archipélago. Revista do Instituto Universitário dos Açores. Punta Delgado. Semiannual. Architectural Digest. New York. Monthly. Archivum. Paris. Quarterly. Arqueologia. Oporto. Annual.

   ■ Arqueólogo Portugües, O. Lisbon. 1958-. Semiannual Arquivo das Colónias. Lisbon. 1917-33. Arquivo de Beja. Beja. Annual. Arquivo Histórico Portuguez. Lisbon.

   ■ Arquivos da Memória. Lisbon. 1997-. Semiannual.

   ■ Arquivos do Centro Cultural Portugües [Fundação Gulbenkian, Paris]. Paris. Annual.

   ■ Avante! Lisbon. Portuguese Communist Party. Daily. Biblos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim da Academia Internacional da Cultura Portuguesa. Lisbon. Boletim da Agência Geral das Colónias. Lisbon.

   ■ Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon Quarterly; Bimonthly.

   ■ Boletim da Sociedade Geológica de Portugal. Oporto. Annual.

   ■ Boletim de Estudos Operários. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim do Arquivo Histórico Militar. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Boletim do Instituto Histórico da Ilha Terceira. Angra do Heroismo, Terceira, Azores Islands. Semiannual. Boletim Geral do Ultramar. Lisbon. Bracara Augusta. Braga. Brigantia. Lisbon. 1990-. Semiannual.

   ■ British Bulletin of Publications on Latin America... Portugal and Spain. London. 1949-. Semiannual. British Historical Society of Portugal. Annual Report and Review. Lisbon. Brotéria. Lisbon. Quarterly. Bulletin des Etudes Portugaises. Paris. Quarterly.

   ■ Bulletin des Etudes Portugaises et de l'Institut Français au Portugal. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Cadernos de Arqueologia. Braga. Semiannual and annual. Monographs.

   ■ Cadernos do Noroeste. Braga, University of Minho. Semiannual.

   ■ Camões Center Quarterly. New York.

   ■ Capital, A. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Clio. Lisbon. 1996-. Annual.

   ■ Clio-Arqueologia. Lisbon. 1983-. Annual.

   ■ Colóquio/ Artes. Lisbon. Gulbenkian Foundation. Quarterly.

   ■ Colóquio/ Letras. Lisbon. Gulbenkian Foundation. Quarterly.

   ■ Conimbriga. Coimbra.

   ■ Cultura. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Democracia e Liberdade. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Dia, O. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Diário da Assembleia Nacional e Constituente. Lisbon. 1911.

   ■ Diário da Câmara de Deputados. Lisbon. 1911-26.

   ■ Diário de Lisboa. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Diário de Notícias. Lisbon. Daily newspaper of record.

   ■ Diário do Governo. Lisbon. 1910-74.

   ■ Diário do Senado. Lisbon. 1911-26.

   ■ Documentos. Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ E-Journal of Portuguese History. Providence, R.I. Quarterly.

   ■ Economia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Economia e Finanças. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Economia e Sociologia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Economist, The. London. Weekly magazine.

   ■ Estratégia Internacional. Lisbon.

   ■ Estudos Contemporâneos. Lisbon.

   ■ Estudos de economia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos históricos e económicos. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos Medievais. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Estudos Orientais. Lisbon, 1990. Semiannual.

   ■ Ethnologia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Ethnologie Française. Paris. Quarterly.

   ■ Ethnos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ European History Quarterly. Lancaster, U.K., 1970-. Quarterly.

   ■ Expresso. Lisbon. 1973-. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Facts and Reports. Amsterdam. Collected press clippings.

   ■ Financial Times. London. Daily; special supplements on Portugal.

   ■ Finisterra. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Flama. Lisbon. Monthly magazine.

   ■ Garcia de Orta. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Gaya. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Geographica: Revista da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Hispania. USA. Quarterly.

   ■ Hispania Antiqua. Madrid. Semiannual.

   ■ Hispanic American Historical Review. Chapel Hill, N.C. Quarterly. História. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Iberian Studies. Nottingham, U.K. Quarterly or Semiannual.

   ■ Indicadores económicos. Lisbon. Bank of Portugal. Monthly. Ingenium. Revista da Ordem dos Engenheiros. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ International Journal of Iberian Studies. London and Glasgow, 1987-. Semiannual.

   ■ Illustração Portugueza. Lisbon. 1911-1930s. Magazine. Instituto, O. Coimbra. Annual.

   ■ Itinerário. Leiden (Netherlands). 1976-. Semiannual. Jornal, O. Lisbon. Weekly newspaper. Jornal de Letras, O. Lisbon. Weekly culture supplement. Jornal do Fundão. Fundão, Beira Alta. Weekly newspaper. Journal of European Economic History. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of Modern History. Chicago, Ill. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of Southern European Society & Politics. Athens, Greece. 1995-. Quarterly.

   ■ Journal of the American Portuguese Culture Society. New York. 1966-81. Semiannual or annual. Ler História. Lisbon. Quarterly. Lisboa: Revista Municipal. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Lusíada: Revista trimestral de ciência e cultura. Lisbon. 1989-. Three times a year.

   ■ Lusitania Sacra. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Luso-Americano, O. Newark, N.J. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Luso-Brazilian Review. Madison, Wisc. 1964-. Semiannual.

   ■ Lusotopie. Paris. 1995-. Annual.

   ■ Nova economia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Numismática. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Oceanos. Lisbon. Bimonthly.

   ■ Ocidente. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Olisipo. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Ordem do Exército. Lisbon. 1926-74. Monthly.

   ■ Penélope. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Política Internacional. Lisbon. 1990-. Quarterly.

   ■ Portugal. Annuário Estatístico do Ultramar. Lisbon. 1950-74.

   ■ Portugal em Africa. Lisbon. 1894-1910. Bimonthly.

   ■ Portugal socialista. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Portugália. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese & Colonial Bulletin. London. 1961-74. Quarterly. Portuguese Studies. London. 1985-. Annual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Newsletter. Durham, N.H. 1976-90. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Studies Review. Durham, N.H. 1991-2001; Trent, Ont. 2002-. Semiannual.

   ■ Portuguese Times. New Bedford, Mass. Weekly newspaper.

   ■ Povo Livre. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Primeiro do Janeiro. Oporto. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Quaderni Portoghesi. Rome. 1974-. Semiannual.

   ■ Race. A Journal of Race and Group Relations. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Recherches en Anthropologie au Portugal. Paris. 1995-. Annual.

   ■ República, A. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Biblioteca Nacional. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade de Lisboa. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista da Faculdade de Letras. Lisbon. Quarterly. Revista da Faculdade de Letras. Oporto. Semiannual. Revista da Universidade de Coimbra. Coimbra. Quarterly. Revista de Ciência Política. Lisbon. Semiannual. Revista de Ciências Agrárias. Lisbon. Semiannual. Revista de Economia. Lisbon. 1953-. Three times a year. Revista de Estudos Anglo-Portugueses. Lisbon. Annual. Revista de Estudos Históricos. Rio de Janeiro. Semiannual. Revista de Guimarães. Guimarães. Semiannual. Revista de História. São Paulo, Brazil. Semiannual. Revista de História Económica e Social. Oporto. Semiannual. Revista de Infanteria. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Internacional de Estudos Africanos. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Revista Lusitana. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Militar. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Revista Portuguesa de História. Coimbra. Quarterly.

   ■ Revue Geographique des Pyrenees et du Sud-Ouest. Paris. Semiannual.

   ■ Sábado. Lisbon. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ Seara Nova. Lisbon. 1921-. Bimonthly.

   ■ Século, O. Lisbon. Daily Newspaper.

   ■ Selecções do Readers Digest. Lisbon. Monthly.

   ■ Semanário económico. Lisbon. Weekly.

   ■ Setúbal arqueologica. Setúbal. Semiannual.

   ■ Sigila. Paris. 1998-. Semiannual.

   ■ Sintria. Sintra. Annual.

   ■ Sociedade e Território. Revista de estudos urbanos e regionais. Oporto. 1986-. Quarterly.

   ■ Studia. Lisbon. Quarterly.

   ■ Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes. New York. Quarterly.

   ■ Studium Generale. Oporto. Quarterly.

   ■ Tempo, O. Lisbon. Daily newspaper.

   ■ Tempo e o Modo, O. Lisbon. 1968-74. Quarterly.

   ■ Trabalhos da Sociedade Portuguesa de Antropologia. Oporto. Semiannual.

   ■ Trabalhos de Antropologia E Etnologia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Trabalhos de Arqueologia. Lisbon. Annual.

   ■ Translation. New York. Quarterly.

   ■ Ultramar. Lisbon. 1960-71. Quarterly.

   ■ Veja. São Paulo. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ Veleia. Lisbon. Semiannual.

   ■ Vida Mundial. Lisbon. Weekly news magazine.

   ■ West European Politics. London. Quarterly.

   ■ Guides to Archives and Libraries

   ■ Amaral, A. Ferreira do. "Archives da la ville de Lisbonne." Archivum 13 (1963): 98-101.

   ■ Andrade e Sousa, Teresa. "Guia das Colecções de Manuscritos da Divisao dos Reservados" [in Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, Lisbon/. Revista da Biblioteca Nacional, 2nd series, 3, 1 (Jan.-April 1988): 95-129.

   ■ Axelson, Eric. "Report on the Archives and Libraries of Portugal." In Eric Axelson, ed., Portuguese in South-East Africa, 1488-1600, 247-63. Johannesburg, South Africa: C. Struik, 1973.

   ■ Boschi, Caio C. Roteiro-sumário de arquivos portugueses de interesse para o pesquisador da História do Brasil. Lisbon: Ed. Universitarias Lusôfonos, 1995.

   ■ Boxer, C. R. "A Glimpse of the Goa Archives." Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. (June 1952): 299-324.

   ■ -. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825. London: Hutchinson, 1969: 392-413.

   ■ Brooks, George E. "Notes on Research Facilities in Lisbon and the Cape Verde Islands." International Journal of African Historical Studies 6 (1973): 304-14.

   ■ Cardozo, Manoel. "Portugal [Archives and Libraries]." In Daniel H. Thomas and Lynn M. Case, eds., New Guide to the Diplomatic Archives of Western Europe, 256-74. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975.

   ■ Castro e Almeida, E. de. Inventário dos documentos relativos ao Brasil existentes no Arquivo da Marinha e Ultramar de Lisboa, 6 vols. Rio de Janeiro: 1913-36.

   ■ Centro de Estudos Hist0ricos Ultramarinos. Manuscritos da Ajuda ( guia), 2 vols. Lisbon: CEHU, 1966-73.

   ■ Chilcote, Ronald H. "Documenting Portuguese Africa." Africana Newsletter (Stanford, Calif.) I (Autumn 1963): 16-36.

   ■ Diffie, Bailey W. "Bibliography of the Principal Guides to Portuguese Archives and Libraries." Actas do Colóquio Internacional de Estudos Luso-Brasileiras de 1950 (Washington). Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press, 1953: 181-88.

   ■ Farinha, Maria do Carmo Jasmins Dias. Os Arquivos da Inquisição. Lisbon: Arquivo Nacional de Torre do Tombo, 1990.

   ■ Ferreira, Fernando Bandeira. "Chronique des archives du Portugal." Archivum 11 (1963): 207-14.

   ■ Fonseca, F. Bellard da. "Arquivo Geral da Alfãndega de Lisboa." Anais das Bibliotecas e Arquivos 2nd series, 75-76 (1948): 75-76.

   ■ Garcia, Maria Madalena. Arquivo Salazar: Inventário e Indices. Lisbon: Edit. Estampa, 1992.

   ■ Grover, Mark L. "Research in Portugal." In Iêda Siqueira Wiarda, ed., The Handbook of Portuguese Studies, 435-75. Washington, D.C.: Xlibris, 2000.

   ■ Instituto Portugües de Arquivos. Guia de Fontes Portuguesas para História de Africa. Vol. I. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional/Casa da Moeda, 1991.

   ■ -. Guia de Fontes Portuguesas para a História da América. Volume II. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional/Casa da Moeda, 1992. Instituto Portugües do Patrimônio Cultural. Roteiro das bibliotecas e arquivos dependentes administrativamente do Instituto Português do Património. Lisbon: IPPC, 1984. Iria, Alberto. Inventário geral dos códices do Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino. Lisbon, 1966.

   ■ Nascimento, Aires do. Bibliografia de arquivos portugueses. Lisbon: Instituto Portugües de Arquivos, 1991.

   ■ Pereira, Arnaldo Antônio. "Arquivos históricos de Lisboa: contribuição para um roteiro." Clio 4 (1982): 95-120; 5 (1984-85): 115-48.

   ■ Pereira, Gabriel. Bibliotecas e arquivos nacionais. Lisbon: Biblioteca Nacional, 1903.

   ■ -. Arquivos nacionais. Coimbra: Univ. da Coimbra, 1910.

   ■ Pescatello, Ann. "Relatôrio [Report] from Portugal: The Archives and Libraries of Portugal and Their Significance for the Study of Brazilian History." Latin American Research Review 5, 2 (1970): 17-52. Rau, Virginia. Arquivos de Portugal: Lisboa. In The International Colloquium on Luso-Brazilian Studies, 189-231. Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press, 1953.

   ■ Ribeiro, José Silvestre. Apontamentos históricos sobre bibliotecas portuguesas. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade, 1914.

   ■ Ryder, A. F. C. Materials for West African History in Portuguese Archives. London: Athlone Press, University of London, 1965.

   ■ Serrão, Joel, Maria da Silva Leal, and Miriam Halpern Pereira, eds. Roteiro de fontes da História Portuguesa Contemporânea: Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo. Vols. I and II. Lisbon, 1984.

   ■ Silva Leal, Maria da, and Miriam Halpern Pereira, eds. Arquivo e Historiografia: Colóquio sobre as Fontes de História Contemporânea Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1988.

   ■ Silveira, Luís. Portugal nos arquivos do estrangeiro, 2 vols. Lisbon: Instituto para a Alta Cultura, 1946-48.

   ■ Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Bibliografia do Ultramar Portugües existente na Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa. Lisbon, 1974.

   ■ Tovar, Conde de. Catálogo dos Manuscritos Portugueses ou Relativos a Portugal Existentes no Museu Britânico. Lisbon: Academia das Ciências, 1932. Vieira, Alberto. Guia Para A História E Investigação Das Ilhas Atlânticas. Funchal, 1995.

   ■ Wheeler, Douglas L. "Ajuda Library/Biblioteca Da Ajuda [Lisbon, Portugal)." Portuguese Studies Newsletter 7 (Winter/Spring 1980-81): 1-2.

   ■ -. "Archival Materials and Manuscripts on United States History in Portugal and the Azores Islands." In Lewis Hanke, ed., Guide to the Study of United States History Outside the U.S. 1945-1980, 346-56. White Plains, N.Y.: Kraus International Publications; American Historical Association University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 1985.

   ■ -. "The Archives of Portugal: A Guide to an Intelligence Treasure Trove." International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 4, 4 (Winter 1990): 539-50.

   ■ Statistical

   ■ Agência Geral do Ultramar. Províncias ultramarinas portuguesas: Dados informativos. Lisbon, 1962-66.

   ■. Portugal: Overseas Provinces: Facts and Figures. Lisbon, 1965.

   ■ Anuário Estatístico de Portugal. Lisbon: Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 1875-present.

   ■ Anuário Estatístico. II. Províncias Ultramarinas, 1969. Lisbon: Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 1971.

   ■ Ayala, José Aldana. Compêndio Geographico-Estadistico de Portugal y sus Posesiones Ultramarinas. Madrid, 1855.

   ■ Balbi, Adriano. Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve. Paris, 1822.

   ■ Estatísticas Agrícolas. Lisbon: Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 1965-pre-sent.

   ■ Estatísticas Industriais. Lisbon: Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 1967-pre-sent.

   ■ Estatísticas de Saúde. Lisbon, 1970-present.

   ■ Gaspar, Jorge, ed. Portugal Em Mapas E Em Números. Lisbon: Livros Horizonte, 1990 ed.

   ■ McNitt, Harold A., comp. Selected Agricultural and Trade Statistics for the European Community: Greece, Spain and Portugal. 1967-79. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture; Statistical Bulletin no. 692, 1982.

   ■ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Portugal: OECD Economic Surveys. Paris: OECD, 1979-present.

   ■ Pery, Geraldo. Geographia e Estatistica de Portugal e Colonias. Lisbon, 1875.

   ■ Portugal. Lisbon: Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, 1969; annual volumes. Vicente, Ana. "A Statistical Portrait of Portugal." In Iêda Siqueira Wiarda, ed., The Handbook of Portuguese Studies, 477-511. Washington, D.C.: Xlibris, 2000.

    Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

   ■ Andrade, John. Dicionário Do 25 De Abril. Verde Fauna, Rubra Flora. Lisbon: Nova Arrancada, 2002.

   ■ Azevedo, Candido De, ed. Classe Politica Portuguesa: Estes Politicos Que Nos Governam. Lisbon, 1989.

   ■ Barreto, Antônio, and Maria Filomena Mônica, eds. Dicionário De História De Portugal. Vols. VII, VIII and IX. Suplemento (to 6 vols. of Joel Serrão, DHP), 3 vols. Oporto: Figueirinhas, 1999-2000.

   ■ Enciclopédia Luso-Brasileira da Cultura, 30 vols., to date. Lisbon: Verbo: 1963-90.

   ■ Grande Enciclopédia Portuguesa e Brasileira, 40 vols. Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro, 1924-60.

   ■ Guía das Fundações Portuguesas/ Portuguese Foundations Guide, 3rd ed. Lisbon: Centro Portugües de Fundações, 1996.

   ■ Rosas, Fernando, and J. M. Brandão de Brito, eds. Dicionário de História do Estado Novo, 2 vols. Lisbon: Círculo de Leitores, 1996.

   ■ Secretaria de Estado da Informação e Turismo. Orgânica Governamental, Sua Evolução: E Elencos Ministeriais Constituidos Desde 5 De Outubro De 1910 à 31 De Março De 1972. Lisbon, 1972.

   ■ Selecções do Reader's Digest, ed. Dicionário Enciclopédico Da História De Portugal, 2 vols. Lisbon: Alfa, 1993.

   ■ Serrão, Joel, ed. Dicionário De História De Portugal, 6 vols. Lisbon, 196371.

   ■ -. Pequeno Dicionário De História De Portugal. Lisbon, 1987.

    Historical references

   ■ General Histories, Legal, Political Studies, Area and Country Studies

   ■ Almeida, Fortunato de. História de Portugal, 6 vols. Coimbra, 1922-29. Ameal, João. História de Portugal: Das Orígens Até 1940, 4th ed. Oporto, 1958.

   ■ Anderson, James Maxwell. The History of Portugal. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2000.

   ■ Birmingham, David. A Concise History of Portugal. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993. Birot, Pierre. Le Portugal. Paris, 1949.

   ■ Bourdon, Albert-Alain. Histoire du Portugal. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1970.

   ■ Bradford, Sarah. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1973.

   ■ Braga de Macedo, Jorge, José Adelino Maltez, and Mendo Castro Henriques. Bem Comum Dos Portugueses. Lisbon: Vega, 1999.

   ■ Caetano, Marcello. Lições de História do Direito Português. Coimbra, 1962.

   ■ -. História Breve das Constituiçoes Portuguesas, 4th ed. Lisbon, 1974.

   ■ Costa Pinto, Antônio, ed. Modern Portugal. Palo Alto, Calif.: SPOSS, 1998.

   ■ -. Contemporary Portugal: Politics, Society, Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.

   ■ Eppstein, John. Portugal: The Country and Its People. London: Queen Anne Press, 1967.

   ■ Ferreira, Eduardo de Sousa, and Helena Rato, eds. Portugal Hoje. Oeiras: Instituto Nacional de Administraçao, 1995. Garcia, José Manuel. História de Portugal: Uma Visão Global, 4th ed. Lisbon, 1989.

   ■ Kaplan, Marion. The Portuguese: The Land and Its People, 2nd ed. New York: Viking, 1998.

   ■ Koebel, William. Portugal: Its Land and People. London: Constable, 1909. Livermore, Harold V. A History of Portugal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947.

   ■ -. A New History of Portugal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976 ed.

   ■ -. Portugal and Brazil: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953.

   ■ -. A Short History of Portugal. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967.

   ■ Martinez, Pedro Soares. História Diplomática de Portugal. Lisbon, 1986. Mattoso, José, ed. História De Portugal, 8 vols. Lisbon: Estampa, 1993-94. Nowell, Charles E. A History of Portugal. New York: Van Nostrand, 1953.

   ■ -. Portugal. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

   ■ Oliveira Marques, A. H. de. História de Portugal, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1972-90, various eds.

   ■ -. History of Portugal, 2 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972; 1976 ed. in one volume.

   ■ -. Historia De Portugal. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 1991.

   ■ -. Breve Historia De Portugal. Lisbon: Presença, 1995.

   ■ Oliveira Martins, J. História de Portugal, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1880 and later editions.

   ■ Opello, Walter C., Jr. Portugal: From Monarchy to Pluralist Democracy. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991. Pajot, Lalé. Le Portugal. Paris: Pichon and Durand, 1971. Pattee, Richard. Portugal and the Portuguese World. Milwaukee, Wisc.: Bruce, 1957.

   ■ Payne, Stanley G. A History of Spain and Portugal, 2 vols. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973.

   ■ Peres, Damião, ed. História de Portugal, 9 vols. Barcelos and Coimbra, Monumental Edition, 1928-35.

   ■ Raibaud, A. Petite Histoire du Portugal: Des Origines à 1910. Nice, 1964.

   ■ Reynold, Gonzague de. Portugal. Paris, 1936.

   ■ Saraiva, José Hermano. História Concisa de Portugal. Lisbon, 1978 and later eds.

   ■ -. História De Portugal, 4th ed. Mem Martins: Pub. Europa-América, 1993.

   ■ -. Portugal: A Companion History. Ed. and expanded by Ian Robertson and

   ■ L. C. Taylor. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet, 1997.

   ■ Sayers, Raymond S., ed. Portugal and Brazil in Transition. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1968.

   ■ Selvagem, Carlos. Portugal Militar. Lisbon, 1931.

   ■ Sérgio, Antônio. A Sketch of the History of Portugal. Lisbon, 1928.

   ■ Serrão, Joel, and A. H. de Oliveira Marques, eds. Nova História De Portugal, 10 vols. Lisbon, 1987-.

   ■ Silva, Manuela, coord. Portugal Contemporâneo: Problemas e perspectivas. Oeiras: Instituto Nacional de Administração, 1986.

   ■ Trend, J. B. Portugal. London: Ernest Benn, 1957.

   ■ Veríssimo Serrão, José. História De Portugal, 14 vols. Lisbon, 1980-97.

   ■ Vieira, Nelson H., ed. Roads to Today's Portugal: Essays on Contemporary Portuguese Literature, Art and Culture. Providence, R.I.: Gávea-Brown, 1983.

   ■ Wiarda, Iêda Siqueira, ed. The Handbook of Portuguese Studies. Washington, D.C.: Xlibris, 2000.

   ■ Historical Document Collections: Portugal Almeida, Manuel Lopes de, ed. Obras dos Príncipes de Avis. Oporto: Lello, 1981.

   ■ Andrade e Silva, José Justino da, ed. Collecção Chronologica da Legislação Portugueza ( 1603-1702), 10 vols. Lisbon De Souza, 1854-59.

   ■ Azevedo, Ruy Pinto de. Documentos Medievais Portugueses, 3 vols. Lisbon:

   ■ Academia Portuguesa de Histôria, 1940-62. Borges de Castro, José Ferreira, ed. Collecção dos Tratados, Convenções, Contratos e Actos Publicos Celebrados entre a Coroa de Portugal... desde 1640 até ao Presente, 30 vols. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1856-80. Boxer, C. R., ed. The Tragic History of the Sea, 1589-1622. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, vol. 112. Cambridge University Press, 1959.

   ■. Further Selections from the Tragic History of the Sea. Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, vol. 132. Cambridge University Press, 1968. Coelho, Antônio Borges, ed. Portugal na Espanha Arabe, 4 vols. Lisbon, Seara Nova, 1972-75.

   ■ Cruz, Alfeu, ed. Colecção Anotada de Legislação da República Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1917.

   ■ David, Charles Wendell, ed. The Conquest of Lisbon. New York, 1936.

   ■ Dinis, Joaquim Dias, ed. Monumenta Henricina, 15 vols. Coimbra: Comissao Executiva das Comemorações do V Centenário da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, 1960-74.

   ■ Documentos para a História das Cortes gerais da Nação Portuguesa. Vol. I (1820-25) and later vols. Lisbon, 1889.

   ■ Duarte, Dom (King of Portugal). Leal Conselheiro. João Morais Barbosa, ed. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional and Casa da Moeda, 1982.

   ■ Faye, Jean Pierre, ed. Portugal: The Revolution in the Labyrinth. Nottingham, U.K.: Spokesman, 1976.

   ■ Ferreira, Hugo Gil, and Michael W. Marshall. Portugal's Revolution Ten Years On. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

   ■ Fonseca, Luís Adão da. O essencial sobre O Tratado de Windsor [ 1386]. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional and Casa da Moeda, 1986.

   ■ Fundação Gulbenkian. Ordenações manuelinas, 5 vols. Lisbon: Fund. Gulben-kian, 1984.

   ■ Medina, João, ed. História Contemporânea De Portugal, 5 vols. Lisbon: Multilar, 1985-90.

   ■ Ministério dos Negôcios Estrangeiros. Dez Anos De Política Externa ( 19361948): A Nação Portuguesa E A Segunda Guerra Mundial, 20 vols. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 1973-98.

   ■ Neves, Orlando, ed. Textos Históricos Da Revolução, 3 vols. Lisbon: Diabril, 1975-76.

   ■ Oliveira, Eduardo Freire de, ed. Arquivo Municipal de Lisboa, 17 vols. Lisbon: Typ. Universal, 1882-1911.

   ■ Oliveira Marques, A.H. de, ed. Antologia da Historiografia Portuguesa, 2 vols. Mem Martins: Europa-América, 1975. Pereira, Miriam Halpern, ed. Revolução, Finanças, Dependência Externa. Vol. I (de 1820 a convenção de Gramido). Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1979.

   ■ Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira. Discursos e Notas Políticas, 6 vols. Coimbra: Coimbra Edit., 1932-67.

   ■ -. Entrevistas: 1960-1966. Coimbra: Coimbra Edit., 1967.

   ■ -. Salazar. Pensamento e doutrina política: Textos antológicos. Lisbon: Verbo, 1989.

   ■ Sampaio, Carlos Rangel de. Preparativos de Uma Revolta—Documentos Inéditos de 1840 a 1846. Lisbon, 1905.

   ■ Santarém, Visconde do e L.A. Rebelo da Silva, eds. Quadro elementar das relações politicas e diplomáticas de Portugal com as diversas potências do mundo, 19 vols. Paris and Lisbon, 1842-76.

   ■ Serrão, Joel, ed. Antologia Do Pensamento Político Português/1. Liberalismo, Socialismo, Republicanismo. Oporto: Inova, 1970.

   ■ Sousa Costa, Antônia Domingues, ed. Monumenta Portugaliae Vaticana, 4 vols. Rome, Oporto and Braga: Edit. Franciscana, 1968-70.

   ■ Tomás, Manuel Fernandes. A Revolução de 1820. José Tengarrinha, ed. Lisbon, 1974.

   ■ Vicente, Ana. Portugal Visto Pela Espanha: Correspondência Diplomática, 1939-1960. Lisbon: Assíro & Alvim, 1992.

   ■ Historical Document Collections: Portuguese Empire

   ■ Agência Geral das Colônias. Antologia Colonial Portuguesa, 2 vols. Lisbon: Agencia Geral das Colônias, 1946-47.

   ■ Albuquerque, Afonso de. Albuquerque: Caesar of the East. T. F. Earle and John Villiers, trans., eds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1990.

   ■ Alexandre, Valentim, ed. Orígens do colonialismo portugües moderno ( 18221891). Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1979.

   ■ Almada, José de, ed. Tratados Aplicáveis ao Ultramar, 8 vols. Lisbon: MNE, 1942-46.

   ■ Arquivo das Colonias, 5 vols. Lisbon: Ministério das Colônias, 1917-33. Arquivos de Angola, 19 vols. 1st series, Luanda: 1933-59; 16 vols., 2nd series, 1960-74.

   ■ Arquivos de Macau, 9 vols. Macau, 1929-74.

   ■ Barbosa, Duarte. The Book of Duarte Barbosa, 2 vols. London: Hakluyt Society: 2nd series, no. 44 (1918) and 49 (1921).

   ■ Bensaúde, Joaquim, ed. Histoire de la science nautiqueportugaise a l' epoque des grandes découvertes, 7 vols. Munich and Lisbon: Kuhn, 1914-24.

   ■ Biker, Júlio Firmino Júdice, ed. Collecção de tratados e concertos de pazes que o Estado da India fez com os Reis e Senhores com que teve relações nas partes da Asia e Africa desde o princípio até ao fim do século XVIII, 14 vols. Lisbon, 1881-87.

   ■ Bragança Pereira, A. B., ed. Arquivo Portugües Oriental, 11 vols. Bastora, Goa: Rangel, 1936-40.

   ■ Brásio, Antônio, SJ. Monumenta missionária africana, 20 vols. Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1952-80.

   ■ Caminha, Pero Vaz de. A Carta de Pero Vaz de Caminha. Jaime Cortesão, ed. Lisbon: Portugália, 1967.

   ■ Carreira, Antônio. Documentos para a História das Ilhas de Cabo Verde e " Rios de Guiné." Lisbon: Ed. do Autor, 1983.

   ■ Centro de Estudos Histôricos Ultramarinos. Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa. Lisbon: CEHU, 1960-74.

   ■ -. Documentos sobre os portugueses em Moçambique e na Africa Central, 1497-1840, 8 vols. Lisbon: National Archives of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and CEHU, 1962-80.

   ■ Cooper, Michael, ed. They Came to Japan: An Anthology of European Reports on Japan, 1543-1640. London: Thames and Hudson, 1963.

   ■ Cortesao, Armando, ed. The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires... and the Book of Francisco Rodrigues, 2 vols. London: Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, vols. 89, 90: 1944.

   ■ Cortesão, Armando, and Avelino Teixeira da Mota, eds. Portugalia monumenta cartographica, 6 vols. Coimbra: CMIH, 1958-63. Cunha Rivara, J. H. da, ed. Arquivo Portuguez Oriental, 9 vols. Nova-Goa, 1857-76.

   ■ Documentos Históricos da Biblioteca Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, 135 vols. Rio de Janeiro, 1928-.

   ■ Documentos remetidos da índia ou livros das Monções, 5 vols. Lisbon: Academia das Ciências, 1880-1935. Fernandes de Oliveira, Mário Antônio, ed. Angolana: Documentação sobre Angola, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1979-80.

   ■ Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães, ed. Documentos sobre a expansão portuguesa, 3 vols. Lisbon: Edit. Gleba, 1947-56.

   ■ Leite, Serafim, SJ, ed. Historia da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil, 10 vols. Lisbon, 1938-50.

   ■ Levine, Robert M., and John J. Crocitti, eds. The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999.

   ■ Ley, C. D., ed. Portuguese Voyages, 1498-1663. London: Dent, 1953.

   ■ Magalhães, Joaquim Romero, and Susana Münch Miranda, eds. Os primeiros 14 documentos relativos a Armada de Pedro Alvares Cabral. Lisbon: CNCDP, 1999.

   ■ Pissurlencar, Panduronga. Assentos do Conselho do Estado da índia, 16181750, 5 vols. Bastorá-Goa, India, 1953-57.

   ■ Sá, Padre Artur Basílio de, ed. Documentação para a história das missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: Isulíndia, 6 vols. Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1954-88.

   ■ Silva Marques, João Martins, ed. Descobrimentos Portugueses: Documentos para a sua história, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1944-71. Silva Rego, Antônio da, ed. Documentação para a história das missões do padroado português no Oriente. 12 vols. Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1947-58.

   ■ Historical Chronicles of Portugal and of Empire

   ■ Barros, João de. Asia. Hernâni Cidade, ed., 4 vols. Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colônias, 1945-46.

   ■ Castanheda, Fernão Lopes de. História do Descobrimento e Conquista da índia pelos Portugueses. Manuel Lopes de Almeida, ed., 2 vols. Oporto: Lello, 1979.

   ■ Correia, Gaspar. Lendas da índia. Manuel Lopes de Almeida, ed., 4 vols. Oporto: Lello, 1975.

   ■. Crónicas de D. Manuel e D. João III ( até 1533). José Pereira da Costa, ed. Lisbon: Academia das Ciências, 1992. Couto, Diogo do. Da Asia [continues De Barros chronicle]. Hernani Cidade, ed., 4 vols. Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colônias, 1945-46.

   ■. O soldado práctico, 2nd ed. M. Rodrigues Lapa, ed. Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1954.

   ■ Galvão, Antônio. Tratado dos Descobrimentos. Oporto: Liv. Civilização, 1944.

   ■ Gôis, Damião de. Crónica do Felicíssimo Rei D. Manuel. Joaquim de Carvalho and David Lopes, eds., 4 vols. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1926.

   ■ Lopes, Fernão. Crónica de D. Pedro I. Barcelos, 1932.

   ■. Crónica de D. Fernando, 2 vols. Barcelos: Portucalense, 1933-35.

   ■. Crónica de El-Rei D. João I, 2 vols. Oporto: Liv. Civilização, 1945- 49.

   ■. The English in Portugal 1367-87: Extracts from the Chronicles of Dom Fernando and Dom João. Derek W. Lomax and R. J. Oakley, trans., eds. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.

   ■ Mendonça, Jerónimo de. Jornada d'Africa, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1904.

   ■ Pereira, Duarte Pacheco. Esmeraldo de situ orbis. George H. T. Kimble, trans. London: Hakluyt Society, vol. 79, 1937.

   ■. Esmeraldo de situ orbis. Damião de Peres, ed. Lisbon: Academia Portuguesa da Histôria, 1988.

   ■ Pina Rui de. Crónica d'El Rey D. Affonso V, 3 vols. Lisbon: Clássicos Portuguezes, 1901-2.

   ■. Crónica d'El Rey D. Affonso II e d'El Rey D. Sancho II. Lisbon: Clássicos Portuguezes, 1906.

   ■. Crónica d'El Rey D. Affonso III. Lisbon: Clássicos Portuguezes, 1908.

   ■. Crónica d'El Rey D. Diniz. Oporto: Liv. Civilização, 1945.

   ■. Crónica d'El Rey D. João II. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1950.

   ■. Crónica do muy excellente Dom Joham de gloriosa memoria. Lisbon, 1972-96.

   ■ Zurara, Gomes Eanes de. The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, 2 vols. C. R. Beazley and Edgar Prestage, trans. London: Hakluyt Society, 1896-99.

   ■. Crónica da tomada de Ceuta. Lisbon, 1915.

(1889-1970)

   The Coimbra University professor of finance and economics and one of the founders of the Estado Novo, who came to dominate Western Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system. Salazar was born on 28 April 1889, in Vimieiro, Beira Alta province, the son of a peasant estate manager and a shopkeeper. Most of his first 39 years were spent as a student, and later as a teacher in a secondary school and a professor at Coimbra University's law school. Nine formative years were spent at Viseu's Catholic Seminary (1900-09), preparing for the Catholic priesthood, but the serious, studious Salazar decided to enter Coimbra University instead in 1910, the year the Braganza monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the First Republic. Salazar received some of the highest marks of his generation of students and, in 1918, was awarded a doctoral degree in finance and economics. Pleading inexperience, Salazar rejected an invitation in August 1918 to become finance minister in the "New Republic" government of President Sidónio Pais.

   As a celebrated academic who was deeply involved in Coimbra University politics, publishing works on the troubled finances of the besieged First Republic, and a leader of Catholic organizations, Sala-zar was not as modest, reclusive, or unknown as later official propaganda led the public to believe. In 1921, as a Catholic deputy, he briefly served in the First Republic's turbulent congress (parliament) but resigned shortly after witnessing but one stormy session. Salazar taught at Coimbra University as of 1916, and continued teaching until April 1928. When the military overthrew the First Republic in May 1926, Salazar was offered the Ministry of Finance and held office for several days. The ascetic academic, however, resigned his post when he discovered the degree of disorder in Lisbon's government and when his demands for budget authority were rejected.

   As the military dictatorship failed to reform finances in the following years, Salazar was reinvited to become minister of finances in April 1928. Since his conditions for acceptance—authority over all budget expenditures, among other powers—were accepted, Salazar entered the government. Using the Ministry of Finance as a power base, following several years of successful financial reforms, Salazar was named interim minister of colonies (1930) and soon garnered sufficient prestige and authority to become head of the entire government. In July 1932, Salazar was named prime minister, the first civilian to hold that post since the 1926 military coup.

   Salazar gathered around him a team of largely academic experts in the cabinet during the period 1930-33. His government featured several key policies: Portuguese nationalism, colonialism (rebuilding an empire in shambles), Catholicism, and conservative fiscal management. Salazar's government came to be called the Estado Novo. It went through three basic phases during Salazar's long tenure in office, and Salazar's role underwent changes as well. In the early years (1928-44), Salazar and the Estado Novo enjoyed greater vigor and popularity than later. During the middle years (1944—58), the regime's popularity waned, methods of repression increased and hardened, and Salazar grew more dogmatic in his policies and ways. During the late years (1958-68), the regime experienced its most serious colonial problems, ruling circles—including Salazar—aged and increasingly failed, and opposition burgeoned and grew bolder.

   Salazar's plans for stabilizing the economy and strengthening social and financial programs were shaken with the impact of the civil war (1936-39) in neighboring Spain. Salazar strongly supported General Francisco Franco's Nationalist rebels, the eventual victors in the war. But, as the civil war ended and World War II began in September 1939, Salazar's domestic plans had to be adjusted. As Salazar came to monopolize Lisbon's power and authority—indeed to embody the Estado Novo itself—during crises that threatened the future of the regime, he assumed ever more key cabinet posts. At various times between 1936 and 1944, he took over the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of War (Defense), until the crises passed. At the end of the exhausting period of World War II, there were rumors that the former professor would resign from government and return to Coimbra University, but Salazar continued as the increasingly isolated, dominating "recluse of São Bento," that part of the parliament's buildings housing the prime minister's offices and residence.

   Salazar dominated the Estado Novo's government in several ways: in day-to-day governance, although this diminished as he delegated wider powers to others after 1944, and in long-range policy decisions, as well as in the spirit and image of the system. He also launched and dominated the single party, the União Nacional. A lifelong bachelor who had once stated that he could not leave for Lisbon because he had to care for his aged mother, Salazar never married, but lived with a beloved housekeeper from his Coimbra years and two adopted daughters. During his 36-year tenure as prime minister, Salazar engineered the important cabinet reshuffles that reflect the history of the Estado Novo and of Portugal.

   A number of times, in connection with significant events, Salazar decided on important cabinet officer changes: 11 April 1933 (the adoption of the Estado Novo's new 1933 Constitution); 18 January 1936 (the approach of civil war in Spain and the growing threat of international intervention in Iberian affairs during the unstable Second Spanish Republic of 1931-36); 4 September 1944 (the Allied invasion of Europe at Normandy and the increasing likelihood of a defeat of the Fascists by the Allies, which included the Soviet Union); 14 August 1958 (increased domestic dissent and opposition following the May-June 1958 presidential elections in which oppositionist and former regime stalwart-loyalist General Humberto Delgado garnered at least 25 percent of the national vote, but lost to regime candidate, Admiral Américo Tomás); 13 April 1961 (following the shock of anticolonial African insurgency in Portugal's colony of Angola in January-February 1961, the oppositionist hijacking of a Portuguese ocean liner off South America by Henrique Galvão, and an abortive military coup that failed to oust Salazar from office); and 19 August 1968 (the aging of key leaders in the government, including the now gravely ill Salazar, and the defection of key younger followers).

   In response to the 1961 crisis in Africa and to threats to Portuguese India from the Indian government, Salazar assumed the post of minister of defense (April 1961-December 1962). The failing leader, whose true state of health was kept from the public for as long as possible, appointed a group of younger cabinet officers in the 1960s, but no likely successors were groomed to take his place. Two of the older generation, Teotónio Pereira, who was in bad health, and Marcello Caetano, who preferred to remain at the University of Lisbon or in private law practice, remained in the political wilderness.

   As the colonial wars in three African territories grew more costly, Salazar became more isolated from reality. On 3 August 1968, while resting at his summer residence, the Fortress of São João do Estoril outside Lisbon, a deck chair collapsed beneath Salazar and his head struck the hard floor. Some weeks later, as a result, Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke and cerebral hemorrhage, was hospitalized, and became an invalid. While hesitating to fill the power vacuum that had unexpectedly appeared, President Tomás finally replaced Salazar as prime minister on 27 September 1968, with his former protégé and colleague, Marcello Caetano. Salazar was not informed that he no longer headed the government, but he never recovered his health. On 27 July 1970, Salazar died in Lisbon and was buried at Santa Comba Dão, Vimieiro, his village and place of birth.

    See also Corporativism; Integralism; Salazarism.

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

   In Portugal's early history, education was firmly under the control of the Catholic Church. The earliest schools were located in cathedrals and monasteries and taught a small number of individuals destined for ecclesiastical office. In 1290, a university was established by King Dinis (1261-1325) in Lisbon, but was moved to Coimbra in 1308, where it remained. Coimbra University, Portugal's oldest, and once its most prestigious, was the educational cradle of Portugal's leadership. From 1555 until the 18th century, primary and secondary education was provided by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). The Catholic Church's educational monopoly was broken when the Marquis of Pombal expelled the Jesuits in 1759 and created the basis for Portugal's present system of public, secular primary and secondary schools. Pombal introduced vocational training, created hundreds of teaching posts, added departments of mathematics and natural sciences at Coimbra University, and established an education tax to pay for them.

   During the 19th century, liberals attempted to reform Portugal's educational system, which was highly elitist and emphasized rote memorization and respect for authority, hierarchy, and discipline.

   Reforms initiated in 1822, 1835, and 1844 were never actualized, however, and education remained unchanged until the early 20th century. After the overthrow of the monarchy on the Fifth of October 1910 by Republican military officers, efforts to reform Portugal's educational system were renewed. New universities were founded in Lisbon and Oporto, a Ministry of Education was established, and efforts were made to increase literacy (illiteracy rates being 80 percent) and to resecularize educational content by introducing more scientific and empirical methods into the curriculum.

   Such efforts were ended during the military dictatorship (192632), which governed Portugal until the establishment of the Estado Novo (1926-74). Although a new technical university was founded in Lisbon in 1930, little was done during the Estado Novo to modernize education or to reduce illiteracy. Only in 1964 was compulsory primary education made available for children between the ages of 6 and 12.

   The Revolution of 25 April 1974 disrupted Portugal's educational system. For a period of time after the Revolution, students, faculty, and administrators became highly politicized as socialists, communists, and other groups attempted to gain control of the schools. During the 1980s, as Portuguese politics moderated, the educational system was gradually depoliticized, greater emphasis was placed on learning, and efforts were made to improve the quality of Portuguese schools.

   Primary education in Portugal consists of four years in the primary (first) cycle and two years in the preparatory, or second, cycle. The preparatory cycle is intended for children going on to secondary education. Secondary education is roughly equivalent to junior and senior high schools in the United States. It consists of three years of a common curriculum and two years of complementary courses (10th and 11th grades). A final year (12th grade) prepares students to take university entrance examinations.

   Vocational education was introduced in 1983. It consists of a three-year course in a particular skill after the 11th grade of secondary school.

   Higher education is provided by the four older universities (Lisbon, Coimbra, Oporto, and the Technical University of Lisbon), as well as by six newer universities, one in Lisbon and the others in Minho, Aveiro, Évora, the Algarve, and the Azores. There is also a private Catholic university in Lisbon. Admission to Portuguese universities is highly competitive, and places are limited. About 10 percent of secondary students go on to university education. The average length of study at the university is five years, after which students receive their licentiate. The professoriate has four ranks (professors, associate professors, lecturers, and assistants). Professors have tenure, while the other ranks teach on contract.

   As Portugal is a unitary state, the educational system is highly centralized. All public primary and secondary schools, universities, and educational institutes are under the purview of the Ministry of Education, and all teachers and professors are included in the civil service and receive pay and pension like other civil servants. The Ministry of Education hires teachers, determines curriculum, sets policy, and pays for the building and upkeep of schools. Local communities have little say in educational matters.

   Traditional urban song and music sung by a man or woman, to the accompaniment of two stringed instruments. The Portuguese word, fado, derives from the Latin word for fate ( fatum), and the fado's usage does not distinguish the sex of the singer. Traditionally, wherever the fado is performed, the singer, the fadista—who is often but not always a woman wearing a shawl around her shoulders—is accompanied by the Portuguese guitarra, a 12-stringed mandolin-like instrument or lute, and the viola, a Spanish guitar. There are at least two contemporary variations of the fado: the Lisbon fado and the Coimbra or university student fado. While some authorities describe the song as typical of the urban working classes, its popularity and roots are wider than only this group and it appears that, although the song's historic origins are urban and working class, its current popularity is more universal. The historic origins of the fado are not only obscure but hotly debated among scholars and would-be experts. Some suggest that its origins are Brazilian and African, while others detect a Muslim, North African element mixed with Hispanic.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, there was talk that the fado's days were numbered as a popular song because it seemed an obsolete, regime-encouraged entertainment, which, like a drug or soporific, encouraged passivity. In the new Portugal, however, the fado is still popular among various classes, as well as among an increasingly large number of visitors and tourists. The fado is performed in restaurants, cafes, and special fado houses, not only in Portugal and other Lusophone countries like Brazil, but wherever Portuguese communities gather abroad. Although there do not appear to be schools of fado, fadistas learn their trade by apprenticeship to senior performers, both men and women.

   In fado history, Portugal's most celebrated fadista was Amália Rodrigues, who died in 1999. She made her premier American debut in New York's Carnegie Hall in the 1950s, at about the same time Americans were charmed by a popular song of the day, April in Portugal, an American version of a traditional Portuguese fado called Fado de Coimbra, about Coimbra University's romantic traditions. The most celebrated fadista of the first decade of the 21st century is Marisa dos Reis Nunes, with the stage name of Mariza, who embodies a new generation of singers' contemporary interpretation of fado. The predominant tone of the Lisbon variation of the fado, sung often in the areas of Alfama, Mouraria, Bairro Alto, and Alcântara, is that of nostalgia and saudade — sadness and regret. Traditionally, the Coimbra version has a lighter, less somber tone.

    See also Santos, José Manuel Cerqueira Afonso.

 

гемоглобин Коимбра
Повышенное сродство к кислороду; замена аспарагина на глутаминовую кислоту в 99-м положении β-цепи.
[Арефьев В.А., Лисовенко Л.А. Англо-русский толковый словарь генетических терминов 1995 407с.]

Тематики

• генетика

EN

• hemoglobin Coimbra
• Hb Coimbra

   The only major river in Portugal with its sources entirely inside Portugal. The Mondego River rises in the Estrela mountain range, flows through Coimbra and into the Atlantic Ocean north of the Tagus River. Associated with the romantic songs (including fado) and poetry of Coimbra University students in tradition, the Mondego is a picturesque sight as it flows to the sea through Beira Alta and Beira Baixa districts. The Mondego is about 280 kilometers (130 miles) long.

    See also Coimbra, University of.

[sawd‘adi] sf manque, regret. saudade da terra natal (ou da pátria) nostalgie, mal du pays.

* * *

[saw`dadʒi]

Substantivo feminino vague masculin à l'âme

tenho saudades da família la famille me manque

deixar saudades regretter

matar saudades se rattraper

morro de saudades da comida da minha mãe la cuisine de ma mère me manque terriblement

* * *

nostalgie (de, de); regret m.; cafard m. coloquial

laisser des regrets

tu me manques beaucoup

avoir la nostalgie de la maison

avoir le mal du pays

je vais à Coimbra car mes amis me manquent

ADJ of/from Coimbra

SMF native/inhabitant of Coimbra

округ (Португалия) Coimbra

  15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.

  400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.

  202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.

  137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.

  410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.

  714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.

  1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.

  1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.

  1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.

  1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.

  1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).

  1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.

  1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.

  1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.

  1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.

  1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.

  1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.

  1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.

  1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.

  1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.

  1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.

  1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.

  1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.

  1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.

  1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.

  1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.

  1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.

  1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).

  1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.

  1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.

  1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.

  1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.

   King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.

   King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.

  1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.

  1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.

  1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.

   Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.

   Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.

   Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.

  1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.

  1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.

  1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.

  1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.

  1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.

  1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.

  1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.

  1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.

  1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.

  1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.

  1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.

  1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.

  1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.

  1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.

  1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.

  1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.

  1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.

  1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.

  1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.

  1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.

  1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.

  1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.

  1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.

  1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.

  1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.

   Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.

   King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.

  1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of

   Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.

   Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.

   King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.

  1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.

  1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.

  1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.

  1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.

  1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.

  1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.

   January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.

   Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.

  1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.

  1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.

  1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.

  1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.

  1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.

   May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.

   March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.

   Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.

  1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.

  1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January

  1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.

  1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."

   28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.

   February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.

   April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.

  1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.

  1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."

  1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.

   6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.

   8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.

  1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.

  1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.

  1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

   January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.

  1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.

  1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.

  1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.

   March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.

   March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.

  1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July

  1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.

  1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).

  1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.

  1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.

   January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.

   January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.

   November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.

   October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.

   January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.

   May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.

   October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.

   January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).

   United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.

   January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.

   1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).

   May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.

   June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.

   February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.

   January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.

   July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.

  2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

(1810)

   An important battle in what is known as the Peninsular Wars in European history and the Wars of Independence in Portuguese history. In the third invasion by French forces under Emperor Napoleon, Marshal Masséna entered Portugal from Spain in August 1810. The allied forces under the Duke of Wellington were comprised of British and Portuguese troops. Masséna marched from Guarda, and moved to attack across the hills of Buçaco to Coimbra. Wellington's forces blocked the way to Coimbra and Lisbon and held an advantageous position. Against the advice of his council, Masséna decided to take the offensive. The battle of Buçaco commenced in the morning of 27 September 1810, and the French were defeated with considerable losses. The site of the battle in the woods and hills of Buçaco is marked by a commemorative obelisk, not far from the elegant Hotel-Palace of Buçaco, built originally for the last Braganza monarchs.

    See also Great Britain.

   A generation of Portuguese writers and intellectuals and a postregeneration phase of the country's intellectual history in the last third of the 19th century. Many of them graduates of Coimbra University, these writers, whose work challenged conventional wisdom of their day, included J. Oliveira Martins, economist and social scientist; Eça de Queirós, novelist; Antero de Quental, poet; Ramalho Ortigão, editor and essayist; Teófilo Braga, literary historian; and the geographer and diplomat abroad, Jaime Batalha Reis. Coming of political age at the time of the Franco-Prussian War, the French Commune, and the French Third Republic (1870-71), these Portuguese intellectuals believed that economically weak Portugal had a polity and society in the grip of a pervasive decadence and inertia. They called for reform and renewal.

   Critical of romanticism, they were realists and neorealists and espoused the ideas of Karl Marx, Pierre Proudhon, and Auguste Comte. They called for revolution through the establishment of republicanism and socialism, and they were convinced that Portugal's backwardness and poverty were due primarily to the ancient influences of a weakened monarchy and the Catholic Church. This group of like-minded but also distinctive thinkers had an important impact on Portuguese letters and elite culture, but only a minor effect on contemporary politics and government.

   Like so many other movements in modern Portugal, the Generation of 1870's initiatives began as essentially a protest by university students of Coimbra, who confronted the status quo and sought to change their world by means of change and innovation in action and ideas. In certain respects, Portugal's Generation of 1870 resembled neighboring Spain's Generation of 1898, which began its "rebellion" in ideas following a disastrous foreign war (the Spanish-American War, 1898).

(Saint Elizabeth of Portugal)

(1269-1336)

   Known to the Portuguese as "Holy Queen" Isabel, she was born in Spain, the daughter of Pedro III of Aragon. At the tender age of 12, she was married to Portugal's King Dinis, who was a better monarch than he was a husband. Isabel became widely known and famous for her peacemaking among her warring family and between Portugal and Castile, her piety and devotion, and her good works in supporting and building convents, chapels, hospitals, refuges for the homeless and wayward, orphanages, and shelters for abused women. Widowed in 1325, she moved near the Santa Clara Convent in Coimbra and continued her pious deeds. She died on 4 July 1336, the day now celebrated as her feast day, and was buried in Coimbra. She was beatified in 1516, and canonized in 1625 by Pope Urban VIII.

   Portugal's musical tradition began in the 15th century when songs ( cantigas) written by court troubadours were set to music. Early in the 16th century the cathedral in Coimbra became a center for the composition of polyphonic music and produced several composers of note. Portugal's musical tradition was carried throughout the Portuguese overseas empire. The playwright Gil Vicente used incidental music in his religious plays, some of which could be described as protomusicals. Until the 17th century, musical training was controlled by the Catholic Church, and the clergy dominated the field of composition. During this 18th century, Portuguese mon-archs lavished money and attention on music teachers and composers, which gave Portugal the best and liveliest court music anywhere in Europe. During the period, the Italian Domenico Scarlatti was court choirmaster, which infused Portuguese church music and opera with the Neapolitan style. A Portuguese, João de Sousa Carvalho, was one of the most popular composers of opera and musical drama in Europe during the second half of the 18th century.

   Perhaps the best-known Portuguese composer is João Domingos Bomtempo. Bomtempo wrote music in the classical style and, as head of the National Academy of Music, assured that the classical style remained integral to Portuguese music until well into the Romantic era. Gradually, Romantic music from Europe was accepted, having been introduced by Alfredo Keil, a Portuguese painter, musician, and opera composer of German descent. Portugal's only Romantic composer of note, Keil wrote the music for A Portuguesa, the official Portuguese national anthem since 1911.

   The most widely known musical form of Portugal is the fado. Meaning fate, fado is singing that expresses a melancholic longing intermingled with sadness, regret, and resignation. There are at least two variations of fado: the Lisbon fado and the Coimbra or university student fado. Its origins are hotly debated. The most famous Portuguese fado singer was Amália Rodrigues (1920-99); presently, Mariza holds that claim.

    See also Santos, José Manuel Cerqueira Afonso; Vianna da Motta, José.

(1872-1918)

   Leading political figure during the First Republic, minister to Berlin for the republic, and ill-fated president of the republic (1917-18) as well as founder of the New Republic system. Born in the Minho district to a family of modest means, Sidónio Pais was one of the most brilliant students in mathematics of his generation at Coimbra University, the pre-1926 crucible for so many of Portugal's future political leaders. Following his doctorate in mathematics at Coimbra, he became a faculty member at that institution and entered republican politics. He joined Brito Camacho's moderate republican party, the Unionists, and served as Portugal's minister to Berlin, 1912-16.

   A reserve army major, Pais was ambitious as well as idealist ic, and sought to reform the republic's turbulent, inefficient system. He headed the military coup and insurrection of 5-8 December 1917, which overthrew the Afonso Costa government and ousted the Portuguese Republican Party from power. Sidónio Pais engineered a novel regime called the New Republic during 1917-18 and was elected president of the republic in the spring of 1918. This new government sought to reconcile monarchists and republicans and to stabilize politics. Described by admirers as "half prince, half condottiere" Sidónio Pais's experiment was short-lived and soon collapsed in chaos. Pais was assassinated by a fanatic republican at Rossio railroad station on 14 December 1918.

   Government-sponsored inns similar to Spain's paradores. In 1942, Portugal initiated a system of state-run inns, pousadas, housed in restored, historic castles, convents, manor houses, palaces, and monasteries. By 2008, this system included more than forty pousadas or inns in every region of the country and in the Azores Islands. Recently, the government-owned system came under the management of Pestana Hotels, a private group. Such tourist habitations with reasonable nightly rates have been in high demand and feature antique, period furnishings and restaurants with Portuguese cuisine. Most are located in or near towns or cities with other historic places and sites. A source of information for travelers is the official website, at www.pousadas.pt.

    Name of Town in Portugal Name of Pousada

   Agueda Santo Antonio

   Alcácer Do Sal Dom Afonso II

   Alijo Baráo de Forrester

   Almeida Senhoras Das Neves

   Alvito Castelo De Alvito

   Amares Sta. Maria Do Bouro

   Arraiolos N. Sra. Da Assuncao

   Batalha Mestre De Domingues

   Beja São Francisco

   Bragança São Bartolomeu

   Caramulo São Jerónimo

   Condeixa-a-Nova Santa Cristina

   Crato Flor Da Rosa Elvas Santa Luzia Estremoz Rainha Santa Isabel Évora Loios

   Geres/Canicada São Bento Guimarães N. Sa. Da Oliveira Guimarães Santa Marinha Marao São Goncalo Manteigas São Lourenco Marvao Santa Maria Miranda Do Douro Santa Catarina Monsanto Monsanto Murtosa/Aveiro Ria Obidos Castelo Palmela Palmela

   Povoa Das Quartas Santa Barbara Queluz/Lisboa Dona Maria I Sagres Infante

   Sta. Clara-A-Velha Santa Clara

   Santiago Do Cacem Quinta Da Ortiga

   Santiago Do Cacem São Tiago

   S. Pedro/Castelo De Bode São Pedro

   São Bras De Alportel São Bras

   Serpa São Gens

   Setubal São Filipe

   Sousel São Miguel

   Torrao Vale Do Gaio

   Valenca Do Minho São Teotónio

   Viana Do Castelo Monte Santa Luzia

   V. Nova De Cerveira Dom Dinis

   Vila Vicosa Dom João IV

    Azores Islands

   Angra do Heroísmo (Terceira Island) Forte S. Sebastião Horta (Faial Island) Forte S. Cruz

    Presepio

   The history of displaying nativity scenes, portraying the birth of Christ in a manger, goes back in Catholic tradition at least to Christmas 1223, when Saint Francis of Assisi arranged a nativity scene with live figures in a town in Italy, but scholars confirm that this Christmas tradition in the arts is much older than the 13th century. Figurines depicting the Holy Family in nativity scenes were made of various materials, including wood, precious metals, and ceramics. In Portugal, an artistic tradition of making and displaying presepios in or near churches, chapels, and cathedrals reached its zenith in the arts in the 18th century during the long reign of King João V (1706-50). In the Baroque era, an artistic tradition that arrived somewhat late in Portugal, the most celebrated and talented of the nativity scene artists was the 18th-century Coimbra sculptor, Joaquim Machado de Castro (1751/2-1822), but there were other great artists in this field as well. The 18th century's most celebrated sculptor, Machado de Castro created the famous equestrian bronze statue of King José I, in Commerce Square, Lisbon. During the time of Machado de Castro's time, the ceramic nativity scene comprised of large figures and elaborate scenery became a cult, and many nativity scenes were made.

   Today, many of these historic artistic creations, with a strong basis in Christian tradition, can be viewed in various Portuguese museums, palaces, and churches. Some of the most famous larger nativity scenes, including those lovingly created by Machado de Castro of Coimbra, are found on display at Christmas and other times in the Estrela Basilica, the Palace of Necessidades, the Palace of Queluz, the Church of Madre de Deus, the Cathedral in Lisbon, and in other religious or museum buildings in Lisbon, Oporto, and other towns in Portugal. The ceramic nativity scene is not only sacred art but also evolved as folk and now tourist art, as Portuguese nativity scenes, with figures smaller than in the Baroque treasures on display of Machado de Castro, are for sale in a number of stores, as well as in some churches in Lisbon, Oporto, Estremoz, Évora, and other cities. The styles of the nativity scenes vary by region, by town, and by artist, and many include not only sacred figures of the story of the birth of Christ but also traditional, rural, folk figurines depicting Portuguese rural occupations from the 18th and 19th century, as well as figures from stories from the Bible. The ceramic materials of which these figures of varying sizes are made include variations of terracotta.

    See also Necessidades, Palace of and Queluz, National Palace of.

(1929-1987)

   Balladeer, singer, poet, musician, composer, and teacher. Known to the public simply as "Zeca" or "José Afonso," he was a student poet, singer, and musician in the 1950s, and premier interpreter of Coimbra fado, creator of a new school of fado music, and leader of a reform movement in popular music. Using his distinctive musical compositions, appealing baritone singing voice, and iconoclastic lyrics of resistance to tyranny, Afonso Santos employed his poetic and musical gifts as instruments of resistance and opposition to the enduring Estado Novo. Two recorded songs became early shots in this war: Balada de Outono (Autumn's Ballad) and Menino d'Oiro (Golden Boy). With diverse, subversive meanings usually disguised in allegory, his lyrics and style eschewed the traditional Coimbra fado's fare of broad sentiment and unrequited love. Instead, Afonso presented new ballads with contemporary resonance. In the mid-1960s, when so many Portuguese youth were drafted and mobilized for Portugal's colonial wars in Africa, he lived and taught school in Mozambique, where he organized opposition to the regime. Later in that colony, he was arrested by the PIDE.

   After his return to Portugal, Afonso's reputation as a rebel ballad-eer grew; among his most celebrated recorded ballads were Cantigas de Maio (Songs of May, 1971) and Venham Mais Cinco (Five More Came, 1973). His famous revolutionary, rallying song, Grândola, Vila Morena, banned by the Estado Novo before 1974, became the single most famous piece of Portuguese revolutionary music in the second half of the 20th century. Grândola featured Afonso's voice and lyrics and expressed a clearly leftist ideology and resistance to tyranny, to the background sounds of marching feet growing louder. Selected by the coup planners of the Armed Forces Movement as a signal for action, a secret password sign to be played over Lisbon radio at about midnight on 24/25 April 1974, this remarkable song acquired new fame and a place in history as both an actual signal for rebel military operations to begin and an enduring revolutionary rallying cry. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Grândola became the most potent symbol of the move to topple the Estado Novo and open the way for profound change, as well as a musical icon, equaled only by the iconographic red carnation. The first stanza of Afonso's lyrics, translated from the Portuguese, is: Grândola, dark-brown town, Homeland of Brotherhood The people have more power within you, oh city....

(1887-1918)

   Visionary Portuguese painter whose work was the precursor of modern art in Portugal. He was born in Amarante in 1887, into a wealthy family and studied law at Coimbra University. He left Coimbra in 1905, before finishing his law studies, and began studying architecture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Lisbon. He did not find the architecture course stimulating enough and left for Paris in 1906, settling in Montparnasse. At first, he did drawings and caricatures but later dedicated himself to painting. Souza-Cardoso's work can be characterized as impressionist, expressionist, cubist, and futurist. He showed his work in 1910, in Paris, along with Amedeo Modigliani, Constantin Brancusi, and Juan Gris. In 1913, eight of his paintings were displayed at the famous Armory Show in New York City. In 1914, he worked with Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona.

   His time in Spain was ended by the outbreak of the World War I, and he returned to Lisbon, where he began to experiment with new forms of expression. In 1916, he showed 114 cubist works in Oporto and Lisbon. His career was cut short when he contracted pneumonia and died on 25 October 1918. His must famous works are Saut du Lapin (1911), Cabeça (1913), Entrada (1917), and Pintura (1917). In 1935, the Portuguese state established a prize to recognize modernist painters called the "Prémio Souza-Cardoso."