development+method

SUBJECT AREA: Horology

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Le Roy was born into a distinguished horological family: his father, Julien, was Clockmaker to the King. Pierre became Master in 1737 and continued to work with his father, taking over the business when his father died in 1759. However, he seems to have left the commercial side of the business to others so that he could concentrate on developing the marine chronometer. Unlike John Harrison, he believed that the solution lay in detaching the escapement from the balance, and in 1748 he submitted a proposal for the first detached escapement to the Académie des Sciences in Paris. He also differed from Harrison in his method of temperature compensation, which acted directly on the balance by altering its radius of gyration. This was achieved either by mounting thermometers on the balance or by using bimetallic strips which effectively reduced the diameter of the balance as the temperature rose (with refinements, this later became the standard method of temperature compensation in watches and chronometers). Le Roy had already discovered that for every spiral balance spring there was a particular length at which it would be isochronous, and this method of temperature compensation did not destroy that isochronism by altering the length, as other methods did. These innovations were incorporated in a chronometer with an improved detached escapement which he presented to Louis XV in 1766 and described in a memoir to the Académie des Sciences. This instrument contained the three essential elements of all subsequent chronometers: an isochronous balance spring, a detached escapement and a balance with temperature compensation. Its performance was similar to that of Harrison's fourth timepiece, and Le Roy was awarded prizes by the Académie des Sciences for the chronometer and for his memoir. However, his work was never fully appreciated in France, where he was over-shadowed by his rival Ferdinand Berthoud. When Berthoud was awarded the coveted title of Horloger de la Marine, Le Roy became disillusioned and shortly afterwards gave up chronometry and retired to the country.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Lewis Paul, apparently of French Huguenot extraction, was quite young when his father died. His father was Physician to Lord Shaftsbury, who acted as Lewis Paul's guardian. In 1728 Paul made a runaway match with a widow and apparently came into her property when she died a year later. He must have subsequently remarried. In 1732 he invented a pinking machine for making the edges of shrouds out of which he derived some profit.

Why Paul went to Birmingham is unknown, but he helped finance some of Wyatt's earlier inventions. Judging by the later patents taken out by Paul, it is probable that he was the one interested in spinning, turning to Wyatt for help in the construction of his spinning machine because he had no mechanical skills. The two men may have been involved in this as early as 1733, although it is more likely that they began this work in 1735. Wyatt went to London to construct a model and in 1736 helped to apply for a patent, which was granted in 1738 in the name of Paul. The patent shows that Paul and Wyatt had a number of different ways of spinning in mind, but contains no drawings of the machines. In one part there is a description of sets of rollers to draw the cotton out more finely that could have been similar to those later used by Richard Arkwright. However, it would seem that Paul and Wyatt followed the other main method described, which might be called spindle drafting, where the fibres are drawn out between the nip of a pair of rollers and the tip of the spindle; this method is unsatisfactory for continuous spinning and results in an uneven yarn.

The spinning venture was supported by Thomas Warren, a well-known Birmingham printer, Edward Cave of Gentleman's Magazine, Dr Robert James of fever-powder celebrity, Mrs Desmoulins, and others. Dr Samuel Johnson also took much interest. In 1741 a mill powered by two asses was equipped at the Upper Priory, Birmingham, with, machinery for spinning cotton being constructed by Wyatt. Licences for using the invention were sold to other people including Edward Cave, who established a mill at Northampton, so the enterprise seemed to have great promise. A spinning machine must be supplied with fibres suitably prepared, so carding machines had to be developed. Work was in hand on one in 1740 and in 1748 Paul took out another patent for two types of carding device, possibly prompted by the patent taken out by Daniel Bourn. Both of Paul's devices were worked by hand and the carded fibres were laid onto a strip of paper. The paper and fibres were then rolled up and placed in the spinning machine. In 1757 John Dyer wrote a poem entitled The Fleece, which describes a circular spinning machine of the type depicted in a patent taken out by Paul in 1758. Drawings in this patent show that this method of spinning was different from Arkwright's. Paul endeavoured to have the machine introduced into the Foundling Hospital, but his death in early 1759 stopped all further development. He was buried at Paddington on 30 April that year.

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SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

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Soon after his birth, Senefelder's family moved to Mannheim, where his father, an actor, had obtained a position in the state theatre. He was educated there, until he gained a scholarship to the university of Ingolstadt. The young Senefelder wanted to follow his father on to the stage, but the latter insisted that he study law. He nevertheless found time to write short pieces for the theatre. One of these, when he was 18 years old, was an encouraging success. When his father died in 1791, he gave up his studies and took to a new life as poet and actor. However, the wandering life of a repertory actor palled after two years and he settled for the more comfortable pursuit of playwriting. He had some of his work printed, which acquainted him with the art of printing, but he fell out with his bookseller. He therefore resolved to carry out his own printing, but he could not afford the equipment of a conventional letterpress printer. He began to explore other ways of printing and so set out on the path that was to lead to an entirely new method.

He tried writing in reverse on a copper plate with some acid-resisting material and etching the plate, to leave a relief image that could then be inked and printed. He knew that oily substances would resist acid, but it required many experiments to arrive at a composition of wax, soap and charcoal dust dissolved in rainwater. The plates wore down with repeated polishing, so he substituted stone plates. He continued to etch them and managed to make good prints with them, but he went on to make the surprising discovery that etching was unnecessary. If the image to be printed was made with the oily composition and the stone moistened, he found that only the oily image received the ink while the moistened part rejected it. The printing surface was neither raised (as in letterpress printing) nor incised (as in intaglio printing): Senefelder had discovered the third method of printing.

He arrived at a workable process over the years 1796 to 1799, and in 1800 he was granted an English patent. In the same year, lithography (or "writing on stone") was introduced into France and Senefelder himself took it to England, but it was some time before it became widespread; it was taken up by artists especially for high-quality printing of art works. Meanwhile, Senefelder improved his techniques, finding that other materials, even paper, could be used in place of stone. In fact, zinc plates were widely used from the 1820s, but the name "lithography" stuck. Although he won world renown and was honoured by most of the crowned heads of Europe, he never became rich because he dissipated his profits through restless experimenting.

With the later application of the offset principle, initiated by Barclay, lithography has become the most widely used method of printing.

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1 newness (cualidad) (de nuevo).

el nuevo sistema operativo incluye muchas novedades the new operating system incorporates many new features

es igual que el model anterior con la novedad de que utiliza energía solar it is the same as the previous model except that it now uses solar power

novedades new releases; (libros, discos) latest fashion (moda)

2 change (cambio).

desde que te fuiste ha habido muchas novedades en la oficina there have been a lot of changes in the office since you left

3 news (noticia).

sin novedad (singular) without incident; all quiet (military)

4 new thing (cosa nueva).

5 latest news.

6 novelty, novelty value, fad.

7 development, change in situation.

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► nombre femenino

1 (cualidad) newness

2 (cosa nueva) novelty

3 (cambio) change, innovation

■ está introduciendo muchas novedades en el departamento he's making a lot of changes in the department

■ no ha habido ninguna novedad desde que te fuiste nothing has changed since you left

4 (noticia) news

■ ¡vaya una novedad, hace tiempo que lo sabíamos! that's nothing new - we've known for quite a while!

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sin novedad without incident

sin novedad en el frente all's quiet on the Western front

últimas novedades (en ropa) latest fashion sing 2 (en libros, discos) latest releases

* * *

* * *

1) (=cualidad) novelty, newness

2) (=cosa nueva) novelty

3) (=cambio)

4) pl novedades (=noticias) news

* * *

1)

a) ( cosa nueva) innovation

b) ( cualidad) newness, novelty

c) novedades femenino plural novelties (pl)

2)

a) ( noticia)

b) (percance, contratiempo)

* * *

= innovation, recency, up-to-dateness, novelty, hype, the, newness, recentness, new release, advance.

Ex. Accounting for his departures from Panizzi's rules, Jewett explained that some of them were useful 'innovations' and others represented 'modifications adapted to the peculiar character of the system now proposed'.

Ex. The four were: accuracy, content (the breadth or scope), recency (up-to-dateness) and frequency of presentation.

Ex. Up-to-dateness is particularly vital since recent and current information is in heaviest usage.

Ex. IT can motivate children, provide a ' novelty' factor to enliven routine work and serve as a bridge between the classroom and the library.

Ex. However, given the hype about the networking of public libraries in the US, it is perhaps surprising to note that only 21% have some form of connection to the Internet.

Ex. Newness is an intrinsic part of change.

Ex. Such droops cannot be explained as the result of a relatively high scattering, due to the recentness of the topic.

Ex. Attempts to order items can be problematical due to many catalogues no keeping up with deletions and new releases.

Ex. I think that the most important advance that we can look forward to is a great increase in the amount of authority data in MARC form.

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* atractivo de la novedad = novelty appeal, novelty value.

* boletín de novedades = current-awareness publication, current awareness bulletin.

* de última novedad = streamlined.

* información de novedades = press release.

* novedad comercial = industry update.

* novedades = roundup [round-up], daily news alerts, news alerts, roundup of news, roundup of news.

* novedad pasajera = sizzle.

* resumen de novedades = roundup [round-up], roundup of news, roundup of news.

* ser la novedad = be on the scene.

* ser una novedad en el contexto del que se está hablando = be a newcomer to the scene.

* servicio de novedades = alerting device, alerting service, news alerts.

* servicio de novedades a través del correo electrónico = e-mail alert.

* sistema de alerta de novedades tecnológicas = technology watch.

* tienda de novedades = novelty shop.

* últimas novedades de = fresh out from.

* valor de la novedad = novelty value.

* * *

1)

a) ( cosa nueva) innovation

b) ( cualidad) newness, novelty

c) novedades femenino plural novelties (pl)

2)

a) ( noticia)

b) (percance, contratiempo)

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1 (cosa nueva) innovation

la última novedad en el campo de la informática the latest innovation in the field of computing

en este modelo se han introducido algunas novedades some new features have been introduced on this model

la gran novedad para esta temporada the latest idea ( o fashion etc) for this season

todas las novedades en discos all the latest records

2 novedades fpl novelties (pl)

3 (cualidad) newness, novelty

cuando se acaba la novedad when the novelty wears off

(noticia): no es ninguna novedad que viven juntos everybody knows they're living together

¡vaya novedad! ( iró); have you only just heard?, that's hardly news!

¿cómo sigue tu padre? — sin novedad how's your father? — much the same o no change

(percance, contratiempo): llegamos sin novedad we arrived safely o without incident

sin novedad en el frente ( hum); all quiet on the Western front ( hum)

* * *

a) ( innovación) innovation;

◊ la última novedad en el campo de la informática the latest innovation in the field of computing

b) (cualidad, cosa nueva) novelty;

◊ eran una novedad en aquel entonces they were a novelty then

◊ ¿alguna novedad? any news?;

* * *

novedad nf

1. [cosa nueva] new thing;

el nuevo sistema operativo incluye muchas novedades the new operating system incorporates many new features;

es igual que el model anterior con la novedad de que utiliza energía solar it is the same as the previous model except that it now uses solar power

2.

3. [cualidad] [de nuevo] newness;

4. [cambio] change;

el enfermo evoluciona sin novedad there has been no change in the patient's condition;

desde que te fuiste ha habido muchas novedades en la oficina there have been a lot of changes in the office since you left

5. [noticia] news [singular];

sin novedad [sin contratiempo] without incident;

sin novedad en el frente there's nothing to report

* * *

1 novelty

2 cosa new thing; acontecimiento new development;

sin novedad no change, same as always;

llegar sin novedad arrive safely

3 ( noticia) piece of news

* * *

novedad nf

1) : newness, novelty

2) : innovation

* * *

novedad n

1. (cambio) change

2. (noticia) news

3. (producto) latest product

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Metallurgy

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Coolidge obtained his BS from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1896, and his PhD (physics) from the University of Leipzig in 1899. He was appointed Assistant Professor of Physics at MIT in 1904, and in 1905 he joined the staff of the General Electric Company's research laboratory at Schenectady. In 1905 Schenectady was trying to make tungsten-filament lamps to counter the competition of the tantalum-filament lamps then being produced by their German rival Siemens. The first tungsten lamps made by Just and Hanaman in Vienna in 1904 had been too fragile for general use. Coolidge and his life-long collaborator, Colin G. Fink, succeeded in 1910 by hot-working directly dense sintered tungsten compacts into wire. This success was the result of a flash of insight by Coolidge, who first perceived that fully recrystallized tungsten wire was always brittle and that only partially work-hardened wire retained a measure of ductility. This grasped, a process was developed which induced ductility into the wire by hot-working at temperatures below those required for full recrystallization, so that an elongated fibrous grain structure was progressively developed. Sintered tungsten ingots were swaged to bar at temperatures around 1,500°C and at the end of the process ductile tungsten filament wire was drawn through diamond dies around 550°C. This process allowed General Electric to dominate the world lamp market. Tungsten lamps consumed only one-third the energy of carbon lamps, and for the first time the cost of electric lighting was reduced to that of gas. Between 1911 and 1914, manufacturing licences for the General Electric patents had been granted for most of the developed work. The validity of the General Electric monopoly was bitterly contested, though in all the litigation that followed, Coolidge's fibering principle was upheld. Commercial arrangements between General Electric and European producers such as Siemens led to the name "Osram" being commonly applied to any lamp with a drawn tungsten filament. In 1910 Coolidge patented the use of thoria as a particular additive that greatly improved the high-temperature strength of tungsten filaments. From this development sprang the technique of "dispersion strengthening", still being widely used in the development of high-temperature alloys in the 1990s. In 1913 Coolidge introduced the first controllable hot-cathode X-ray tube, which had a tungsten target and operated in vacuo rather than in a gaseous atmosphere. With this equipment, medical radiography could for the first time be safely practised on a routine basis. During the First World War, Coolidge developed portable X-ray units for use in field hospitals, and between the First and Second World Wars he introduced between 1 and 2 million X-ray machines for cancer treatment and for industrial radiography. He became Director of the Schenectady laboratory in 1932, and from 1940 until 1944 he was Vice-President and Director of Research. After retirement he was retained as an X-ray consultant, and in this capacity he attended the Bikini atom bomb trials in 1946. Throughout the Second World War he was a member of the National Defence Research Committee.

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• Более серьезная трудность это... - A more formidable difficulty is that of...

• Все эти трудности исчезают, когда... - These complications disappear altogether when...

• Вследствие практических трудностей в... - Because of the practical difficulties involved in...

• Данная трудность возникает из того факта, что... - The difficulty arises from the fact that...

• Действительная трудность лежит в нашем недостаточном знании... - The real difficulty lies in our inadequate knowledge of...

• Для преодоления этой трудности был разработан один метод. - One method has been advanced for overcoming this difficulty.

• Если мы пытаемся избежать этой трудности... - If we try to escape this difficulty by...

• Здесь мы должны упомянуть о двух трудностях, связанных с... - Two difficulties associated with... should be mentioned here.

• К счастью, эту трудность можно преодолеть (следующим образом)... - Fortunately, this difficulty can be overcome by...

• Как мы обойдем все эти трудности? - How do we get around these difficulties?

• Мы избежали эти трудности, предположив, что... - We avoid these difficulties by assuming that...

• Мы можем удалить эту трудность (путем)... - We can remove the difficulty by...

• Мы удалим эту трудность, используя... - We remove this difficulty by using...

• Один выход из этой трудности (= из этого затруднения) заключается в том, чтобы... - One way out of this difficulty is to...

• Одна из трудностей, обнаруженных в данном методе, состоит в том, что... - One of the difficulties encountered in this method is that...

• Однако (еще) остаются две трудности. - Two difficulties remain, however.

• Однако в особых случаях эту трудность

(= затруднение) можно обойти. - In special cases, however, this difficulty may be circumvented.

• Однако здесь мы встречаем трудность вследствие/из-за... - At this point, however, we encounter a difficulty due to...

• Однако мы можем обойти эту трудность... - However, we can circumvent the difficulty by...

• Однако эта интерпретация вскоре натолкнулась на серьезные трудности, когда было открыто, что... - This interpretation, however, soon encountered serious difficulties when it was discovered that...

• Опытные исследователи испытывают лишь небольшие трудности, оценивая... - Experienced investigators have little difficulty estimating...

• Основная трудность эксперимента проистекает из... - The main experimental difficulty arises from...

• Первая трудность проявляется, как только мы попытаемся... - The first difficulty comes to light as soon as we attempt to...

• Первая трудность состоит в том, что... - The first difficulty is that...

• Подобные трудности часто встречаются на практике. - Such difficulties often arise in practice.

• Серьезная трудность в большинстве лабораторных измерений возникает из-за того, что... - A severe complication in most laboratory measurements arises from...

• Следовательно, в связи с... не возникает никаких трудностей. - Therefore, no difficulties arise in connection with...

• Техника для преодоления данной трудности состоит в том, чтобы... - The technique for overcoming the difficulty is to...

• Трудности возникают, как только мы пытаемся... - Difficulties occur as soon as we try to...

• Трудности на пути решения этой задачи чрезвычайно велики. - The difficulties to be surmounted are great.

• Трудности этого экспериментирования становятся ясными, когда понимаешь, что... - The experimental difficulties become apparent when one realizes that...

• Трудность возникает, когда... - A difficulty arises when...

• Трудность заключается в... - The difficulty is that...

• Трудность, которую мы обсуждали, не возникнет, если... - The difficulty we have been discussing will not arise if...

• Чтобы избавиться от этих трудностей, мы будем... - In order to avoid these difficulties, we shall...

• Чтобы избежать этой трудности, можно представить, что... - То obviate this difficulty it may be imagined that...

• Чтобы обойти эту трудность, мы вынуждены прибегнуть к... - То get around this difficulty, we resort to...

• Чтобы попытаться исключить эту трудность, давайте предположим, что... - In an attempt to remove this difficulty, let us assume that...

• Чтобы устранить трудности... - То avoid difficulties,...

• Эта трудность возникает вследствие использования... - This difficulty arises from the use of...

• Эту трудность можно преодолеть, делая/ производя... - This difficulty is overcome by making...

• Эти трудности мотивировали формулировку приближенных теорий, чтобы описать... - These complications have motivated the formulation of approximate theories to describe...

• Эти фундаментальные трудности повлияли на развитие... - These fundamental difficulties have influenced the development of...

• Это доставило трудности при проектировании... - This presented a difficulty in the design of...

• Это не приводит ни к каким концептуальным трудностям, однако... - This introduces no conceptual difficulties, but...

• Это причиняет некоторую трудность при выборе... - This causes some difficulty in the choice of...

• Этой трудности можно избежать... - This difficulty can be circumvented by...

• Эту трудность можно преодолеть (путем)... - This difficulty can be overcome by...

• Эту трудность невозможно преодолеть (способом)... - The difficulty cannot be overcome by...

• Эту трудность невозможно преодолеть (способом)... - The difficulty is not overcome by...

1 degree.

grado centígrado degree centigrade

2 degree.

quemaduras de primer grado first-degree burns

mostró un alto grado de preparación he was very well prepared

en menor grado to a lesser extent o degree

en grado sumo greatly

3 grade (rango).

4 year, class (education).

5 score, grade.

1^st person singular (yo) present indicative of spanish verb: gradar.

* * *

► nombre masculino

1 (gen) degree

■ estábamos a 27 grados it was 27 degrees

2 (estado) stage

3 EDUCACIÓN (curso) class, year, US grade

4 EDUCACIÓN (título) degree

5 (peldaño) step

6 MILITAR rank

7 LINGÚÍSTICA degree

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de buen grado willingly, with good grace

de mal grado unwillingly, with bad grace

en sumo grado to the highest degree

en tal grado so much so

* * *

1) degree

2) grade

3) extent

* * *

1) (=nivel) degree

2) (Geog, Mat, Fís) degree

3) [de escalafón] grade; (Mil) rank

4) (=etapa) stage

5) esp LAm (Educ) (=curso) year, grade (EEUU); (=título) degree

6) (Ling) degree of comparison

7) (=gusto)

8) [de escalera] step

9) pl grados (Rel) minor orders

* * *

1)

a) (nivel, cantidad) degree

b) ( de parentesco) degree

2) ( de escalafón) grade

3) ( disposición)

4)

a) (Fís, Meteo) degree

b) (Geog, Mat) degree

c) (Vin) degree

- grado centígrado or Celsius/Fahrenheit

5)

a) (esp AmL) (Educ) (curso, año) year

b) ( título)

* * *

= degree, extent, index [indices/indexes, -pl.], magnitude, range, rate, scale, to what extent, grade, quotient, degree.

Ex. This degree of standardisation is not the pattern outside of this specific area of application.

Ex. The extent of searchable elements will vary from one data base to another.

Ex. As job anxiety scores increased, job satisfaction indices decreased.

Ex. Only those who have attempted to edit the proceedings of a conference can appreciate the magnitude and scope of such an enterprise.

Ex. Overall, the library media specialists experienced stress in the mild to moderate range.

Ex. Whether, in the future, the co-operatives will be able to fund appropriate developments at a sufficiently rapid rate remains an unanswered question.

Ex. Various scales of relevance ratings may be established.

Ex. Clearly an index must permit access to a document by its central theme, but, to what extent should access be provided to secondary or subsidiary topics considered within a document?.

Ex. The project is concerned with the investigation of conditions of appointment for women librarians as well as the grades and salary scales assigned to library tasks.

Ex. One reads, for instance, that a parameter in assessing the maximum period a user can be kept waiting is the 'aggravation quotient'.

Ex. In cartography reference system is the method by which one can locate a place on a map, eg (a) degrees of latitude and longitude; (b) a grid reference.

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* alumno de cuarto grado = fourth grader.

* asesinato en primer grado = first-degree murder.

* bebida alcohólica con muchos grados = hard drink, hard liquor.

* cada vez en mayor grado = ever-increasing.

* cierto grado de = a degree of.

* de buen grado = willing, good-humouredly, good-humoured, good-naturedly.

* de grado básico = junior grade.

* delito de menor grado = misdemeanour [misdimeanor, -USA].

* de primer grado = in the first degree.

* de segundo grado = second-degree, in the second degree.

* el grado de = the extent of.

* el grado de + Nombre = the breadth and depth of + Nombre.

* el grado en que = the extent to which.

* en cierto grado = something of.

* en diferente grado = differing, in varying measures.

* en distinto grado = in varying measures, differing, to varying degrees.

* en diverso grado = to varying degrees.

* en diversos grados = to varying extents.

* en este grado = to this extent.

* en grado mínimo = minimally.

* en mayor grado = to a greater degree, a fortiori, to a greater extent, to a larger degree, to a larger extent.

* en mayor o menor grado = to a greater or lesser degree.

* en menor grado = to a lesser extent, to a lesser degree.

* en sumo grado = in the extreme.

* en tercer grado = in the third degree.

* en un grado bastante aceptable = to a fair extent.

* en un grado sumo = in the extreme.

* escala que consta de nueve grados = nine-point scale.

* girar 180 grados = move + 180 degrees.

* grado centígrado (ºC) = degree centigrade (ºC).

* grado de aceptación = acceptance rate.

* grado de acidez = pH, ph value.

* grado de adecuación = degree of fit.

* grado de citación = citedness.

* grado de cobertura = depth of coverage.

* grado de coincidencia entre el tema de un documento y el tema de búsqueda = topicality.

* grado de compleción = completeness.

* grado de escepticismo = degree of skepticism.

* grado de integración = scale of integration.

* grado de no citación = uncitedness.

* grado de pertinencia = recall tendency.

* grado de precisión = degree of detail.

* grado de proximidad entre dos = betweenness.

* grado de relación = relatedness measure.

* grado medio = middle grade.

* grado superlativo = superlative.

* hasta tal grado que = so much so that.

* salón de grados = conference room.

* tomarse Algo de buen grado = take + Nombre + in good humour.

* un cierto grado de = a certain amount of, a modicum of.

* vida + dar un giro de 180 grados = turn + Posesivo + life around.

* * *

1)

a) (nivel, cantidad) degree

b) ( de parentesco) degree

2) ( de escalafón) grade

3) ( disposición)

4)

a) (Fís, Meteo) degree

b) (Geog, Mat) degree

c) (Vin) degree

- grado centígrado or Celsius/Fahrenheit

5)

a) (esp AmL) (Educ) (curso, año) year

b) ( título)

* * *

* * *

1 (nivel, cantidad) degree

otro ejemplo del grado de confusión reinante another example of the degree of confusion that prevails

depende del grado de libertad que tengan it depends on how much freedom o the degree of freedom they enjoy

el asunto se ha complicado en or ( AmL) a tal grado que no le veo solución things have become so complicated that I can't see any solution

en grado sumo: la noticia me preocupó en grado sumo the news worried me greatly o caused me great concern

nos complace en grado sumo poder comunicarle que … it gives us great pleasure to be able to inform you that …

2 (de parentesco) degree

son primos en segundo grado they are second cousins

B (de escalafón) grade

un oficial de grado superior a high-ranking officer

medio¹ (↑ medio (1))

(disposición): de buen grado readily, willingly, with good grace

de mal grado reluctantly, unwillingly, with bad grace

1 [ Vocabulary notes (Spanish) ] ( Fís, Meteo) degree

estamos a tres grados bajo cero it's three degrees below zero, it's minus three degrees

2 ( Geog, Mat) degree

a un ángulo de 60 grados at an angle of 60 degrees, at a 60° angle

25 grados de latitud/longitud 25 degrees latitude/longitude

3 ( Vin) degree

un vino de 12 grados a 12% proof wine

degree centigrade o Celsius

degree Fahrenheit

1 ( esp AmL) ( Educ) (curso, año) year, grade ( AmE), form ( BrE)

(título): tiene el grado de licenciado he has a college degree ( AmE), he has a university degree ( BrE)

F ( Ling) degree

grado positivo/comparativo positive/comparative degree

G ( Der) stage

el juicio se halla en grado de apelación/revisión the trial is at the appeal/review stage

* * *

◊ estamos a tres grados bajo cero it's three degrees below zero;

◊ de buen/mal grado willingly/unwillingly

a) (esp AmL) (Educ) (curso, año) year

b) ( título):

◊ tiene el grado de licenciado he has a college (AmE) o (BrE) university degree

* * *

grado nm

1. [de temperatura] degree

grado centígrado degree centigrade;

grado Fahrenheit degree Fahrenheit;

grado Kelvin kelvin

2. [de alcohol]

alcohol de 90 grados 90 degree proof alcohol

3. [índice, nivel] degree;

el candidato mostró un alto grado de preparación the candidate was very well prepared;

un fenómeno que afecta en menor grado a las ciudades a phenomenon that affects cities to a lesser extent o degree;

eso depende del grado de intransigencia de la gente that depends on how prepared people are to compromise;

están examinando su grado de ceguera they're checking to see how blind she is;

la situación empeoró en tal o Am [m5]a tal grado que… the situation deteriorated to such a degree o to such an extent that…;

en grado sumo greatly

4. [en escala] degree;

quemaduras de primer grado first-degree burns;

asesinato en segundo grado second-degree murder

5. [rango] grade;

es primo mío en segundo grado he's my second cousin

6. Mil rank

7. Educ [año] year, class, US grade

8. Educ [título] degree;

obtuvo el grado de doctor he obtained his doctorate

9. Ling degree

grado superlativo superlative degree

10. Mat [de ángulo] degree

11. Mat [de ecuación]

12. [voluntad]

te lo prestaré de buen grado I'd be happy to lend it to you

* * *

1 degree;

de primer grado quemaduras first-degree

de buen grado with good grace, readily;

de mal grado with bad grace, reluctantly

* * *

grado nm

1) : degree (in meteorology and mathematics)

grado centígrado: degree centigrade

2) : extent, level, degree

en grado sumo: greatly, to the highest degree

3) rango: rank

4) : year, class (in education)

de buen grado : willingly, readily

* * *

grado n degree

 There are several sources of error in the method of molecular weight determination.

 Current attempts at development of new methods are in the direction of determining the alkaloids by a calorimetric method.

 Photometric measurements have been made a basis for the quantitative estimation of DNA.

 A portion of this deviation at the higher temperatures is the result of differences in defining the fracture initiation point.

— используется определение

— не поддающийся определению

— не подпадать под определение

— определение влияния каждой переменной в отдельности

— определение неисправности

— определение ответственности

— определение первоочерёдности

— определение, принятое в настоящей статье

— определение размеров

— определение характеристик

— по определению представляет собой

— подробное определение

— поскольку точное определение... было сопряжено с некоторыми трудностями

— существует множество самых разных определений

— трудно дать точное определение

1. a method of recovering (deducting or writing off) the capital costs of intangible assets over a fixed period of time.

For tax purposes, the distinction is not always made between amortization and depreciation, yet amortization remains a viable financial accounting concept in its own right.

     It is computed using the straight-line method of depreciation: divide the initial cost of the intangible asset by the estimated useful life of that asset.

For example, if it costs $10,000 to acquire a patent and it has an estimated useful life of 10 years, the amortized amount per year is $1,000.

     The amount of amortization accumulated since the asset was acquired appears on the organization’s balance sheet as a deduction under the amortized asset.

     While that formula is straightforward, amortization can also incorporate a variety of noncash charges to net earnings and/or asset values, such as depletion, write-offs, prepaid expenses, and deferred charges. Accordingly, there are many rules to regulate how these charges appear on financial statements. The rules are different in each country, and are occasionally changed, so it is necessary to stay abreast of them and rely on expert advice.

     For financial reporting purposes, an intangible asset is amortized over a period of years. The amortizable life—“useful life”—of an intangible asset is the period over which it gives economic benefit.

     Intangibles that can be amortized can include:

      Copyrights, based on the amount paid either to purchase them or to develop them internally, plus the costs incurred in producing the work (wages or materials, for example). At present, a copyright is granted to a corporation for 75 years, and to an individual for the life of the author plus 50 years. However, the estimated useful life of a copyright is usually far less than its legal life, and it is generally amortized over a fairly short period;

     Cost of a franchise, including any fees paid to the franchiser, as well legal costs or expenses incurred in the acquisition. A franchise granted for a limited period should be amortized over its life. If the franchise has an indefinite life, it should be amortized over a reasonable period not to exceed 40 years;

     Covenants not to compete: an agreement by the seller of a business not to engage in a competing business in a certain area for a specific period of time. The cost of the not-tocompete covenant should be amortized over the period covered by the covenant unless its estimated economic life is expected to be less;

     Easement costs that grant a right of way may be amortized if there is a limited and specified life; Organization costs incurred when forming a corporation or a partnership, including legal fees, accounting services, incorporation fees, and other related services.

     Organization costs are usually amortized over 60 months;

     Patents, both those developed internally and those purchased. If developed internally, a patent’s “amortizable basis” includes legal fees incurred during the application process. A patent should be amortized over its legal life or its economic life, whichever is the shorter;

     Trademarks, brands, and trade names, which should be written off over a period not to exceed 40 years;

     Other types of property that may be amortized include certain intangible drilling costs, circulation costs, mine development costs, pollution control facilities, and reforestation expenditures;

     Certain intangibles cannot be amortized, but may be depreciated using a straight-line approach if they have “determinable” useful life. Because the rules are different in each country and are subject to change, it is essential to rely on specialist advice.

2. the repayment of the principal and interest on a loan in equal amounts over a period of time

SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

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Having completed his studies at the Technological Institute in Stockholm and the Mining School at Falun, Crælius was awarded a grant by the Swedish Jernkontoret and in 1879 he travelled to Germany, France and Belgium in order to study technological aspects of the mining, iron and steel industries. In the same year he went to the United States, where he worked with an iron works in Colorado and a mining company in Nevada. In 1884, having returned to Sweden, he obtained an appointment in the Norberg mines; two years later, he took up employment at the Ängelsberg oilmill.

His mining experience had shown him the demand for a reliable, handy and cheap method of drilling, particularly for prospecting purposes. He had become acquainted with modern drilling methods in America, possibly including Albert Fauck's drilling jar. In 1886, Crælius designed his first small-diameter drill, which was assembled in one unit. Its rotating boring rod, smooth on the outside, was fixed inside a hollow mandrel which could be turned in any direction. This first drill was hand-driven, but the hydraulic version of it became the prototype for all near-surface prospecting drills in use worldwide in the late twentieth century.

Between 1890 and 1900 Crælius was managing director of the Morgårdshammar mechanical workshops, where he was able to continue the development of his drilling apparatus. He successfully applied diesel engines in the 1890s, and in 1895 he added diamond crowns to the drill. The commercial exploitation of the invention was carried out by Svenska Diamantbergborrings AB, of which Crælius was a director from its establishment in 1886.

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See also: Fauvelle, Pierre-Pascal

SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology

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Constrained by poverty despite displaying considerable gifts, particularly in the realm of mathematics, he became a surgeon in the Prussian Army but was able to undertake research; in 1842 he wrote a thesis on the discovery of nerve cells in ganglia. He became Professor of Physiology in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) in 1849. moving to a similar post in Bonn in 1855, to Heidelberg in 1858, and the Chair of Physic in Berlin in 1871. This latter included the directorship of the physicotechnical institute at Charlottenburg.

His investigations over the years encompassed almost the whole field of science, including physiology, physiological optics, physiological acoustics, chemistry, mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoretical mechanics. He also made important additions to the understanding of putrefaction and fermentation.

Helmholtz's contributions to the understanding of vision and optics ranged widely, but one of the most significant was the definitive development of the ophthalmoscope in 1851. Incorporating some of the aspects of Babbage's original suggestions (which were not brought to practical fruition), his instrument inaugurated a new diagnostic era in ophthalmology, particularly when his method of direct ophthalmoscopy was supplemented by the indirect method of Ruete. His personal life was uneventful, in contrast to his inventive achievements, which were perhaps unequalled in scope in his century. Michael Faraday's tribute, "the absolute simplicity, modesty and untroubled purity of his disposition had a charm such as I have never encountered in another man", is therefore all the more to be valued.

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SUBJECT AREA: Architecture and building, Civil engineering

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Hennébique was an important leader in experimenting with various ways of reinforcing concrete with iron and steel. He set up his own firm in 1867, so acquiring valuable experience in the number of commissions that he carried out when using this material. He patented his own invention in 1892; this was for a method of using hooked connections for reinforcing-bars of iron and steel. England lagged behind France in developing the use of reinforced concrete as a structural material: it was Hennébique who was most influential in changing this situation. He had used his new method of reinforcement in the construction of the Spinning Mills at Tourcoing in France in 1895, and he was commissioned by Weaver \& Co., who wished to build a new flour mill in Swansea: the mill was completed in 1898. Soon after, both Hennébique and Coignet established London offices for developing their constructional techniques in England.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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After completing his early education in Weimar, Zeiss became an apprentice to the engineer Dr Frederick Koerner. As part of his training, Zeiss was required to travel widely and he visited Vienna, Berlin, Stuttgart and Darmstadt to study his trade. In 1846 he set up a business of his own, an optical workshop in Jena, where he began manufacturing magnifying glasses and microscopes. Much of his work was naturally for the university there and he had the co-operation of some of the University staff in the development of precision instruments. By 1858 he was seeking to make more expensive compound microscopes, but he found the current techniques primitive and laborious. He decided that it was necessary to introduce scientific method to the design of the optics, and in 1866 he sought the advice of a professor of physics at the University of Jena, Ernst Abbe (1840–1905). It took Zeiss until 1869 to persuade Abbe to join his company, and two difficult years were spent working on the calculations before success was achieved. Within a few more years the Zeiss microscope had earned a worldwide reputation for quality. Abbe became a full partner in the Zeiss business in 1875. In 1880 Abbe began an association with Friedrich Otte Schott that was to lead to the establishment of the famous Jena glass works in 1884. With the support of the German government, Jena was to become the centre of world production of new optical glasses for photographic objectives.

In 1886 the distinguished mathematician and optician Paul Rudolph joined Zeiss at Jena. After Zeiss's death, Rudolph went on to use the characteristics of the new glass to calculate the first anastigmatic lenses. Immediately successful and widely imitated, the anastigmats were also the first of a long series of Zeiss photographic objectives that were to be at the forefront of lens design for years to come. Abbe took over the management of the company and developed it into an internationally famous organization.

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JW / RTS

   1) The Value of Modern Analytical Empiricism

   Modern analytical empiricism... differs from that of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume by its incorporation of mathematics and its development of a powerful logical technique. It is thus able, in regard to certain problems, to achieve definite answers, which have the quality of science rather than of philosophy. It has the advantage, as compared with the philosophies of the system-builders, of being able to tackle its problems one at a time, instead of having to invent at one stroke a block theory of the whole universe. Its methods, in this respect, resemble those of science. I have no doubt that, in so far as philosophical knowledge is possible, it is by such methods that it must be sought: I also have no doubt that, by these methods, many ancient problems are completely soluble.... Take such questions as: What is number? What are space and time? What is mind, and what is matter? I do not say that we can here and now give definitive answers to all these ancient questions, but I do say that a method has been discovered by which, as in science, we can make successive approximations to the truth, in which each new stage results from an improvement, not a rejection, of what has gone before. (Russell, 1961, pp. 788-789)

   2) The Grand Theses of Logical Empiricism Have Not Turned out to Be Correct

   Not a single one of the great theses of Logical Empiricism (that Meaning is Method of Verification; that metaphysical propositions are literally without sense; that Mathematics is True by Convention) has turned out to be correct. It detracts from the excitement of the fact that, by turning philosophical theses into linguistic ones [as Carnap had tried to do]... one can make philosophy more scientific and settle the truth value of philosophical propositions by hard scientific research, if the results one obtains are uniformly negative. (Putnam, 1975, p. 20)

   1) I Am a Thinking Thing

   But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, [conceives], affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. (Descartes, 1951, p. 153)

   2) Thinking Is Not Independent of the Expression of Thought

   I have been trying in all this to remove the temptation to think that there "must be" a mental process of thinking, hoping, wishing, believing, etc., independent of the process of expressing a thought, a hope, a wish, etc.... If we scrutinize the usages which we make of "thinking," "meaning," "wishing," etc., going through this process rids us of the temptation to look for a peculiar act of thinking, independent of the act of expressing our thoughts, and stowed away in some particular medium. (Wittgenstein, 1958, pp. 41-43)

   3) The Experimental Differentiation of Concrete and Propositional Operations

   Analyse the proofs employed by the subject. If they do not go beyond observation of empirical correspondences, they can be fully explained in terms of concrete operations, and nothing would warrant our assuming that more complex thought mechanisms are operating. If, on the other hand, the subject interprets a given correspondence as the result of any one of several possible combinations, and this leads him to verify his hypotheses by observing their consequences, we know that propositional operations are involved. (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 279)

   4) In Every Age, Philosophical Thinking Exploits Some Dominant Concepts

   In every age, philosophical thinking exploits some dominant concepts and makes its greatest headway in solving problems conceived in terms of them. The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophers construed knowledge, knower, and known in terms of sense data and their association. Descartes' self-examination gave classical psychology the mind and its contents as a starting point. Locke set up sensory immediacy as the new criterion of the real... Hobbes provided the genetic method of building up complex ideas from simple ones... and, in another quarter, still true to the Hobbesian method, Pavlov built intellect out of conditioned reflexes and Loeb built life out of tropisms. (S. Langer, 1962, p. 54)

   5) The Experimental Differentiation of Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

   Experiments on deductive reasoning show that subjects are influenced sufficiently by their experience for their reasoning to differ from that described by a purely deductive system, whilst experiments on inductive reasoning lead to the view that an understanding of the strategies used by adult subjects in attaining concepts involves reference to higher-order concepts of a logical and deductive nature. (Bolton, 1972, p. 154)

   6) The Power of Machine Thought

   There are now machines in the world that think, that learn and create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in the visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied. (Newell & Simon, quoted in Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 138)

   7) Thinking Is Sometimes Accompanied by Action and Sometimes Not

   But how does it happen that thinking is sometimes accompanied by action and sometimes not, sometimes by motion, and sometimes not? It looks as if almost the same thing happens as in the case of reasoning and making inferences about unchanging objects. But in that case the end is a speculative proposition... whereas here the conclusion which results from the two premises is an action.... I need covering; a cloak is a covering. I need a cloak. What I need, I have to make; I need a cloak. I have to make a cloak. And the conclusion, the "I have to make a cloak," is an action. (Nussbaum, 1978, p. 40)

   8) The Growth of Philosophy

   It is well to remember that when philosophy emerged in Greece in the sixth century, B.C., it did not burst suddenly out of the Mediterranean blue. The development of societies of reasoning creatures-what we call civilization-had been a process to be measured not in thousands but in millions of years. Human beings became civilized as they became reasonable, and for an animal to begin to reason and to learn how to improve its reasoning is a long, slow process. So thinking had been going on for ages before Greece-slowly improving itself, uncovering the pitfalls to be avoided by forethought, endeavoring to weigh alternative sets of consequences intellectually. What happened in the sixth century, B.C., is that thinking turned round on itself; people began to think about thinking, and the momentous event, the culmination of the long process to that point, was in fact the birth of philosophy. (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 1980, p. xi)

   9) Thought Is, in Great Part, a Public Activity

   The way to look at thought is not to assume that there is a parallel thread of correlated affects or internal experiences that go with it in some regular way. It's not of course that people don't have internal experiences, of course they do; but that when you ask what is the state of mind of someone, say while he or she is performing a ritual, it's hard to believe that such experiences are the same for all people involved.... The thinking, and indeed the feeling in an odd sort of way, is really going on in public. They are really saying what they're saying, doing what they're doing, meaning what they're meaning. Thought is, in great part anyway, a public activity. (Geertz, quoted in J. Miller, 1983, pp. 202-203)

    10) In Thinking, Everything Needs to Be Made as Simple as Possible

   Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Einstein, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 17)

    11) The Conditions for the Construction of Formal Thought

   What, in effect, are the conditions for the construction of formal thought? The child must not only apply operations to objects-in other words, mentally execute possible actions on them-he must also "reflect" those operations in the absence of the objects which are replaced by pure propositions. Thus, "reflection" is thought raised to the second power. Concrete thinking is the representation of a possible action, and formal thinking is the representation of a representation of possible action.... It is not surprising, therefore, that the system of concrete operations must be completed during the last years of childhood before it can be "reflected" by formal operations. In terms of their function, formal operations do not differ from concrete operations except that they are applied to hypotheses or propositions [whose logic is] an abstract translation of the system of "inference" that governs concrete operations. (Piaget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 237)

    12) Language Enables the Rehearsal of Thought and, Thereby, Commitment to Long- Term Memory

   [E]ven a human being today (hence, a fortiori, a remote ancestor of contemporary human beings) cannot easily or ordinarily maintain uninterrupted attention on a single problem for more than a few tens of seconds. Yet we work on problems that require vastly more time. The way we do that (as we can observe by watching ourselves) requires periods of mulling to be followed by periods of recapitulation, describing to ourselves what seems to have gone on during the mulling, leading to whatever intermediate results we have reached. This has an obvious function: namely, by rehearsing these interim results... we commit them to memory, for the immediate contents of the stream of consciousness are very quickly lost unless rehearsed.... Given language, we can describe to ourselves what seemed to occur during the mulling that led to a judgment, produce a rehearsable version of the reaching-a-judgment process, and commit that to long-term memory by in fact rehearsing it. (Margolis, 1987, p. 60)

1) Automobile industry: development of method

2) Advertising: development of methods

• В связи с этим может быть проделано следующее. - In response to this, the following points can be made.

• Вместо того, чтобы пытаться проделать это, мы... - Instead of attempting this, we...

• Дальнейшее продвижение было проделано благодаря... - A further advance was accomplished by...

• Мы проделаем это в несколько шагов, первым из которых является... - We carry this out in several stages, the first of which is...

• Мы сейчас проделаем более систематическое исследование... - We shall now make a more systematic study of...

• Наиболее просто это может быть проделано... - This can be done most easily by...

• Огромная исследовательская работа была проделана для... - A great deal of development work has gone into...; A great deal of development effort has been expended on...

• Однако в данном случае проделать это затруднительно. - In the present situation, however, it is not feasible to do this.

• Одним из не слишком практичных способов проделать это является... - One method of doing this, not a very practical one, is to...

• Основная часть этой работы была проделана в главе 2. - The bulk of the work was done in Chapter 2.

• Прежде чем проделать это, мы заметим, что... - Before we do so we note that...

• Прежде чем проделать это, примем соглашение относительно двух моментов. - Before doing this, let us agree on two things.

• То же самое может быть проделано для любого... - The same can be done for any...

• Только что проделанные вычисления показывают нам, что... - The result just calculated shows us that...

• Чтобы проделать это, мы должны исследовать... - In order to do this we must investigate...

• Это может быть проделано путем преобразования уравнения (1) к следующей форме... - This may be accomplished by rearranging Eq. (1) in the form...

issue, matter, problem, subject.

* * *

► nombre femenino

1 (pregunta) question

2 (asunto) business, matter, question

3 (discusión) dispute, quarrel, argument

\

en cuestión in question

en cuestión de... (tiempo) in just a few..., in a matter of...

■ lo acabaré en cuestión de minutos I'll finish it in a few minutes

eso es otra cuestión that's a whole different matter

la cuestión es que... the thing is that...

ser cuestión de vida o muerte figurado to be a matter of life or death

cuestión candente burning question

* * *

* * *

1) (=asunto) matter, question

2) (=pregunta) question

3) (=duda)

* * *

1)

a) (tema, problema) question, matter

b) (en locs)

2) ( duda)

3) (fam) ( problema) disagreement, problem; (cosa, objeto) thing, thingamajig* (colloq)

* * *

= affair, consideration, enquiry [inquiry, -USA], issue, matter, point, question, topic, business [businesses, -pl.], concern, question.

Ex. And also until Groome appeared, newcomers were a nullity as an active political force, exerting little influence in city affairs.

Ex. This broader consideration of descriptive cataloguing problems serves to set a context for the consideration of cataloguing problems associated with nonbook materials.

Ex. A threshold weight appropriate to the specificity of the searcher's enquiry must be established.

Ex. These issues are reviewed more thoroughly in chapter 10.

Ex. AACR2 generally recommends collocation although it is suggested that the extent of collocation and the need for uniform titles is a matter for local decisions.

Ex. The point being that these systems are very much in their infancy and have a long way to go before they reach the comparable sophistication of space probes and reusable rocketry.

Ex. One argument against including a list of questions is that often analysts will think they are the only questions that might be asked.

Ex. A book index is an alphabetically arranged list of words or terms leading the reader to the numbers of pages on which specific topics are considered, or on which specific names appear.

Ex. I think this whole business about whether punctuation is obtrusive or not is quite honestly not worth discussing.

Ex. Her article lays emphasis on some of the concerns that are important to the continued development of effective information policies.

Ex. The question is not how much time we have, but what we do with it and how we utilize it.

----

* aclarar una cuestión = clarify + matter, clarify + issue.

* adoptar una postura firme ante una cuestión = take + position on + issue.

* analizar una cuestión = explore + question, explore + issue.

* cuestión administrativa = management issue, administrative issue.

* cuestión candente = burning issue, burning question.

* cuestión científica = scientific issue.

* cuestión controvertida = vexed question, vexing question.

* cuestión crítica = critical issue.

* cuestión debatible = debatable point.

* cuestión de importancia = matter of consequence.

* cuestión delicada = sensitive issue.

* cuestión de vida o muerte = life or death issue.

* cuestión difícil = thorny issue, thorny question, poser.

* cuestión económica = economic issue, financial issue.

* cuestiones = matters.

* cuestiones bibliotecarias = library issues.

* cuestiones clave = key issues.

* cuestiones de intendencia = housekeeping.

* cuestiones de reglamento = policy issue.

* cuestiones implicadas = issues involved.

* cuestión específica = topical issue.

* cuestiones poco claras = grey area [gray area].

* cuestiones prácticas = mechanics, how-to.

* cuestiones problemáticas = problem areas.

* cuestiones sociales = social affairs.

* cuestiones técnicas = check + under the hood, crawl + under the hood.

* cuestión ética = ethical issue.

* cuestión financiera = financial issue.

* cuestión + girar en torno a = question + revolve around.

* cuestión histórica = historical issue.

* cuestión imprescindible = imperative.

* cuestión insignificante = matter of no consequence.

* cuestión laboral = work-related issue.

* cuestión legal = legal issue.

* cuestión negociable = negotiable point.

* cuestión peliaguda = sticky issue.

* cuestión personal = life issue, personal issue.

* cuestión polémica = vexed question, vexing question.

* cuestión política = political issue.

* cuestión práctica = practicality.

* cuestión problemática = issue of concern, sticky issue.

* cuestión relacionada con el trabajo = work-related issue.

* cuestión sin importancia = matter of no consequence.

* cuestión sin trascendencia = matter of no consequence.

* cuestión social = social issue, societal issue.

* cuestión + surgir = issue + surface.

* cuestión técnica = technical issue.

* cuestión tecnológica = technological issue.

* debatir una cuestión = discuss + idea, discuss + issue.

* dejar la cuestión abierta = leave + the question open.

* desviarse del tema en cuestión = go off on + another track.

* discutir una cuestión = air + issue.

* el quid de la cuestión = the crux of the problem, the crux of the matter.

* eludir una cuestión = dodge + issue.

* en cuestión = at hand, concerned, in hand, in question, individual, at issue, of concern.

* en cuestión de minutos = within minutes, in a matter of minutes.

* en cuestión de segundos = within seconds, in a matter of seconds.

* en cuestión de + Tiempo = in a matter of + Tiempo, within a matter of + Tiempo.

* en cuestiones de = in matters of.

* enfrentarse a una cuestión = run up against + issue.

* en las cuestiones relacionadas con = in the areas of.

* esa es la cuestión = herein lies the rub, there's the rub.

* esquivar la cuestión = sidestep + the issue.

* esquivar una cuestión = dodge + issue.

* estado de la cuestión = state of the art.

* estudio crítico del estado de la cuestión = review.

* estudio del estado de la cuestión = survey.

* evitar discutir una cuestión = circumvent + issue.

* evitar una cuestión = skirt + issue, tiptoe around + issue.

* exponer una cuestión = raise + point.

* informe del estado de la cuestión = state of the art report, state of the art review.

* la cuestión es que = the thing is.

* la juventud no es cuestión de edad sino de espíritu = you are as old as you feel.

* llegar al fondo de la cuestión = see to the + bottom of things.

* llegar al meollo de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.

* llegar al quid de la cuestión = arrive at + the heart of the matter.

* llevar a hablar de una cuestión = bring up + issue.

* mencionar una cuestión = bring up + matter, bring up + point.

* meollo de la cuestión, el = heart of the matter, the, heart of the question, the.

* no ser cuestión de = there + be + no question of.

* partes en cuestión, las = parties concerned, the.

* plantearle a Alguien una cuestión = put before + Nombre + an issue.

* plantear una cuestión = bring forth + issue, issue + arise, pose + question, raise + argument, raise + issue, raise + point, open up + issue.

* poner en cuestión = call into + question, render + questionable.

* poner en cuestión la validez de = bring into + question the validity of, question + the validity of.

* proyección de cuestiones de interés = issues management.

* quid de la cuestión, el = heart of the matter, the, heart of the question, the.

* relacionado con cuestiones raciales = race-related.

* resolver las cuestiones menores = work out + details.

* resolver una cuestión = resolve + point, resolve + question, issue + settle.

* responder la cuestión = get behind + the question.

* sacar a colación una cuestión = bring up + matter, bring up + issue, bring up + point.

* ser cuestión de = come down to.

* ser la cuestión = be the point.

* ser una cuestión de = be a matter for/of.

* ser una cuestión debatible = be an open question.

* ser una cuestión problemática = be at issue.

* surgir una cuestión = issue + arise, arise + question.

* suscitar una cuestión = evoke + issue, open up + issue.

* tocar una cuestión = touch on/upon + issue.

* tratar la cuestión de = get to + the issue of.

* tratar una cuestión = address + constraint, address + issue, address + question, consider + issue, tackle + issue, address + concern, deal with + issue, broach + issue, broach + question, grapple with + issue.

* tratar una cuestión ligeramente = touch on/upon + issue.

* una cuestión de principios = a matter of principle.

* una cuestión de vida o muerte = a matter of life and death.

* zanjar la cuestión = clinch + the affair, clinch + the argument.

* * *

1)

a) (tema, problema) question, matter

b) (en locs)

2) ( duda)

3) (fam) ( problema) disagreement, problem; (cosa, objeto) thing, thingamajig* (colloq)

* * *

* * *

1 (tema, problema) question, matter

es experto en cuestiones de derecho internacional he is an expert on matters o questions of international law

otra cuestión sería que or si estuviera enfermo if he were ill, that would be another matter o a different matter

llegar al fondo de la cuestión to get to the heart of the matter o issue, to get to the root of the problem

2 ( en locs):

en cuestión in question

el museo en cuestión va a ser clausurado the museum in question is going to be closed

en cuestión de in a matter of

aprendió inglés en cuestión de meses she learnt English in a matter of months

la cuestión es … the thing is …

la cuestión es que no tengo tiempo the problem o thing is that I don't have time

la cuestiónes divertirnos the main thing is to enjoy ourselves

pide por pedir, la cuestión es molestar she asks just for the sake of asking, she only does it to annoy

ser cuestión de to be a matter o question of

es una cuestión de principios it's a matter o question of principle

en taxi es cuestión de diez minutos it's only a ten-minute taxi ride

si fuera cuestión de dinero, no habría problema if it were a question of money, there'd be no problem

todo es cuestión de darle tiempo al tiempo it's just a question of waiting

todo es cuestión de poner atención it's just o all a question of concentrating, it's just o all a matter of concentration

será cuestión de planteárselo y ver we'll just have to put it to him and see

tampoco es cuestión de enloquecernos there's no need to get in a flap ( colloq)

ayúdala, pero tampoco es cuestión de que lo hagas todo tú help her by all means, but there's no reason why you should do it all yourself

(duda): poner algo en cuestión to call sth into question, to raise questions o doubts about sth

este descubrimiento pone en cuestión la validez del método this discovery raises questions about o raises doubts about o calls into question the validity of the method

C ( fam)

1 (problema) disagreement, problem

2 (cosa, objeto) thing, thingamajig* ( colloq)

* * *

a) (tema, problema) question, matter;

◊ cuestiones de derecho internacional matters o questions of international law;

b) ( en locs)

◊ en cuestión in question;

* * *

cuestión nf

1. [pregunta] question

2. [problema] problem;

no es cuestión de tamaño sino de peso it's a question o matter of weight not size

3. [asunto] matter, issue;

una cuestión de honor/de principios a matter of honour/principle;

los investigadores quieren llegar al fondo de la cuestión the investigators want to get to the bottom of the matter;

la cuestión es que no he tenido tiempo the thing is, I haven't had time;

en cuestión in question;

el candidato en cuestión es venezolano the candidate in question is Venezuelan;

tenemos que discutir el tema en cuestión we must discuss the matter at hand;

en cuestión de [en materia de] as regards;

en cuestión de una hora in no more than an hour;

el edificio se hundió en cuestión de segundos the building collapsed in a matter of seconds;

es cuestión de un par de días it is a matter of a couple of days;

ya acabo, es cuestión de cinco minutos I'm nearly finished, I'll only be five minutes;

es cuestión de trabajar más it's a question of working harder;

será cuestión de ir yéndose it's time we were on our way;

será cuestión de esforzarnos más we'll just have to work harder;

no es cuestión de que el abuelo se ponga a hacerlo there's no need for grandad to have to do it

4.

* * *

1 question

2 ( asunto) matter, question;

en cuestión de dinero as far as money is concerned;

no es cuestión de dinero it’s not a question of money;

en cuestión in question;

la cuestión es que the thing is

* * *

cuestión nf, pl - tiones asunto, tema: matter, affair

* * *

cuestión n

1. (asunto) matter

2. (pregunta) question

m. going orﾠ turning orﾠ winding round, revolving, revolution KātyṠr. ;

1) ( хозяйственная деятельность) development [-'vel-]

2) ( использование нового оборудования и технологии) getting on to ( the new technology or equipment)