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declared+conditions

  • 1 условия


    condition(s)
    -, аварийные — emergency conditions
    -, аварийные (выходящие за пределы нормальных эксплуатационных у.) — abnormal conditions
    -, арктические (полярные) — polar conditions
    -, атмосферные — atmospheric conditions
    -, благоприятные — favorable conditions
    - видимостиvisibility conditions
    - визуального полетаcontact conditions

    weather conditions permitting contact flying at a given altitude.
    -, внеародромные — off-field conditions
    -, внешние — environmental conditions
    -, возможные эксплуатационные — expected operating conditions
    одиночный отказ в системе управления реверсом не должен вызывать нежелательного реверсирования тяги при любых возможных эксплуатационных условиях. — no single failure of reversing system will result in unwanted reverse thrust under any expected operating conditions.
    - второстепенной опасностиminor hazard conditions
    табло на рабочем месте правого летчика сигнализируют условия второстепенной опасности, напр., неплотность закрытия люков, дверей. — со-pilot's annunciator panel provides visual indications of minor hazard conditions such as doors and openings not securely closed.
    -, граничные — boundary conditions
    - договора (контракта)terms (of contract)
    -, заданные — predetermined conditions
    нормальная эксплуатация изделия зависит от выполнения заданных условий. — operation of item is dependent on fulfilment of certain predetermined conditions.
    -, заявленные — declared conditions
    -, исключительно благоприятные — exceptionally favorable conditions
    для данного взлета возможно потребуются исключительно благоприятные условия. — the takeoff may require exceptionally favorable conditions.
    - испытанияtest conditions
    - (i, 2) категории икао (метео) — icao category (1,2) weather limits /operating conditions/
    -, метеорологические — weather conditions
    -, наиболее неблагоприятные — lowest (unfavorable) conditions
    - на испытания, технические (раздел "испытание" рр) — test specifications
    -, неблагоприятные — unfavorable /adverse/ conditions
    -, нерасчетные — off-design conditions
    -, не создающие опасности обледенения — non-icing conditions further operation should be continued in non-icing conditions.
    -, нештатные (полета) — abnormal /emergency/ conditions
    - обледененияicing conditions
    безопасность выполнения полета должна обеспечиваться в условиях длительного или кратковременного сильного обледенения. — airplane must be able safely operate in continuous maximum or intermittent maximum icing conditions.
    - обледенения, атмосферные — atmospheric icing conditions
    - обледенения, длительные — continuous icing conditions
    - обледенения (повторнократковременные)intermittent icing conditions
    -, окружающие — environmental conditions
    - первостепенной опасностиmajor hazard conditions
    - плохой видимостиlow visibility conditions
    - по 2 -ой категории икао, метеорологические (наиболее неблагоприятные) — (lowest) icao category ii operating conditions
    -, погодные — weather conditions
    -, полевые — field conditions
    замена двигателя допускается в полевых условиях, — the engine may be removed under field conditions.
    - полетаflight conditions
    - полета, прогнозируемые — expected flight conditions
    -, предполагаемые (полета) — expected (flight) conditions
    - принятые при построении графикаconditions assumed to construct the chart
    -, прогнозируемые — expected conditions
    -, простые метеорологические (пму) — standard meteorological conditions, visual meteorological conditions (vmc)
    - прочности конструкцииstructural strength requirements
    -, расчетные — design conditions
    -, расчетные (как противопоставление стандартным атмосферным условиям) — non-standard conditions
    -, реальные рабочие — actual operating conditions
    - сбалансированной длины вппbalanced takeoff field length conditions
    условия равенства дистанции прерванного взлета и дистанции продолженного взлета. — accelerate-stop distance is equal to continuous takeoff distance.
    - сбалансированной длины разбегаbalanced takeoff run conditions
    условия равенства дистанции прерванного взлета и потребной длины разбега. — accelerate-stop distance is equal to takeoff run required.
    - сильного обледенения — severe /heavy/ icing conditions

    flying in heavy to moderate icing conditions.
    -, сложные метеорологические (сму) — adverse /bad/ weather conditions, instrument meteorological conditions (imc)
    -, стандартные — standard conditions
    условия при стандартных температуре и давлении. — standard conditions require standard temperature and pressure.
    - старта (при взлете)aerodrome conditions
    -, технические (ту) — specifications (spec.)
    -, тропические — tropical conditions
    - умеренного обледененияmoderate icing conditions
    -, умеренные (климатические) — temperate (climatic) conditions
    -, установившиеся — steady conditions
    - устойчивостиstability conditions
    -, фактические эксплуатационные — actual operating conditions
    - храненияstorage conditions
    условия хранения относительно допустимых влажности н температуры. — storage conditions such as humidity and temperature control shall be stated.
    -, штатные (полета) — normal conditions
    -, штилевые — no-wind conditions
    - эксплуатации (эксплуатационные)operating conditions
    в у. — under /in/ conditions
    в соответствии с техническим у. — in conformity with the specifications
    в эксплуатационных у. — under operating conditions
    выполнение у. — fulfilment of conditions
    возникновение (неблагоприятных) у. — occurrence of (abnormal) сonditions
    на у. договора — under the terms of the contract
    отклонение от технических у. — departure from the specifications
    при у. (если) — on condition (that)
    при у. (обстоятельствах) — under condition(s)
    при у. (состояние) — in condition(s)
    работа выполняемая в заводских у. — shop work
    входить в зону сложных (неблагоприятных) метеорологиpenetrate severe weather conditions
    ческих у. — the pilot should become skilled in interpreting the displays before relying wholly on the system to penetrate severe weather conditions.
    выполнять у. — fulfil conditions
    действовать согласно (создавшимся) условиям — act as conditions dictate assist the cabin crew in evacuating passengers as conditions dictate.
    соблюдать у. — observe the conditions
    соблюдать технические у. — meet the specifications
    эксплуатировать в (тропических) у. — operate under (tropical) conditions

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > условия

  • 2 условие

    условие сущ
    condition
    условия сущ
    media
    аварийные условия
    1. emergency conditions
    2. accident conditions акт о нарушении условий
    irregularity report
    атмосферные условия
    atmospheric conditions
    благоприятные условия
    favorable conditions
    взлет в условиях плохой видимости
    low visibility takeoff
    визуальные метеорологические условия
    visual meteorological conditions
    время налета в ночных условиях
    night flying time
    в соответствии с техническими условиями
    in conformity with the specifications
    в условиях обтекания
    airflow conditions
    входить в условия
    penetrate conditions
    выполнять полет в определенных условиях
    fly under conditions
    выполнять условия
    fulfil the conditions
    граничные условия
    boundary conditions
    данные об условиях полета
    flight environment data
    действовать согласно условиям
    act as conditions dictate
    заданные условия
    predetermined conditions
    заданные условия полета
    given conditions of flight
    запрашивать условия
    request instructions
    заход на посадку в условиях ограниченной видимости
    low-visibility approach
    заявленные условия
    declared conditions
    изменение атмосферных условий
    atmospheric variation
    имитатор условий полета
    flight simulator
    имитация полета в натуральных условиях
    full-scale flight
    инструктаж по условиям полета по маршруту
    route briefing
    информация по условиям посадки
    landing instruction
    испытание вертолета в условиях снежного и пыльного вихрей
    rotocraft snow and dust test
    испытание в реальных условиях
    direct test
    испытания на соответствие заданным техническим условиям
    1. proof-of-compliance tests
    2. functional tests исходные условия
    datum conditions
    исходные условия сертификации
    certification reference conditions
    исходные условия сертификации по шуму
    noise certification reference conditions
    летная подготовка в условиях, приближенных к реальным
    line oriental flight training
    механизм для создания условий полета в нестабильной атмосфере
    rough air mechanism
    моделирование условий полета
    flight simulation
    наземные условия
    ground conditions
    наиболее неблагоприятные погодные условия
    lowest weather conditions
    неблагоприятные погодные условия
    adverse weather conditions
    неблагоприятные условия
    unfavorable conditions
    нерасчетные условия
    off-design conditions
    ночные условия
    night-time conditions
    ожидаемые условия
    expected conditions
    ожидаемые условия эксплуатации
    anticipated operating conditions
    опасные погодные условия
    hazardous weather conditions
    опасные условия полета
    hazardous flight conditions
    основные условия перевозки
    general conditions of carriage
    особые условия
    special conditions
    отклонение от технических условий
    departure from specifications
    перевозчик на договорных условиях
    contract carrier
    погодные условия
    weather conditions
    полет в условиях болтанки
    1. bumpy-air flight
    2. turbulent flight полет в условиях отсутствия видимости
    nonvisual flight
    полет в условиях плохой видимости
    low-visibility flight
    полетные условия
    flight conditions
    порядок эксплуатации в зимних условиях
    snow plan
    предупреждение опасных условий полета
    avoidance of hazardous conditions
    при благоприятных условиях
    under fair conditions
    приборные метеорологические условия
    instrument meteorological conditions
    при любых метеорологических условиях
    in all meteorological conditions
    расчетные условия
    1. reference conditions
    2. design conditions расчетные условия торможения
    reference friction conditions
    реальные условия полета
    actual flight conditions
    реальные условия эксплуатации
    field conditions
    скорость в условиях турбулентности
    1. rough-air speed
    2. rough airspeed сложные условия
    severe environment
    соблюдать технические условия
    meet the specifications
    соблюдать условия
    observe the conditions
    способность выполнять посадку в сложных метеорологических условиях
    all-weather landing capability
    технические условия
    technical specification
    указания по условиям эксплуатации в полете
    inflight operational instructions
    условия без радиолокационного контроля
    nonradar environment
    условия взлета
    takeoff conditions
    условия видимости
    visibility conditions
    условия вне зоны аэродрома
    off-field conditions
    условия в полете
    in-flight conditions
    условия в районе аэродрома
    aerodrome environment
    условия в районе ВПП
    runway environment
    условия вылета
    departure requirements
    условия выполнения воздушных перевозок
    air traffic environment
    условия контракта
    contract conditions
    условия, моделируемые на тренажере
    simulated conditions
    условия нагружения
    loading conditions
    условия нагружения в полете
    flight loading conditions
    условия над океаном
    oceanic environment
    условия на маршруте
    en-route environment
    условия обледенения крыла
    wing icing conditions
    условия обтекания воздушным потоком
    airflow conditions
    условия ограниченной видимости
    low visibility conditions
    условия перевозок
    conditions of carriage
    условия плохой видимости
    poor visibility conditions
    условия по заданному маршруту
    conditions on the route
    условия посадки
    landing conditions
    условия посадки на воду
    ditching conditions
    условия, по сложности превосходящие квалификацию пилота
    conditions beyond the experience
    условия при высокой плотности воздушного движения
    high density traffic environment
    условия проведения испытаний
    test environment
    условия пролета
    overflight conditions
    условия работы экипажа
    crew environment
    условия свободного потока
    free-stream conditions
    условия сертификационных испытаний по шуму
    noise certification test conditions
    условия с использованием радиолокационного контроля
    radar environment
    условия у земли
    ground reference
    условия хранения
    storage conditions
    условия эксплуатации
    1. in-service environment
    2. service conditions установившиеся условия
    steady conditions
    эксплуатировать в заданных условиях
    operate under the conditions

    Русско-английский авиационный словарь > условие

  • 3 заявленные условия

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > заявленные условия

  • 4 заявленный

    заявленные условия
    declared conditions

    Русско-английский авиационный словарь > заявленный

  • 5 travail

    travail (plural - aux) [tʀavaj, o]
    1. masculine noun
       a. ( = activité) le travail work
    avoir du travail/beaucoup de travail to have some work/a lot of work to do
    horaire/vêtements de travail work schedule/clothes
    conditions/méthodes/groupe/déjeuner de travail working conditions/methods/group/lunch
    à travail égal, salaire égal equal pay for equal work
    améliorer la communication, c'est tout un travail ! improving communications is quite a task!
       b. ( = tâche) work uncount, job ; ( = résultat) work uncount
    travaux de recherche/de construction research/building work
    « pendant les travaux, le magasin restera ouvert » "business as usual during alterations"
    « attention ! travaux ! » "caution! work in progress!" ; (sur la route) "roadworks ahead!" (Brit) "roadwork ahead!" (US)
       c. ( = métier, profession) job ; ( = situation) work uncount, job
    avoir un travail intéressant/lucratif to have an interesting/a highly paid job
    travail d'équipe or en équipe team work
       d. ( = façonnage) [de bois, cuir, fer] working
       e. ( = accouchement) labour (Brit), labor (US)
    un travail de fourmi a long, painstaking job
    * * *

    1.
    pl - aux tʀavaj, o nom masculin
    2) (tâche faite, à faire) job; (ensemble des tâches, besogne) work [U]

    j'ai un travail fou — I'm up to my eyes in work, I've got a lot of work on

    3) ( fait d'exercer un emploi) work; ( emploi rémunéré) work [U], job; ( lieu) work
    4) Économie, Sociologie (activité, population active) labour [BrE] [U]

    division du travail — division of labour [BrE]

    5) ( résultat d'un fonctionnement) (de machine, d'organe) work [U]
    6) ( ouvrage érudit) work ( sur on)

    le travail deworking with ou in [métal, bois, pierre]

    apprendre le travail du bois/métal — to learn woodwork/metalwork

    8) (technique, exécution) workmanship
    9) Physique work
    10) ( action) (d'eau, érosion) action (de of); fig (d'imagination, inconscient) workings (pl) (de of)
    11) ( altération) ( de vin) fermentation, working; ( de bois) warping

    2.
    travaux nom masculin pluriel
    1) ( en chantier) work [U]; ( sur une route) roadworks GB, roadwork [U] US

    travaux de construction — construction work [U]

    ‘fermé pour travaux’ — ( sur une devanture) ‘closed for repairs ou alterations’

    ‘attention, travaux’ — gén ‘caution, work in progress’; ( sur une route) ‘caution, road under repair’

    2) (recherche, études) work [U] ( sur on)
    3) ( débats) deliberations

    les travaux agricoles/de la ferme — agricultural/farm work [U]

    travaux de couture — needlework [U]

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    tʀavaj, o travaux pl
    1. nm
    1) (= activité, effort) work

    J'ai beaucoup de travail. — I've got a lot of work.

    C'est un travail épuisant. — It's exhausting work.

    se mettre au travail — to start work, to get down to work

    outils de travail — working tools, work tools

    2) (= tâche spécifique) job

    Donne-lui un travail facile. — Give him an easy job.

    3) (= emploi, gagne-pain) job, work no pl

    Il a un travail intéressant. — He's got an interesting job.

    Il est sans travail depuis un an. — He has been out of work for a year.

    4) (= lieu) work

    Au travail, je m'entends bien avec mes collègues. — I get on well with my colleagues at work.

    5) ÉCONOMIE (= ressource, facteur) labour Grande-Bretagne labor USA

    la législation du travail — labour law, labour legislation

    6) MÉDECINE (de l'accouchement) labour Grande-Bretagne labor USA
    7) (= façonnage)
    2. travaux nmpl
    (= chantier) (de réparation, agricoles) work, (sur route) roadworks, [construction] building work, building
    * * *
    I.
    travail, pl - aux
    A nm
    1 ( contraire de repos) work; le travail intellectuel intellectual work; le travail scolaire schoolwork; ça demande des mois de travail it requires months of work; se mettre au travail to get down to work, to start work; être en plein travail to be busy working;
    2 (tâche faite, à faire) job; (ensemble des tâches, besogne) work ¢; faire un travail to do a job; distribuer le travail to allocate jobs; ce n'est pas mon travail it's not my job; c'est un travail de professionnel ( à faire) it's a job for a professional; ( bien fait) it's a very professional job; c'est un travail d'homme it's man's work; commencer un travail to start a job; mener un travail de recherche to do research work; avoir du travail to have work to do; j'ai un travail fou I'm up to my eyes in work, I've got a lot of work on; les enfants, ça donne du travail, les enfants, c'est du travail children make a lot of work; les gros travaux the heavy work; s'occuper à de petits travaux to do little jobs; faire quelques travaux de jardinage to do a few gardening jobs; (félicitations) c'est du beau travail! aussi iron you've done a great job on that; qu'est-ce que c'est que ce travail? what do you call this?; et voilà le travail! that's that done!;
    3 ( fait d'exercer un emploi) work; ( emploi rémunéré) work ¢, job; ( lieu) work; ne me téléphone pas à mon travail don't call me at work; chercher du/un travail to look for work/a job; bien content d'avoir du/un travail glad to be in work/to have a job; être sans travail to be out of work; donner du travail à qn ( employer) to give sb a job; reprendre le travail to go back to work; cesser le travail to stop work; aller au travail to go to work; être au travail to be at work; que fais-tu comme travail? what do you do?, what's your job?; il ne fait que son travail he's only doing his job; le travail en usine/de bureau factory/office ou clerical work; le travail temporaire/à mi-temps temporary/part-time work; un travail à mi-temps a part-time job; le travail en équipe team work; le travail en équipes shiftwork; le travail de nuit nightwork; il a un travail de nuit he works nights; le travail indépendant freelance work, self-employment; conditions/semaine de travail working conditions/week; vivre de son travail to work for one's living; ⇒ salaire;
    4 Écon, Sociol (activité, population active) labourGB ¢; le capital et le travail capital and labourGB; organisation/division du travail organization/division of labourGB; force de travail workforce; entrer dans le monde du travail to enter the world of work; la psychologie du travail industrial psychology;
    5 ( résultat d'un fonctionnement) (de machine, d'organe) work ¢; le travail du cœur the work done by the heart; le travail musculaire muscular effort, the work done by the muscles;
    6 ( ouvrage érudit) work (sur on); publier un travail sur la Renaissance to publish a work on the Renaissance;
    7 ( façonnage) le travail de working with ou in [métal, bois, pierre]; le travail de l'ivoire est difficile working with ou in ivory is difficult; apprendre le travail du bois/métal to learn woodwork/metalwork;
    8 (technique, exécution) workmanship; un travail superbe a superb piece of workmanship; un coffret d'un beau travail a beautifully made box; une dentelle d'un travail délicat a delicate piece of lacework;
    9 Mécan, Phys work;
    10 ( action) (d'eau, érosion) action (de of); fig (d'imagination, inconscient) workings (pl) (de of); le travail du temps the work of time;
    11 ( altération) ( de vin) fermentation, working; ( de bois) warping;
    12 Méd ( pendant accouchement) labourGB; entrer/être en travail to go into/be in labourGB; salle de travail labourGB ward.
    B travaux nmpl
    1 ( en chantier) work (sg); ( sur une route) roadworks GB, roadwork ¢ US; travaux de construction/réfection/soutènement construction/renovation/retaining work ¢; travaux de terrassement earthworks; travaux d'aménagement ( de bâtiment) alterations (de to), improvements (de to); ( d'un site) redevelopment ¢ (de of); ( d'une route) roadworks (de on); faire faire des travaux dans sa maison to have work done in one's house; nous sommes en plein travaux we're in the middle of having some work done; ‘fermé pour travaux’ ( sur une devanture) ‘closed for repairs ou alterations’; ‘attention, travaux’ gén ‘caution, work in progress’; ( sur une route) ‘caution, road under repair’;
    2 (recherche, études) work ¢ (sur on); publier le résultat de ses travaux to publish the results of one's work;
    3 ( débats) (d'assemblée, de commission) deliberations;
    4 ( opérations de même nature) les travaux agricoles/de la ferme agricultural/farm work; travaux de couture needlework.
    travail à la chaîne assembly-line work; travail clandestin work for which no earnings are declared; travail à domicile working at or from home; travail des enfants child labourGB; travail d'intérêt général Jur community service; travail manuel manual work; travail au noir gén work for which no earnings are declared; ( exercice d'un second emploi non déclaré) moonlighting; travail aux pièces piece work; travail posté shift work; travail de Romain Herculean task; travail de titan = travail de Romain; travaux d'aiguille needlework ¢; travaux des champs agricultural ou farm work ¢; travaux de dame fancywork ¢; travaux dirigés, TD Univ practical (sg); travaux forcés Jur hard labourGB (sg); fig slave labourGB ¢; travaux manuels Scol handicrafts; travaux ménagers housework ¢; travaux pratiques, TP Scol, Univ practical work ¢; ( en laboratoire) lab work ¢; travaux préparatoires Jur ( pour un texte de loi) preliminary documents; travaux publics, TP ( travail) civil engineering ¢; ( ouvrages) civil engineering works, public works; travaux routiers roadworks GB, roadwork ¢ US.
    II.
    travail, pl travails nm ( appareil) trave.
    I
    ( pluriel travaux) [travaj, o] nom masculin
    A.[ACTION]
    1. [occupation]
    le travail de jour/nuit day/night work
    le travail posté ou par roulement shift work
    a. [occasionnel] undeclared casual work, moonlighting
    b. [comme pratique généralisée] black economy
    a. [généralement] temporary work
    b. [dans un bureau] temping
    2. [tâches imposées] work
    3. [tâche déterminée] job
    faire un travail de recherche/traduction to do a piece of research/a translation
    c'est un travail de bagnard ou forçat it's back-breaking work ou a back-breaking job
    4. [efforts] (hard) work
    5. [exécution] work
    on lui a confié les peintures et elle a fait du bon/mauvais travail she was responsible for doing the painting and she made a good/bad job of it
    je ne retrouve pas une seule disquette, qu'est-ce que c'est que ce travail? I can't find a single floppy disc, what's going on here?
    6. [façonnage] working
    elle est attirée par le travail du bois/de la soie she's interested in working with wood/with silk
    7. [poste] job, occupation, post
    [responsabilité] job
    chercher du ou un travail to be job-hunting, to be looking for a job
    sans travail unemployed, jobless, out of work
    8. [dans le système capitaliste] labour
    9. [contrainte exercée - par la chaleur, l'érosion] action
    10. PHYSIOLOGIE [accouchement] labour
    le travail n'est pas commencé/est commencé the patient has not yet gone/has gone into labour
    [activité] work
    réduire le travail du cœur/des reins to lighten the strain on the heart/on the kidneys
    11. MÉCANIQUE & PHYSIQUE work
    B.[RÉSULTAT, EFFET]
    1. [écrit] piece
    2. [transformation - généralement] work
    [modification interne - dans le bois] warping ; [ - dans le fromage] maturing ; [ - dans le vin] working
    C.[LIEU D'ACTIVITÉ PROFESSIONNELLE] work, workplace
    travaux nom masculin pluriel
    1. [tâches] work, working
    ‘fermé pendant les travaux’ ‘closed for ou during alterations’
    ‘attention, travaux’ ‘caution, work in progress’
    a. [généralement] arts and crafts
    a. [généralement] practical work
    b. [en laboratoire] lab work
    2. [d'une commission] work
    ————————
    au travail locution adverbiale
    1. [en activité] at work, working
    allez, au travail! come on, get to work!
    2. [sur le lieu d'activité] at work, in the workplace
    ————————
    de travail locution adjectivale
    1. [horaire, séance] working
    [vêtement, camarade, permis] work (modificateur)
    2. [d'accouchement - période] labour (modificateur) ; [ - salle] labour (modificateur), delivery (modificateur)
    ————————
    du travail locution adjectivale
    [accident, sociologie, législation] industrial
    ————————
    en travail adverbe
    entrer en travail to go into ou to start labour
    II
    ( pluriel travails) [travaj] nom masculin

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > travail

  • 6 lavoro

    "operative;
    Vor"
    * * *
    m work
    ( impiego) job
    lavoro malfatto botched job
    lavoro nero moonlighting
    lavori pl occasionali o saltuari odd jobs
    per lavoro on business
    condizioni f pl di lavoro working conditions
    permesso m di lavoro work permit
    posto m di lavoro place of work, workplace
    lavori in corso roadworks, work in progress
    senza lavoro unemployed
    * * *
    lavoro s.m.
    1 (attività) work; (manuale) labour: lavoro di concetto, creativo, creative work; lavoro intellettuale, brain-work; lavoro specializzato, skilled work (o specialized job); lavoro dei campi, farm work (o labour), agricultural work; lavoro impegnativo, exacting work; lavoro usurante, fatiguing work, arduous work; lavori pubblici, public works; lavoro eccessivo, overwork; i lavori di un congresso, the proceedings of a congress // lavori in corso, work in progress, (segnaletica stradale) roadworks ahead // alla base ci fu un grosso lavoro diplomatico, there was a lot of diplomatic work behind it
    2 (occupazione retribuita) job, employment, work, occupation, place, post, position; lavoro fisso, regular job; lavori occasionali, odd jobs; lavoro precario, casual labour (o irregular work); lavoro a giornata, work by the day, day labour (o work); lavoro a orario ridotto, a tempo parziale, part-time, short-term job; lavoro a tempo pieno, full-time job; lavoro con orario fisso, nine to five job; lavoro dipendente, subordinate employment (o job o work), dependent labour; lavoro autonomo, self-employment; lavoro di ufficio, impiegatizio, office (o clerical) work; lavoro nero, (non denunciato) concealed labour (o moonlighting), (sfruttamento di manodopera) sweated labour; lavoro straordinario, overtime (o overtime work); l'ambiente di lavoro, the working environment; essere abile, inabile al lavoro, to be fit, unfit for work; dare lavoro a qlcu., to hire (o to employ) s.o.; vivere del proprio lavoro, to earn one's living; essere senza lavoro, to be out of work (o without a job) // cessazione del rapporto di lavoro, severance // domanda, offerta di lavoro, (di manodopera) labour demand, supply // ufficio del lavoro, job centre // diritto del lavoro, labour law; diritto al lavoro, right to work
    3 (ramo di attività) job: che lavoro fa tuo padre, what does your father do? (o what's your father's job?)
    4 (compito) task, job: convincerlo sarà un lavoro difficile, it will be hard task (o job) to convince him
    5 (fis., mecc.) work: lavoro interno, esterno, internal, external work; funzione lavoro, work function; lavoro di attrito, work due to friction; lavoro di deformazione, deformation (o strain) work
    6 (inform.) job: lavoro simultaneo, in multiprogrammazione, time sharing
    7 (opera) work; (teatrale) play; (cinematografica) film: questo romanzo è uno dei suoi migliori lavori, this novel is one of his best works.
    * * *
    [la'voro] 1.
    sostantivo maschile

    mettersi al lavoro — to get (down) to work, to start work

    al lavoro! (rivolto ad altri) get to work! (rivolto a se stessi) let's get to work!

    2) (compito da svolgere) (piece of) work, job; (incarico) job, task

    è un lavoro da professionista o da maestro it's a very professional job; è un lavoro da uomo it's man's work; gruppo di lavoro — work group

    3) (occupazione) work; (impiego, professione) work U, job, employment; (luogo dove si lavora) work

    dare lavoro a qcn. — to give sb. a job

    orario, condizioni di lavoro — working hours, conditions

    4) econ. sociol. labour BE, labor AE

    forza lavoro — workforce, labour force

    mercato del lavorolabour o job market

    5) (opera) work (su on)
    6) mecc. fis. work
    2.
    sostantivo maschile plurale lavori
    1) (in cantiere) work sing.; (sulle strade) roadworks BE, roadwork U AE

    "chiuso per -i" — "closed for repairs"

    "-i in corso" — "road under repair", "men at work"

    2) (di assemblea, commissione) deliberations

    lavoro nero — = job for which no earnings are declared, under the table job

    -i di casa o domestici housework; -i femminili fancywork, needlework and knitting; -i forzati hard labour; fig. slave labour; -i di manutenzione maintenance work; -i pubblici public works; -i di restauro — renovations

    * * *
    lavoro
    /la'voro/
    I due principali equivalenti inglesi della parola lavoro sono job e work: in linea generale, job si riferisce al posto di lavoro o al rapporto d'impiego (specie se subordinato), mentre work indica l'attività lavorativa, il compito da svolgere, l'attività fisica o mentale richiesta per produrre qualcosa. Per gli esempi e numerosi usi idiomatici, si veda la voce qui sotto. - Per un riferimento più specifico, invece di job o work, possono anche essere usate parole quali post, position o occupation (per definire in modo formale un lavoro nel senso di posizione lavorativa), line of work o line of business (per definire nel linguaggio parlato il tipo di lavoro che uno fa), trade (per definire un lavoro manuale ma qualificato, ad esempio quello dell'elettricista) o profession (letteralmente, professione).
    I sostantivo m.
     1 (attività fisica o mentale) work; mettersi al lavoro to get (down) to work, to start work; un mese di lavoro a month's work; al lavoro! (rivolto ad altri) get to work! (rivolto a se stessi) let's get to work! ammazzarsi di lavoro to work oneself to death
     2 (compito da svolgere) (piece of) work, job; (incarico) job, task; stai facendo un buon lavoro your're doing a good o lovely job; è un lavoro da professionista o da maestro it's a very professional job; è un lavoro da uomo it's man's work; gruppo di lavoro work group
     3 (occupazione) work; (impiego, professione) work U, job, employment; (luogo dove si lavora) work; che lavoro fai? what's your job? un lavoro da insegnante a teaching job; dare lavoro a qcn. to give sb. a job; cambiare lavoro to change jobs; perdere il lavoro to lose one's job; essere senza lavoro to be out of work; andare al lavoro to go to work! essere al lavoro to be at work; posto di lavoro (occupazione) job; (luogo) workplace; abiti da lavoro work clothes; orario, condizioni di lavoro working hours, conditions; vivere del proprio lavoro to work for one's living; parlare di lavoro to talk shop; essere fuori per lavoro to be out on business; secondo lavoro (non dichiarato) moonlighting
     4 econ. sociol. labour BE, labor AE; divisione del lavoro division of labour; forza lavoro workforce, labour force; il mondo del lavoro the working world; il costo del lavoro the cost of labour; mercato del lavoro labour o job market
     5 (opera) work (su on)
     6 mecc. fis. work
    II lavori m.pl.
     1 (in cantiere) work sing.; (sulle strade) roadworks BE, roadwork U AE; far fare dei -i in casa propria to have work done in one's house; "chiuso per -i" "closed for repairs"; "-i in corso" "road under repair", "men at work"
     2 (di assemblea, commissione) deliberations
    lavoro autonomo self-employment; lavoro a cottimo piecework; lavoro dipendente salaried job; lavoro a domicilio working at home; lavoro a maglia knitting; lavoro interinale temping job; lavoro manuale manual work; lavoro minorile child labour; lavoro nero = job for which no earnings are declared, under the table job; lavoro notturno night-work; lavoro part time part-time job; lavoro di squadra teamwork; lavoro stagionale seasonal work; lavoro straordinario overtime; lavoro a tempo pieno full-time job; lavoro d'ufficio office work; -i di casa o domestici housework; - i femminili fancywork, needlework and knitting; - i forzati hard labour; fig. slave labour; - i di manutenzione maintenance work; - i pubblici public works; - i di restauro renovations.

    Dizionario Italiano-Inglese > lavoro

  • 7 электрические характеристики НКУ

    1. electrical characteristics of assemblies

     

    электрические характеристики НКУ
    -
    [Интент]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    The Standard IEC 60439-1 identifies the nominal characteristics to be assigned to each assembly, defines the environmental service conditions, establishes the mechanical requirements and gives prescriptions about:
    • insulation
    • thermal behaviour
    • short-circuit withstand strength
    • protection against electrical shock
    • degree of protection of the enclosure
    • installed components, internal separation and connections inside the assembly
    • electronic equipment supply circuits.

    Information specified under items a) and b) shall be given on the nameplate according to the Standard.
    Information from items c) to t), where applicable, shall be given either on the nameplates or in the technical documentation of the manufacturer:
    a) manufacturer ’s name or trade mark;
    b) type designation or identification number, or any other means of identification making it possible to obtain relevant information from the manufacturer;
    c) IEC 60439-1;
    d) type of current (and frequency, in the case of a.c.);
    e) rated operational voltages;
    f) rated insulation voltages (rated impulse withstand voltage, when declared by the manufacturer);
    g) rated voltages of auxiliary circuits, if applicable;
    h) limits of operation;
    j) rated current of each circuit, if applicable;
    k) short-circuit withstand strength;
    l) degree of protection;
    m) measures for protection of persons;
    n) service conditions for indoor use, outdoor use or special use, if different from the usual service conditions.
    Pollution degree when declared by the manufacturer;
    o) types of system earthing (neutral conductor) for which the ASSEMBLY is designed;
    p) dimensions given preferably in the order of height, width (or length), depth;
    q) weight;
    r) form of internal separation;
    s) types of electrical connections of functional units;
    t) environment 1 or 2.

    [ABB]

    Стандарт МЭК 60439-1 определяет номинальные характеристики НКУ, условия эксплуатации, требования к механической части конструкции, а также следующие параметры:
    • изоляция;
    • превышение температуры;
    • прочность к воздействию тока короткого замыкания;
    защита от поражения электрическим током;
    степень защиты, обеспечиваемая оболочкой;
    • комплектующие элементы, внутреннее разделение НКУ ограждениями и перегородками, электрические соединения внутри НКУ;
    • требования к цепям питания электронного оборудования.

    Информация, относящаяся к пунктам а) и b), должна быть указана на паспортной табличке, соответствующей данному стандарту.
    Информация, приведенная в пунктах с) … d), должна быть указана либо на паспортной табличке, либо в технической документации изготовителя:
    a) наименование изготовителя или товарный знак;
    b) обозначение типа, условного номера или другого знака, позволяющих получить необходимую информацию от изготовителя;
    c) МЭК 60439-1;
    d) род тока (а для переменно тока и частота.);
    e) номинальные рабочие напряжения;
    f) номинальное напряжение изоляции (или указываемое изготовителем номинальное импульсное выдерживаемое напряжение);
    g) номинальное напряжение вспомогательных цепей, если таковые имеются;
    h) предельные отклонения параметров;
    j) номинальный ток каждой цепи, если таковые приводят;
    k) прочность к воздействию короткого замыкания;
    l) степень защиты;
    m) меры защиты персонала;
    n) нормальные условия эксплуатации при внутренней или наружной установке, а также специальные условия эксплуатации, если они отличаются от нормальных.
    Степень загрязнения, если она указывается изготовителем;
    o) вид системы заземления (режим нейтрали), который был принят при проектировании НКУ;
    p) размеры, приводимые в следующей последовательности: высота, ширина (или длина), глубина;
    q) масса;
    r) вид внутреннего разделения;
    s) типы электрических соединений функциональных блоков;
    t) окружающая среда 1 или 2.

    [Перевод Интент]

    Тематики

    • НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)

    EN

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > электрические характеристики НКУ

  • 8 manifestar

    v.
    1 to show.
    2 to express.
    3 to manifest, to record in the manifest.
    Ricardo manifestó las condiciones Richard manifested the conditions.
    María manifestó su inconformidad Mary manifested her inconformity.
    4 to prove to.
    Ella manifestó ser comunista She proved to be a Communist.
    5 to declare to, to manifest to.
    María manifestó odiar a los gatos Mary declared to hate cats.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ ACERTAR], like link=acertar acertar
    1 (declarar) to state; (expresar) to express
    2 (mostrar) to show
    1 (hacerse evidente) to become apparent
    2 to demonstrate
    3 to declare oneself, express
    * * *
    verb
    2) exhibit, display
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=declarar) to declare
    2) [+ emociones] to show
    2.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    a) (declarar, expresar) <desaprobación/agradecimiento> to express

    manifestaron su apoyo a esta propuestathey expressed o made known their support for the proposal

    b) ( demostrar) <emociones/actitudes> to show

    manifestó gran entusiasmo por el proyectohe showed o demonstrated a great deal of enthusiasm for the project

    2.
    manifestarse v pron
    1) ( hacerse evidente) to become apparent o evident; ( ser evidente) to be apparent o evident
    2) (Pol) to demonstrate, take part in a demonstration

    se manifestó en contra/a favor de la reforma — she expressed her opposition to/support for the reform

    * * *
    = manifest, report, state, pronounce, profess, evince, communicate, express.
    Ex. A catalog, on the other hand, should manifest the attributes of a data base.
    Ex. Criticism is not appropriate in a style which aims to report, but not comment upon the content of the original document.
    Ex. Short abstracts are generally preferred, but there are instances where the most effective approach is to cite the original unamended, and to state that this is what has been done.
    Ex. 'Look,' she pronounced impatiently, 'I have lots of work to do'.
    Ex. As a result, books or other media professing alleged blasphemy, heresy, sedition, or immorality are liable to be banned.
    Ex. New computer based technologies are evincing revolutionary changes in the educational curriculum for schools of library and information science.
    Ex. The contributions are input to the data base, then referred and any suggestion made by the referee are communicated through the data base to the editor.
    Ex. In a SDI service the user specifies his own individual interest in detail, and these are then expressed in terms of a user interest profile.
    ----
    * manifestar afecto por = profess + affection for.
    * manifestar amor por = profess + love for.
    * manifestar claramente = make + it + clear.
    * manifestar desprecio = profess + disdain.
    * manifestar horror = register + horror.
    * manifestarse = be manifest, embody, manifest + Reflexivo, show up, stage + protest.
    * manifestar un punto de vista = air + view.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo transitivo
    a) (declarar, expresar) <desaprobación/agradecimiento> to express

    manifestaron su apoyo a esta propuestathey expressed o made known their support for the proposal

    b) ( demostrar) <emociones/actitudes> to show

    manifestó gran entusiasmo por el proyectohe showed o demonstrated a great deal of enthusiasm for the project

    2.
    manifestarse v pron
    1) ( hacerse evidente) to become apparent o evident; ( ser evidente) to be apparent o evident
    2) (Pol) to demonstrate, take part in a demonstration

    se manifestó en contra/a favor de la reforma — she expressed her opposition to/support for the reform

    * * *
    = manifest, report, state, pronounce, profess, evince, communicate, express.

    Ex: A catalog, on the other hand, should manifest the attributes of a data base.

    Ex: Criticism is not appropriate in a style which aims to report, but not comment upon the content of the original document.
    Ex: Short abstracts are generally preferred, but there are instances where the most effective approach is to cite the original unamended, and to state that this is what has been done.
    Ex: 'Look,' she pronounced impatiently, 'I have lots of work to do'.
    Ex: As a result, books or other media professing alleged blasphemy, heresy, sedition, or immorality are liable to be banned.
    Ex: New computer based technologies are evincing revolutionary changes in the educational curriculum for schools of library and information science.
    Ex: The contributions are input to the data base, then referred and any suggestion made by the referee are communicated through the data base to the editor.
    Ex: In a SDI service the user specifies his own individual interest in detail, and these are then expressed in terms of a user interest profile.
    * manifestar afecto por = profess + affection for.
    * manifestar amor por = profess + love for.
    * manifestar claramente = make + it + clear.
    * manifestar desprecio = profess + disdain.
    * manifestar horror = register + horror.
    * manifestarse = be manifest, embody, manifest + Reflexivo, show up, stage + protest.
    * manifestar un punto de vista = air + view.

    * * *
    manifestar [A5 ]
    vt
    1
    (declarar, expresar): manifestó públicamente su adhesión a la campaña she publicly declared o stated her support for the campaign
    manifestaron su apoyo a esta propuesta they spoke in favor of this proposal, they expressed o made known their support for the proposal
    manifestó su condena del atentado she expressed her condemnation of the attack
    queremos manifestar nuestro agradecimiento a todos aquellos que nos han apoyado we wish to express our gratitude to all those who have supported us
    2 (demostrar) ‹emociones/actitudes› to show
    manifestó gran entusiasmo por el proyecto he showed o demonstrated a great deal of enthusiasm for the project
    A (hacerse evidente) to become apparent o evident; (ser evidente) to be apparent o evident
    las consecuencias se manifestarán a largo plazo the consequences will become apparent o evident in the long term
    el problema no se manifiesta hasta la pubertad the problem does not manifest itself o appear until puberty
    B ( Pol) to demonstrate
    más de 10.000 personas se manifestaron ayer en Valencia more than 10,000 people demonstrated o took part in a demonstration in Valencia yesterday
    C
    (dar una opinión): se ha manifestado en contra de las medidas she has spoken out against the measures, she has made known o expressed her opposition to the measures
    * * *

     

    manifestar ( conjugate manifestar) verbo transitivo
    a) ( expresar) ‹desaprobación/agradecimiento to express;



    manifestarse verbo pronominal
    1 ( hacerse evidente) to become apparent o evident;
    ( ser evidente) to be apparent o evident
    2 (Pol) to demonstrate, take part in a demonstration
    3 ( dar opinión):
    manifestarse en contra/a favor de algo to express one's opposition to/support for sth

    manifestar verbo transitivo
    1 (una opinión, un pensamiento) to state, declare
    2 (un sentimiento) to show, display: su rostro manifestaba sorpresa, his face showed surprise
    ' manifestar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    afirmar
    - descubrir
    - protestar
    - reaccionar
    - sacar
    - constar
    - declarar
    - manifiesta
    English:
    declare
    - display
    - exhibit
    - manifest
    - profess
    - voice
    - air
    * * *
    vt
    1. [alegría, dolor] to show;
    manifestó su enfado golpeando la mesa he showed his annoyance by banging on the table
    2. [opinión] to express;
    manifestó su intención de presentarse como candidato he announced his intention to put himself forward as a candidate;
    manifestaron su agradecimiento por la ayuda recibida they expressed their gratidude for the help received
    * * *
    v/t
    1 ( demostrar) show
    2 ( declarar) declare, state
    * * *
    manifestar {55} vt
    1) : to demonstrate, to show
    2) : to declare
    * * *
    1. (opinión, etc) to express
    2. (sentimiento) to show [pt. showed; pp. shown]

    Spanish-English dictionary > manifestar

  • 9 censura

    f.
    1 censorship.
    2 censors (organismo).
    3 censure, severe criticism.
    pres.indicat.
    3rd person singular (él/ella/ello) present indicative of spanish verb: censurar.
    * * *
    1 censorship
    2 (crítica) censure, criticism, condemnation
    \
    censura de cuentas audit, auditing
    * * *
    noun f.
    2) censure, criticism
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=supresión) censorship
    2) (=institución) censors pl
    3) (=condena) censure frm, criticism
    moción 1), voto 1)
    4) (Com, Econ)
    * * *
    a) ( reprobación) censure (frml), condemnation
    b) (de libros, películas) censorship
    * * *
    = censorship, censure, reproach, stricture, rebuke, reproof, castigation, bleep, reproval.
    Ex. Having failed to make that note, there was no further justification for several possible subject tracings like censorship -- UNITED STATES-CASE STUDIES, SECURITY CLASSIFICATION -- UNITED STATES-CASE STUDIES, and so on.
    Ex. The author also outlines a system for microfilming and destroying documents to escape judicial censure.
    Ex. A standing reproach to all librarians is the non-user.
    Ex. The article is entitled 'Political and administrative strictures on the National Libraries Authority proposal'.
    Ex. In a stinging rebuke to the American Library Association, Nat Hentoff has criticized the ALA for failing to take action to defend volunteer librarians in Cuba who are being subjected to a brutal crackdown.
    Ex. Reproof should have a debilitating effect upon performance while praise should result in a somewhat higher increase in performance.
    Ex. This unremitting castigation of the Nazi masks both the historical complicity of the United States with Nazi crimes and our own racist and genocidal histories.
    Ex. They wish to have all bleeps declared illegal on publicly airwaves.
    Ex. He received a two-year suspension for violating the conditions of a public reproval and being convicted of two drunk driving.
    ----
    * censuras a los materiales = challenges to materials.
    * expurgado por censura = bowdlerized.
    * expurgo por censura = bowdlerization.
    * libre de censura = uncensored.
    * moción de censura = censure motion, vote of no confidence.
    * voto de censura = vote of no confidence.
    * * *
    a) ( reprobación) censure (frml), condemnation
    b) (de libros, películas) censorship
    * * *
    = censorship, censure, reproach, stricture, rebuke, reproof, castigation, bleep, reproval.

    Ex: Having failed to make that note, there was no further justification for several possible subject tracings like censorship -- UNITED STATES-CASE STUDIES, SECURITY CLASSIFICATION -- UNITED STATES-CASE STUDIES, and so on.

    Ex: The author also outlines a system for microfilming and destroying documents to escape judicial censure.
    Ex: A standing reproach to all librarians is the non-user.
    Ex: The article is entitled 'Political and administrative strictures on the National Libraries Authority proposal'.
    Ex: In a stinging rebuke to the American Library Association, Nat Hentoff has criticized the ALA for failing to take action to defend volunteer librarians in Cuba who are being subjected to a brutal crackdown.
    Ex: Reproof should have a debilitating effect upon performance while praise should result in a somewhat higher increase in performance.
    Ex: This unremitting castigation of the Nazi masks both the historical complicity of the United States with Nazi crimes and our own racist and genocidal histories.
    Ex: They wish to have all bleeps declared illegal on publicly airwaves.
    Ex: He received a two-year suspension for violating the conditions of a public reproval and being convicted of two drunk driving.
    * censuras a los materiales = challenges to materials.
    * expurgado por censura = bowdlerized.
    * expurgo por censura = bowdlerization.
    * libre de censura = uncensored.
    * moción de censura = censure motion, vote of no confidence.
    * voto de censura = vote of no confidence.

    * * *
    1 (reprobación) censure ( frml), condemnation, criticism
    su comportamiento fue objeto de censura por parte de la prensa his behavior was criticized o condemned by the press, his behavior received criticism o condemnation in the press
    2 (de libros, películas) censorship
    * * *

    Del verbo censurar: ( conjugate censurar)

    censura es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo

    2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo

    Multiple Entries:
    censura    
    censurar
    censura sustantivo femenino

    b) (de libros, películas) censorship

    censurar ( conjugate censurar) verbo transitivo

    b)libro/película to censor, ‹escena/párrafo to cut, censor

    censura sustantivo femenino
    1 censorship
    2 Pol moción de censura, vote of no confidence
    censurar verbo transitivo
    1 (libro, película) to censor: algunas escenas de la obra fueron censuradas, some scenes from the play werer cut
    2 (criticar, reprobar) to censure, criticize: censuramos su modo de tratar a los alumnos, we disapprove of the way he treats his students
    ' censura' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    crítica
    - moción
    - voto
    English:
    blackout
    - censorship
    - censure
    - news blackout
    - vote
    - censor
    * * *
    1. [prohibición] censorship
    2.
    la censura [organismo] the censors
    3. [reprobación] censure, severe criticism;
    decir algo en tono de censura to say something censoriously o in a tone of censure
    4. Esp Econ censura de cuentas inspection of accounts, audit
    * * *
    f censorship
    * * *
    1) : censorship
    2) : censure, criticism

    Spanish-English dictionary > censura

  • 10 χράω

    χράω (A), used in [dialect] Ep. only in [tense] aor. 2,
    A fall upon, attack, assail, c. dat. pers.,

    στυγερὸς δέ οἱ ἔχραε δαίμων Od.5.396

    ;

    τίς τοι κακὸς ἔχραε δαίμων; 10.64

    ; so

    ἠϊθέοις οὐκ ἔστι τόσος πόνος, ὁππόσος ἡμῖν.. ἔχραε AP5.296

    (Agath.): cf. ἐπιχράω (B).
    II c. acc. rei, inflict upon a person,

    κακὸν δέ οἱ ἔχραε κοῖτον Nic.Th. 315

    .
    III c. inf., conceive a desire to.., τίπτε σὸς υἱὸς ἐμὸν ῥόον ἔχραε κήδειν ἐξ ἄλλων; why did he want (or needed he) to vex my stream of all others? Il.21.369; μνηστῆρες.., οἳ τόδε δῶμα ἐχράετ' ἐσθιέμεν καὶ πινέμεν ye suitors.., who have become so eager to.., Od.21.69. (For signfs. 1, 11, cf. ζαχρηής; for 111 perh. cf. χρή, κέχρημαι ( χράω (B) C), χρῇ, χρῇς.)
    ------------------------------------
    χράω (B). A. FORMS: [var] contr.
    A

    χρῇ S.El.35

    , [dialect] Ion.

    χρᾷ Hdt.1.62

    (also Luc.DMort.3.2); inf.

    χρᾶν Hdt.8.135

    (also Luc.Alex.19); [dialect] Ion. part.

    χρέων h.Ap. 253

    , fem.

    χρέωσα Hdt.7.111

    ; [dialect] Ep.

    χρείων Od.8.79

    , h.Ap. 396: [tense] impf.

    ἔχραον Pi.O.7.92

    (v.l. ἔχρεον), A.R.2.454; [ per.] 3sg.

    ἔχρη Tyrt.3.3

    , Hermesian.7.89, ([etym.] ἐξ-) S.OC87: [tense] fut.

    χρήσω h.Ap. 132

    , Hdt.1.19, A.Ag. 1083: [tense] aor.

    ἔχρησα Hdt.4.156

    , etc.:—[voice] Pass., [tense] aor.

    ἐχρήσθην Id.1.49

    , etc.: [tense] pf. κέχρησμαι (v.l. κέχρημαι) Id.4.164, 7.141: [tense] plpf. ἐκέχρηστο (v.l. ἐκέχρητο) Id.2.147, 151, 3.64, etc.:—[voice] Med.,

    χρῶμαι Th.1.126

    , etc., [dialect] Ion.

    χρέομαι Hdt.

    , inf.

    χρέεσθαι 1.157

    ( χρᾶσθαι ib. 172); part.

    χρεώμενος 4.151

    : [tense] impf. [ per.] 3pl. ἐχρέωντο (v.l. ἐχρέοντο) 4.157, 5.82: [tense] fut.

    χρήσομαι Od.10.492

    , etc.
    I in [voice] Act. of the gods and their oracles, proclaim, abs.,

    χρείων μυθήσατο Φοῖβος 8.79

    :

    χρείων ἐκ δάφνης γυάλων ὕπο Παρνησοῖο h.Ap. 396

    : c. acc. rei, χρήσω ἀνθρώποισι Διὸς βουλήν ib. 132, cf. Thgn.807, Pi.l.c., Plot.2.9.9;

    ἡ Πυθίη οἱ χρᾷ τάδε Hdt.1.55

    , cf. 4.155; χρῆσεν οἰκιστῆρα Βάττον proclaimed him the colonizer, Pi.P.4.6; also in Trag.,

    ὁ χρήσας A. Eu. 798

    ;

    χρήσειν ἔοικεν ἀμφὶ τῶν αὑτῆς κακῶν Id.Ag. 1083

    ;

    χρῇ μοι τοιαῦθ' ὁ Φοῖβος S.El.35

    ;

    σοὶ δ' οὐκ ἔχρησεν οὐδέν E.Hec. 1268

    ;

    χ. φόνον Id.El. 1267

    : also c. acc. cogn.,

    χ. χρησμόν Id.Ph. 409

    ;

    ὑμνῳδίαν Id. Ion 681

    (lyr.): c. inf., warn or direct by oracle,

    ἔχρησας ὥστε τὸν ξένον μητροκτονεῖν A.Eu. 202

    ; without ὥστε, ib. 203; χρήσαντ' ἐμοὶ.. ἐκτὸς αἰτίας κακῆς εἶναι that I should be.., Id.Ch. 1030; c. inf. [tense] aor., Ar. V. 159: rare in [dialect] Att. Prose,

    τάδε ὁ Ἀπόλλων ἔχρησεν IG12.80.10

    ;

    τὸν Ἀπόλλω ταύτην τὴν γῆν χρῆσαι οἰκεῖν Th.2.102

    ;

    τοῦ θεοῦ χρήσαντος Id.5.32

    , cf. Lycurg.99;

    ἔχρησεν ὁ θεός SIG1044.5

    (Halic., iv/iii B. C.);

    ὁ θεὸς ἔχρησε IG42(1).122.78

    (Epid., iv B. C.).
    II [voice] Pass., to be declared, proclaimed by an oracle,

    τίς οὖν ἐχρήσθη; E. Ion 792

    ; mostly of the oracle delivered,

    τὰ ἐκ Δελφῶν οὕτω τῷ Κροίσῳ ἐχρήσθη Hdt.1.49

    ;

    τὰ χρηστήρια ταῦτά σφι ἐχρήσθη Id.9.94

    ;

    ἠπίως χρησθῆναι Id.7.143

    ; τὸ χρησθέν, τὰ χρησθέντα, the response, Id.1.63, 7.178;

    ἐν Πυθῶνι χρησθὲν παλαίφατον Pi.O.2.39

    ;

    πεύθου τὰ χρησθέντ' S.OT 604

    ; χρησθὲν αὐτῷ ἐν Νεμέᾳ τοῦτο παθεῖν since it was foretold him by an oracle that.. Th.3.96; ἃ τοῦδ' ἐχρήσθη σώματος which were declared about it, S.OC 355;

    τὸν κεχρησμένον θάνατον Hdt.4.164

    (- χρημ- codd.);

    τοῦ κακοῦ τοῦ κεχρησμένου Id.7.141

    (v.l. -χρημ-): impers., c. inf., καί σφι ἐχρήσθη ἀνέμοισι εὔχεσθαι ib. 178: c. acc. et inf.,

    ἐκέχρηστό σφι.. τοῦτον βασιλεύσειν Id.2.147

    ; c. inf. [tense] aor., Id.7.220.
    III [voice] Med., of the person to whom the response is given, consult a god or oracle, c. dat.,

    ψυχῇ χρησόμενος Θηβαίου Τειρεσίαο Od.10.492

    , 565; χ. θεῷ, χρηστηρίοισι, μαντηΐῳ, Hdt.1.47, 53, 157;

    τῷ θεῷ Aeschin.3.124

    ;

    χ. μάντεσι Μούσαις Ar.Av. 724

    (anap.), cf. Pl. Lg. 686a;

    ὅσοι μαντικὴν νομίζοντες οἰωνοῖς χρῶνται X.Mem.1.1.3

    ; χ. χρηστηρίῳ εἰ .. inquire at the oracle whether.., Hdt.3.57: abs.,

    ὑπέρβη λάϊνον οὐδὸν χρησόμενος Od.8.81

    , cf. h.Ap. 252, 292;

    ἀπέστειλε ἄλλους χρησομένους Hdt.1.46

    ; οἱ χρώμενοι the consulters, E.Ph. 957;

    χρωμένῳ ἐν Δελφοῖς Th.1.126

    ; also

    χ. περὶ τοῦ πολέμου Hdt.7.220

    , cf. 1.85, 4.150, 155, etc.;

    κεχρημένος

    having inquired of an oracle,

    Arist.Rh. 1398b33

    : c. inf., σωφρονεῖν κεχρημένον being divinely warned to be temperate, A.Pers. 829, cf. Marcellin.Vit. Thuc.6: later simply, receive a divine revelation, Plot.5.3.14.—Hom. has the word in this sense only in Od.: the [voice] Act. only in [tense] pres. part. χρείων ([tense] fut.

    χρήσω h.Ap. 132

    ): the [voice] Med. only in part. [tense] fut. χρησόμενος.
    B furnish with a thing, in which sense the [tense] pres. was [full] κίχρημι, D.53.12, Plu.Pomp.29; Cret. [ per.] 3sg.

    κίγχρητι Inscr.Cret.1 xxiii 3

    (Phaestus, ii B. C.); Delph. [ per.] 3sg. [tense] pres. subj.

    κιχρῇ Schwyzer 324.17

    (iv B. C.): [tense] aor. χρέη ib.13; [tense] pres. part. κιχρέντε ib.adn. (rarely [full] χρηννύναι, [full] χρηννύω, Thphr.Char.5.10, 10.13: [voice] Med.,

    χρηννυόμεθα PCair.Zen. 304.4

    (iii B. C.)): [tense] fut.

    χρήσω Hdt.3.58

    : [tense] aor. ἔχρησα ibid., 6.89, Ar. Th. 219, X.Mem.3.11.18, Lys.19.24, IG12.108.16, etc. ([ per.] 3sg. written

    ἔκχρησεν IG12(3).1350.4

    ([place name] Thera)); imper.

    χρῆσον Ar.Ra. 1159

    , Pl. Com.205: [tense] pf.

    κέχρηκα Men.461

    , 598, Plb.29.21.6 ( = D.S.31.10): [tense] plpf.

    ἐκεχρήκει App.BC2.29

    :—[voice] Pass., [tense] pf. κέχρημαι ([etym.] δια-) D.27.11:—[voice] Med., [tense] pres.

    κίχρᾰμαι Plu.2.534b

    ; inf.

    κίχρασθαι Thphr.Char.30.20

    : [tense] impf.

    ἐκιχράμην AP9.584.10

    : [tense] aor. ἐχρησάμην, imper.

    χρῆσαι E.El. 191

    (lyr.), etc.:— furnish the use of a thing, i.e. lend, usu. in a friendly way, δανείζω being the word applied to usurers (but χ. = δανείζω in Antipho Soph.54), ll. cc.;

    οὐ δεδωκώς, ἀλλὰ χρήσας Arist.EN 1162b33

    , cf. LXX Ex.11.3;

    ἡ πειρατικὴ δύναμις χρήσασα ταῖς βασιλικαῖς ὑπηρεσίαις ἑαυτήν Plu.Pomp.24

    ;

    χ. τὴν ἑαυτοῦ σχολήν τισι Id.Phil. 13

    ; χ. τὰν χέρα, in the formula of manumission, IG9(1).189, 194 ([place name] Tithora):—[voice] Med., borrow, τι E.El. 191 (lyr.), Thphr.Char.30.20: abs.,

    χρησαμένη γὰρ ἔνησα καὶ οὐκ ἔχω ἀνταποδοῦναι Batr.186

    ; πόδας χρήσας, ὄμματα χρησάμενος having lent feet and borrowed eyes, of a blind man carrying a lame one, AP9.13 (Pl.Jun.), cf. Pl.Demod. 384b, 384c.
    ------------------------------------
    χράομαι. (See also χράω)
    C [voice] Med. [full] χράομαι, [dialect] Att. [full] χρῶμαι, χρῇ prob. in Pl.Hp.Mi. 369a,

    χρῆται Ar.V. 1028

    (anap.), etc. (also Trag., A.Ag. 953), χρώμεθα, χρῆσθε, χρῶνται, And.4.6, Pl.La. 194c, Th.1.70, etc.; [dialect] Dor. [full] χρέομαι Sophr.126; [dialect] Ion.

    χρᾶται Hdt.1.132

    , al. (so in later Prose, Iamb. in Nic.p.28 P.); χρέεται v.l. in Hdt.4.50;

    χρέονται Hp.

    Aër.1;

    χρέωνται Hdt.1.34

    , 4.108, al.;

    χρείωνται Heraclit.104

    ; opt.

    χρῴμην, χρῷο Pl. Cri. 45b

    ,

    χρῷτο Gorg.Fr.20

    , etc.; [dialect] Ion.

    χρέοιτο Hp.Acut.56

    ; imper.

    χρῶ Democr.270

    , Ar.Th. 212, Isoc.1.34, [dialect] Ion.

    χρέο Hp.Steril.230

    , Hdt. 1.155 (v.l. χρέω, as in Hp.Acut. (Sp.) 62); [ per.] 3sg. [dialect] Dor.

    χρηείσθω SIG 1009.7

    (Chalcedon, iii/ii B. C.); [ per.] 2pl.

    χρῆσθε And.1.11

    ; [ per.] 3pl.

    χρήσθων Ar.Nu. 439

    (s. v.l.; v. infr.111.4b), Th.5.18;

    χρώσθων IG12.122.5

    ; [dialect] Dor.

    χρόνσθω Mnemos.57.208

    (Argos, vi B. C.); inf. [dialect] Att. and [dialect] Ion.

    χρῆσθαι IG12.57.19

    , Ar.Av. 1040, Lys.25.20, SIG57.5 (Milet., v B. C.), IG12(5).593 A12 (Ceos, v B. C.); [dialect] Ion. and Hellenistic

    χρᾶσθαι Hdt. 2.15

    , 3.20, al., IG12(5).606.9 (Ceos, iv/iii B. C.), SIG344.50 (Teos, iv B. C.), 1106.80 (Cos, iv/iii B. C.), PCair.Zen.299.10 (iii B. C.), OGI214.19 (Didyma, iii B. C.), IG22.1325.24 (both forms in Phld.Rh.1.66S. and Ph.Bel.,

    χρῆσθαι 57.35

    , al.,

    χρᾶσθαι 53.49

    , al.), [dialect] Ion. χρέεσθαι as v.l. for χρῆσθαι Hdt.1.21, 187, al. ( χρῆσθαι ib. 153 codd.), so in Arc., IG5 (2).514.14 (Lycosura, ii B. C.), Elean

    χρηῆσται Inscr.Olymp.1.3

    (vii/vi B. C.), [dialect] Boeot.

    χρειεῖσθη IG7.3169

    (Orchom., iii B. C.); [dialect] Locr. and [dialect] Lacon.

    χρῆσται IG9(1).334.19

    , 23 (Oeanthea, v B. C.), 5(1).1317.8 (Thalamae, iv/iii B. C.); part. [dialect] Att.

    χρώμενος A.Eu. 655

    , IG12.81.6, etc.; [dialect] Ep. and [dialect] Ion.

    χρεώμενος Il.23.834

    (as a dactyl), Hdt.2.108, Hp.Acut.18, [dialect] Dor.

    χρείμενος SIG395.4

    , 438.11 (both Delph., iii B. C.), Berl.Sitzb.1927.156 ([place name] Cyrene),

    χρήμενος Riv.Fil.58.472

    (Gortyn, iii B. C.),

    χρεύμενος SIG1166.3

    ([place name] Dodona): [tense] impf. [dialect] Att.

    ἐχρώμην Antipho 5.63

    ,

    ἐχρῶ Ar.Ra. 111

    , And.1.49,

    ἐχρῆτο Th.1.130

    , etc.; pl.,

    ἐχρώμεθα Lys.Fr.29

    ,

    ἐχρῶντο Antipho 6.28

    , etc.; [dialect] Ion.

    ἐχρᾶτο Hdt.2.173

    (v.l. -ῆτο), 3.3, 129, al. (also found in Anaxipp.1.9 codd.Ath.),

    ἐχρέωντο Hdt.2.108

    , al.: but

    ἐχρῆτο 3.41

    codd., Herod.6.55, ([etym.] προς-) Hp.Epid.3.17.ά: [tense] fut.

    χρήσομαι S.Ph. 1133

    (lyr.), etc.; also

    κεχρήσομαι Theoc.16.73

    : [tense] aor.

    ἐχρησάμην S.OT 117

    , Th.5.7, al.: [tense] pf. κέχρημαι (v. infr. 1): [tense] aor. ἐχρήσθην in pass. sense (v. infr. vii):—in [tense] pf. κέχρημαι (with [tense] pres. sense) c. gen., desire, yearn after, the usual sense in [dialect] Ep., οὔτ' εὐνῆς πρόφασιν κεχρημένος (sc. αὐτῆς)

    οὔτε τευ ἄλλου Il.19.262

    ;

    νόστου κεχρημένον ἠδὲ γυναικός Od.1.13

    ;

    κομιδῆς κεχρημένοι ἄνδρες 14.124

    , cf. 17.421, 20.378, 22.50;

    μαντοσυνεων κεχρημένοι Emp.112.10

    .
    2 to be in want of, lack,

    τοῦ κεχρημένοι; S.Ph. 1264

    , cf. E.IA 382 (troch.); [

    βορᾶς] κεχρημένοι Id.Cyc.98

    ;

    οὐ πόνων κεχρήμεθα Id.Med. 334

    ;

    τίνος κέχρησθε, γυναῖκες; Theoc.26.18

    : [tense] fut.,

    ὃς ἐμεῦ κεχρήσετ' ἀοιδοῦ Id.16.73

    ; χρήσομεθα εἰς τὰ ἔργα καὶ ὁδοῦ.. καὶ ὕδατος we shall need.., SIG1182.12 (Ephes., iii B. C.): freq. abs. in part. κεχρημένος, lacking, needy, Od.14.155, 17.347, Hes.Op. 317, 500, E.Supp. 327, Pl.Lg. 717c: but κεχρηόσι δαίτης is f.l. for κεχαρηόσι in Nic.Fr.70.18.
    3 [tense] pf. and [tense] plpf. κέχρημαι, κεχρήμην, in [tense] pres. and [tense] impf. sense, c. dat., enjoy, have, φρεσὶ γὰρ κέχρητ' ἀγαθῇσι ([etym.] ν) Od.3.266, 14.421, 16.398; αὕτη (sc. ἡ χώρη)

    ὕδασι κάλλιστα κέχρηται Hp.

    Aër.12; ἡ καταδεεστέροις τούτοις (sc. τοῖς εἴδεσι)

    κεχρημένη τραγῳδία Arist.Po. 1450a32

    , cf. a13, b33; ἄλλαις, μικραῖς διαφοραῖς, Id.Metaph. 1042b31, Phgn. 809a8; ὑγροτέραις σαρξί ib. b11; θριξὶ ξανθαῖς ib.25;

    καθαρωτάτῳ.. αἵματι Id.Resp. 477a21

    ; τῶν.. πλαγίαις ταῖς ῥάβδοις κεχρημένων (sc. ἰχθύων) Id.Fr. 295;

    εὐγενείᾳ κεχρημένος IG42(1).83.10

    (Epid., i A. D.);

    σφαιρικῷ ὄγκῳ PLit.Lond.167.25

    (ii/iii A. D.), cf. κεχρημένως ([place name] Addenda); so in [tense] pres.,

    χρῶνται δειλαῖς φρεσὶ, δαίμονι δ' ἐσθλῷ Thgn.161

    ; μέρη

    τραγῳδίας, οἷς ὡς εἴδεσι δεῖ χρῆσθαι, πρότερον εἴπομεν Arist.Po. 1452b14

    , cf. 1458b14.
    II use, [tense] pres. once in Hom., abs.,

    ἑξει μιν καὶ πέντε περιπλομένους ἐνιαυτοὺς χρεώμενος Il.23.834

    : later mostly c. dat. (for acc. v. infr. VI),

    ἀκμαζούσῃ τῇ ῥώμῃ τῶν χειρῶν χρώμενος Antipho 4.3.3

    ;

    ἐσθῆτι τοιῇδε χρέωνται Hdt.1.195

    , cf. 202, Ar.Ra. 1061 (anap.);

    διφασίοισι γράμμασι χ. Hdt.2.36

    ; τοῖσιοὐνόμασι τῶν θεῶν ib.52; πλατυτέροισι ἐχρέωντο τοῖσι πόμασι, ἐκ φρεάτων χρεώμενοι ib. 108; τοῖσι ἐποποιοῖσι χρεώμενον λέγειν ib. 120; ὅστις ἐμπύρῳ χρῆται τέχνῃ consults burnt offerings, E.Ph. 954; χ. ἀργυρίῳ make use of money, Pl.R. 333b;

    ἀργύρῳ Ar.Ec. 822

    ; χ. ἵπποις manage them, X.Smp.2.10; χ. ἰχθύσι use for food, Plu.2.668f; οἴνῳ χ. ἐπὶ πλέον ib.715d; χ. ναυτιλίῃσι, θαλάσσῃ, Hdt.2.43, Th.1.3;

    ὠνῇ καὶ πρήσι Hdt.1.153

    ;

    δρασμῷ Aeschin.3.21

    ;

    τέχναις X.Mem.3.10.1

    , Oec.4.4;

    τῇ τέχνῃ POxy.1029.25

    (ii A. D.); χρώμενοι τῇ πόλει taking a part in politics, E. Ion 602;

    ἐκκλησίαισιν ἦν ὅτ' οὐκ ἐχρώμεθα Ar.Ec. 183

    ; ἄλλον τρόπον τῇ πολιτείᾳ κέχρημαι, = πεπολίτευμαι, Hyp.Eux.28;

    φωνὴν δυναμένην ὄχλῳ χρῆσθαι Isoc.5.81

    ; τῇ τραπέζῃ τῇ τοῦ πατρὸς ἐχρῆτο he had dealings with my father's bank, D.52.3; χ. τοῖς πράγμασι καὶ τοῖς καιροῖς administer them, Isoc.6.50.
    III experience, suffer, be subject to, esp. external events or conditions,

    δάμαρτος 'Ιππολύτας Ἀκάστου δολίαις τέχναισι χρησάμενος

    having experienced,

    Pi.N.4.58

    ;

    κείμεθ' ἀγηράντῳ χρώμενοι εὐλογίῃ Simon.100.4

    ;

    νιφετῷ Hdt.4.50

    ;

    στίβῃ καὶ νιφετῷ Call.Epigr.33.3

    ;

    χειμῶνι Antipho 5.21

    , D.18.194;

    λαίλαπι AP7.503

    (Leon.); στυγεροῖς πνεύμασι Epigr. ap. D.S.13.41 (iv B. C.);

    ἀνάγκῃ Antipho 5.22

    ;

    οἰκεῖα πράγματ' εἰσάγων, οἷς χρώμεθ', οἷς σύνεσμεν Ar.Ra. 959

    ;

    γυναικῶν τῶν τοῖς τόκοις χρωμένων πλείοσιν Arist.HA 582a24

    ;

    ἀπεψίαις χ. IG42(1).126.4

    (Epid., ii A. D.);

    ἑκὼν.. οὐδεὶς δουλίῳ χρῆται ζυγῷ A.Ag. 953

    ; νόμοισι χ. live under laws, Hdt. 1.173, 216, cf. IG9(1).334.19 ([dialect] Locr., v B. C.);

    νόμοις τοῖς ἰδίοις Riv.Fil.58.472

    (Gortyn, iii B. C.);

    ἀνομίᾳ X.Mem.1.2.24

    ;

    γαλανείᾳ χρησάμενοι μανιάδων οἴστρων E.IA 546

    (lyr.); χ. εὐμαρείᾳ to be at ease, S.Tr. 193 (but, ease oneself, Hdt.2.35);

    συντυχίῃ χ. Id.5.41

    ;

    τύχῃ E.Heracl. 714

    , And.1.67, 120;

    πολλῇ εὐτυχίᾳ Pl.Men. 72a

    ; πολλῇ τῇ νίκῃ χρῆται, = παρὰ πολὺ νικᾷ, And.4.31;

    συμφορῇ κεχρημένος Hdt.1.42

    , cf. E.Med. 347;

    τοιούτῳ μόρῳ ἐχρήσατο ὁ παῖς Hdt. 1.117

    ; θείῃ πομπῇ χρεώμενος divinely sent, ib.62; of mental conditions present in the subject, τῷ χόλῳ χρέομαι I feel anger, Sophr. 126;

    λογισάμενος ἢν εὑρίσκῃ πλέω τε καὶ μέζω τὰ ἀδικήματα ἐόντα τῶν ὑποργημάτων, οὕτω τῷ θυμῷ χρᾶται Hdt.1.137

    ; μὴ πάντα θυμῷ χρέο ib. 155;

    ὀργῇ χρωμένη S.OT 1241

    ;

    ὀργῇ μεγάλῃ μοι ἐχρήσω LXX Jb.10.17

    , cf. 19.11, al.; ἀγνωμοσύνῃ χρησάμενοι ἀπέστησαν they stiffened their necks and.. Hdt.5.83; οἴησις γάρ, καὶ μάλιστα ἐν ἰητρικῇ, αἰτίην μὲντοῖσι κεχρημένοισιν, ὄλεθρον δὲ τοῖσι χρεωμένοισι ἐπιφέρει vanity brings blame on its possessor (or victim) and ruin on those who consult him, Hp Decent.4;

    πολλῇ ἀνοίᾳ χρώμενος Antipho 3.3.2

    ;

    ἀμαθίᾳ πλέονι.. χρῆσθε Th.1.68

    ;

    ταῖς ἐπιθυμίαις μείζοσιν ἢ κατὰ τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν οὐσίαν ἐχρῆτο Id.6.15

    ;

    φθόνῳ καὶ διαβολῇ χ. Pl.Ap. 18d

    ;

    οὺ τῇ ἑαυτοῦ ἁμαρτίᾳ ἀλλὰ τῇ τοῦ πατάξαντος χρησάμενος ἀπέθανεν Antipho 4.3.4

    ;

    τοῖς ἁμαρτήμασι παραπλησίοις ἐχρήσαντο Isoc.8.104

    ;

    μή τι ἄρα τῇ ἐλαφρίᾳ ἐχρησάμην; 2 Ep.Cor.1.17

    .
    2 with verbal nouns. periphr. for the verb derived from the noun, ἀληθέϊ λόγῳ χ. use true speech, i.e. speak the truth, Hdt.1.14; ἀληθείῃ χ. ib. 116, 7.101; βοῇ χ. set up a cry, Id.4.134; τοιούτῳ πράγματι οὐ κέχρησαι, = οὐδὲν τοιοῦτο ἔπραξας, Hyp.Eux.11; δαψιλέϊ τῷ ποτῷ (fort. πότῳ)

    χρησαμένους Hdt.2.121

    .δ'; ἐσόδῳ χρέο πυκνῶς visit often, Hp.Decent.13;

    ἡ σελήνη.. διὰ παντὸς τῇ ἴσῃ παραυξήσει καὶ μειώσει χρῆται Gem.18.16

    .
    3 c. dupl. dat., use as so and so,

    τοῖς ἀγαθοῖσιν.. χ. πρὸς τὰ κακὰ ἀλκῇ Democr.173

    ;

    μιᾷ πόλει ταύτῃ χ. Th.2.15

    ;

    χ. τῷ σίτῳ ὄψῳ ἢ τῷ ὄψῳ σίτῳ X.Mem.3.14.4

    .
    4 χ. τισιν ἔς τι use for an end or purpose, Hdt.1.34;

    πρός τι X.Oec.11.13

    ;

    ἐπί τι Id.Mem.1.2.9

    ; ἀμφί or περί τι, Id.Oec.9.6, An.3.5.10; with neut. Adj. or Pron. as Adv., τάδε [τῷ ἀμφιβλήστρῳ] χ. makes the following use of the net, Hdt.2.95;

    χρέωνται οὐδὲν ἐλαίῳ Id.1.193

    ; χρυσῷ καὶ χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται ib. 215; λογισμῷ ἐλάχιστα χ., πλεῖστα ἀρετῇ χ., Th.2.11, 5.105; τί χρήσεταί ποτ' αὐτῷ; what use will he make of him? Ar.Ach. 935, cf. X.An.1.3.18;

    χ. τἀνδρὶ τοῖς τ' ἐμοῖς λόγοις S.Tr.60

    ;

    ἠπορούμην ὅ τι χρησαίμην τῇ τούτου παρανομίᾳ Lys.3.10

    .
    b treat, deal with,

    παραδίδωμι χρᾶσθαι αὐτῷ τοῦτο ὅ τι σὺ βούλεαι Hdt.1.210

    , cf. Ar.Nu. 439 (anap.; fort. delendum χρήσθων), Isoc.12.107; εἰ τύχοι (sc. γυνὴ)

    μὴ ἐπιτηδεία γενομένη, τί χρὴ τῇ συμφορᾷ χρῆσθαι; Antipho Soph.49

    ; ἀπορέων ὅ τι χρήσηται τῷ παρεόντι πρήγματι not knowing what to make of it, Hdt.7.213;

    ἠπόρει ὅτι χρήσαιτο Pl.Prt. 321c

    ;

    οὐκ ἂν ἔχοις ὅτι χρῷο σαυτῷ Id.Cri. 45b

    ; in elliptical phrases,

    τί οὖν χρησώμεθα; Id.Ly. 213c

    ;

    Θηβαίους ἔχοντες.. τί χρήσεσθε; D.8.74

    : c. dat. et acc. cogn.,

    χρωμένους τῷ κτείναντι χρείαν ἣν ἂν ἐθέλωσι Pl.Lg. 868b

    , cf. 785b, Clit. 407e.
    IV of persons, χρῆσθαί τινι ὡς .. treat him as..,

    χ. τινὶ ὡς ἀνδρὶ ψεύστῃ Hdt.7.209

    ; χ. [τισὶν] ὡς πολεμίοις, ὡς φίλοις καὶ πιστοῖς, treat as friends or enemies, regard them as such, Th.1.53, X.Cyr.4.2.8; so

    φιλικώτερον χρῆσθαί τισι Id.Mem.4.3.12

    ;

    ὑβριστικῶς χ. τισί D.56.12

    ; also without

    ὡς, ἔμοιγε χρώμενος διδασκάλῳ A.Pr. 324

    , cf. Heraclit.104;

    ὥς γ' ἐμοὶ χρῆσθαι κριτῇ E.Alc. 801

    ;

    οὐ σφόδρα ἐχρώμην Αυκίνῳ φίλῳ Antipho 5.63

    ;

    πλείστοις καὶ δεινοτάτοις ἐχροῖς χ. And.4.2

    ;

    ἀσθενέσι χ. πολεμίοις X.Cyr.3.2.4

    .
    b χρῆσθαί τινι (without φίλῳ) to be intimate with a man, X.Hier.5.2, Mem.4.8.11;

    χρῆσθαι καὶ συνεῖναί τισι And.1.49

    ; ἀνάγκη, ὃς ἂν γένηται (sc. παῖς, son), τούτῳ χρῆσθαι one must put up with the son that is born, Democr.277: ἰητρῷ μὴ χρωμένους not consulting a doctor, Hp. de Arte5 (so c. dat. et acc., ἐσιέναι παρὰ βασιλέα μηδένα, δι' ἀγγέλων δὲ πάντα χρᾶσθαι (sc. αὐτῷ) deal with him in everything by messengers, Hdt.1.99); so Πλάτωνι, Ξενοφῶντι, χ. use, study their writings, Plu.2.79d: abs.,

    οἱ χρώμενοι

    friends,

    X.Ages.11.13

    , Mem.2.6.5, Isoc.6.44.
    2 esp. of sexual intercourse,

    γυναιξὶ ἐχρᾶτο Hdt.2.181

    , cf. X.Mem.1.2.29, 2.1.30, Is.3.10, D.59.67.
    3 χρῆσθαι ἑαυτῷ make use ofoneself or one's powers, with a part.,

    οὐδ' ὑγιαίνοντι χρώμενος ἑαυτῷ Plu.Nic.17

    ;

    αὑτῷ νήφοντι χ. Id.Eum.16

    : so with an Adv.,

    χ. ἑαντῷ πρὸς τοὺς κινδύνους ἀφειδῶς Id.Alex.45

    ; παρέχειν ἑαυτὸν ταῖς ἀρχαῖς χρῆσθαι place oneself at the disposal of another, X.Cyr.1.2.13, cf. 8.1.5.
    V abs., or with Adv., χρῶνται Πέρσαι οὕτω so the Persians are wont to do, such is their custom. ib.4.3.23.
    VI in later Gk. ( τῷ μεγαλόφρονι shd. be read for τὸ μεγαλόφρον in X.Ages.11.11) c. acc. rei,

    χ. τὰ ἀπὸ λιμένων.. εἰς διοίκησιν τῆς πόλεως Arist.Oec. 1350a7

    ; [θησαυρὸν] χρησάμενοι (v.l. κτησάμενοι) LXXWi.7.14;

    οἱ χρώμενοι τὸν κόσμον ὡς μὴ καταχρώμενοι 1 Ep.Cor.7.31

    ;

    ἄνηθον μετ' ἐλαίου χρήσασθαι IG42(1).126.27

    (Epid., ii A. D.);

    ὕδωρ χρῶ PTeb.273.28

    (ii/iii A. D.):— for Hdt.1.99, v. supr. IV. 1b.
    VII [voice] Pass., to be used, esp. in [tense] aor., αἱ δὲ (sc. αἱ νέες)

    οὐκ ἐχρήσθησαν Hdt.7.144

    ; τέως ἂν χρησθῇ so long as it be in use, D.21.16; [

    σιδήρου τοῦ] χρησθέντος εἰς τύλους Supp.Epigr.4.447.48

    (Didyma, ii B. C.); Hsch. also has χρησθήσεται· χρησιμεύσει:—v. supr. A.11.
    D for χρή, v. sub voc. (Origin and historical order of the forms and senses not clear: χρή and χρῄζω are cogn.)

    Greek-English dictionary (Αγγλικά Ελληνικά-λεξικό) > χράω

  • 11 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 12 номинальное напряжение

    1. Un
    2. rated voltage
    3. nominal voltage
    4. design voltage

     

    номинальное напряжение
    Напряжение, установленное изготовителем для прибора
    [ ГОСТ Р 52161. 1-2004 ( МЭК 60335-1: 2001)]

    номинальное напряжение Uном, кВ
    Номинальное междуфазное напряжение электрической сети, для работы в которой предназначены коммутационные аппараты.
    [ ГОСТ Р 52726-2007]

    номинальное напряжение

    Un
    Напряжение, применяемое для обозначения или идентификации системы электроснабжения.
    [ ГОСТ Р 51317.4.30-2008 (МЭК 61000-4-30:2008)]

    EN

    rated voltage
    voltage assigned to the appliance by the manufacturer
    [IEC 60335-1, ed. 4.0 (2001-05)]

    rated voltage
    quantity value assigned, generally by the manufacturer, for a specified operating condition of a machine
    [IEC 60034-18-41, ed. 1.0 (2006-10)]

    rated voltage
    input or output supply voltage for which equipment is designed or specified
    [IEC 88528-11, ed. 1.0 (2004-03)]

    rated voltage
    specified value of the voltage at the terminals of the machine when operating at a rating. If unidirectional, the voltage is the arithmetic mean of the recurring waveform and if alternating it is the root mean square value of the fundamental frequency component of the recurring waveform
    NOTE - In the case of a machine with a protective resistor permanently in series, the resistor is considered as an integral part of the machine
    [IEC 60349-1, ed. 1.0 (1999-11)]

    rated voltage
    the value of voltage assigned by the manufacturer to a component, device or equipment and to which operation and performance characteristics are referred
    NOTE - Equipment may have more than one rated voltage value or may have a rated voltage range.
    [IEC 62497-1, ed. 1.0 (2010-02)]

    rated voltage
    reference voltage for which the cable is designed, and which serves to define the electrical tests
    NOTE 1 - The rated voltage is expressed by the combination of two values: Uo/U expressed in volts (V):
    Uo being the r.m.s. value between any insulated conductor and "earth" (metal covering of the cable or the surrounding medium);
    U being the r.m.s. value between any two phase conductors of a multicore cable or of a system of single-core cables.
    In an alternating-current system, the rated voltage of a cable is at least equal to the nominal voltage of the system for which it is intended.
    This condition applies both to the value Uo and to the value U.
    In a direct current system, the nominal voltage of the system is not higher than 1,5 times the rated voltage of the cable.
    NOTE 2 - The operating voltage of a system may permanently exceed the nominal voltage of such a system by 10 %. A cable can be used at a 10 % higher operating voltage than its rated voltage if the latter is at least equal to the nominal voltage of the system
    [IEC 60245-1, ed. 4.0 (2003-12)]

    rated voltage
    highest allowable voltage between the conductors in a twin and multi conductor cable, or between one conductor and an electrical conductive screen, or between the two ends of a single core cable, or earth in unscreened cables
    [IEC 60800, ed. 3.0 (2009-07)]

    rated voltage
    the r.m.s. line-to-line voltage under rated conditions
    Primary side of input transformer: ULN
    Converter input: UVN
    Converter output: UaN
    Motor voltage: UAN
    [IEC 61800-4, ed. 1.0 (2002-09)]

    rated voltage
    input or output voltage (for three-phase supply, the phase-to-phase voltage) as declared by the manufacturer
    [IEC 62040-1, ed. 1.0 (2008-06)]

    nominal voltage, Un
    voltage by which a system is designated or identified
    [IEC 61000-4-30, ed. 2.0 (2008-10)]

    FR

    tension assignée
    tension attribuée à l'appareil par le fabricant
    [IEC 60335-1, ed. 4.0 (2001-05)]

    tension nominale
    tension assignée, généraleme<>value of voltage assigned by the manufacturer, to a componentnt par le constructeur pour des conditions spécifiées de fonctionnement de la machine
    [IEC 60034-18-41, ed. 1.0 (2006-10)]

    tension assignée
    tension spécifiée aux bornes de la machine quand celle-ci fonctionne au régime assigné. Dans le cas d'une tension redressée, sa valeur est égale à la valeur moyenne de l'onde périodique. Dans le cas d'une tension alternative, sa valeur est égale à la valeur efficace de la composante fondamentale de l'onde périodique
    NOTE - Dans le cas d'une machine équipée d'une résistance de protection connectée en permanence en série, la résistance est considérée comme faisant partie intégrante de la machine
    [IEC 60349-1, ed. 1.0 (1999-11)]

    tension assignée
    valeur de la tension, assignée par le constructeur à un composant, à un dispositif ou à un matériel, et à laquelle on se réfère pour le fonctionnement et pour les caractéristiques fonctionnelles
    NOTE - Les matériels peuvent avoir plusieurs valeurs ou une plage de tensions assignées.
    [IEC 62497-1, ed. 1.0 (2010-02)]

    tension assignée
    tension de référence pour laquelle le conducteur ou le câble est prévu et qui sert à définir les essais électriques
    NOTE 1 - La tension assignée est exprimée par la combinaison de deux valeurs Uo /U, exprimées en volts (V):
    Uo étant la valeur efficace entre l'âme d'un conducteur isolé quelconque et la «terre» (revêtement métallique du câble au milieu environnant);
    U étant la valeur efficace entre les âmes conductrices de deux conducteurs de phase quelconques d'un câble multiconducteur ou d'un système de câbles monoconducteurs ou de conducteurs.
    Dans un système à courant alternatif, la tension assignée d'un conducteur ou d’un câble est au moins égale à la tension nominale du système pour lequel il est prévu.
    Cette condition s'applique à la fois à la valeur Uo et à la valeur U.
    Dans un système à courant continu, la tension nominale admise du système n’est pas supérieure à 1,5 fois la tension assignée du conducteur ou du câble.
    NOTE 2 - La tension de service d'un système peut en permanence dépasser la tension nominale dudit système de 10 %. Un conducteur ou un câble peut être utilisé à une tension de service supérieure de 10 % à sa tension assignée si cette dernière est au moins égale à la tension nominale du système
    [IEC 60245-1, ed. 4.0 (2003-12)]

    tension assignée
    tension maximale admissible entre les âmes dans un câble ayant une paire ou multi conducteur ou entre une âme et un écran conducteur électrique ou avec la terre pour un câble non écranté ou encore entre les deux extrémités d’un câble à âme unique
    [IEC 60800, ed. 3.0 (2009-07)]

    tension assignée
    valeur efficace de la tension de ligne (entre phases) dans les conditions assignées
    Primaire du transformateur d’entrée: ULN
    Entrée du convertisseur: UVN
    Sortie du convertisseur: UaN
    Moteur: UAN
    [IEC 61800-4, ed. 1.0 (2002-09)]

    tension assignée
    tension d’alimentation d’entrée ou de sortie (dans le cas d’une alimentation triphasée, tension entre phases) déclarée par le constructeur
    [IEC 62040-1, ed. 1.0 (2008-06)]

    tension nominale, Un
    tension par laquelle un réseau est désigné ou identifié
    [IEC 61000-4-30, ed. 2.0 (2008-10)]

    Тематики

    Синонимы

    • Un

    EN

    FR

    1.5.10 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Номинальное напряжение - это либо эффективное значение рабочего напряжения номинальной частоты, либо рабочее постоянное напряжение, которое можно длительно подавать на выводы конденсатора при любой температуре между нижней и верхней температурами категории. Это означает, что у конденсаторов, на которые распространяется настоящий стандарт, напряжение категории равно номинальному напряжению.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60384-14-2004: Конденсаторы постоянной емкости для электронной аппаратуры. Часть 14. Групповые технические условия на конденсаторы постоянной емкости для подавления электромагнитных помех и соединения с питающими магистралями оригинал документа

    3.2.1 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение, указанное изготовителем для этой машины, или напряжение между фазами (линейное) - при трехфазном питании.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60745-1-2005: Машины ручные электрические. Безопасность и методы испытаний. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    3.25 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение, установленное изготовителем соединителей, которое указывается в стандартах или технических условиях.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 51322.1-2011: Соединители электрические штепсельные бытового и аналогичного назначения. Часть 1. Общие требования и методы испытаний оригинал документа

    3.4 номинальное напряжение (nominal voltage): Подходящее приблизительное значение напряжения, используемое для идентификации напряжения аккумулятора или батареи.

    Примечания

    1. Номинальное напряжение литиевых аккумуляторов указано в таблице 1.

    2. Номинальное напряжение батареи, состоящей из n соединенных последовательно аккумуляторов, равно номинальному напряжению отдельного аккумулятора, увеличенному в n раз.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 61960-2007: Аккумуляторы и аккумуляторные батареи, содержащие щелочной и другие некислотные электролиты. Аккумуляторы и аккумуляторные батареи литиевые для портативного применения оригинал документа

    3.23 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Значение напряжения, на которое рассчитаны рабочие и эксплуатационные характеристики распределенных электронагревателей.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60079-30-1-2009: Взрывоопасные среды. Резистивный распределенный электронагреватель. Часть 30-1. Общие технические требования и методы испытаний оригинал документа

    1.5.9 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение или диапазон напряжения, заданное(ый) в соответствии с настоящим стандартом.

    Примечание - Если в маркировке на лампе приведен диапазон напряжения, это значит, что возможна эксплуатация ламп при любом значении напряжения в пределах этого диапазона.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 52706-2007: Лампы накаливания вольфрамовые для бытового и аналогичного общего освещения. Эксплуатационные требования оригинал документа

    1.2.1.1. номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Указанное изготовителем напряжение источника сетевого электропитания (для трехфазного источника электропитания принимают линейное напряжение).

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60950-1-2009: Оборудование информационных технологий. Требования безопасности. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    1.2.1.1 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Указанное изготовителем напряжение источника сетевого электропитания (для трехфазного источника электропитания принимают линейное напряжение).

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60950-1-2005: Оборудование информационных технологий. Требования безопасности. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    3.37 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Значение напряжения для заданных условий эксплуатации.

    Значение и условия должны быть указаны в соответствующем стандарте или изготовителем, или ответственным поставщиком.

    Примечание - Номинальное напряжение выражают в вольтах (В).

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 54814-2011: Светодиоды и светодиодные модули для общего освещения. Термины и определения оригинал документа

    1.3.4 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение или диапазон напряжения, заданное(ый) в соответствии с настоящим стандартом.

    Примечание - Если в маркировке на лампе приведен диапазон напряжения, это значит, что возможна эксплуатация ламп при любом значении напряжения в пределах этого диапазона.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 52712-2007: Требования безопасности для ламп накаливания. Часть 1. Лампы накаливания вольфрамовые для бытового и аналогичного общего освещения оригинал документа

    3.15 номинальное напряжение (nominal voltage): Соответствующее приблизительное значение напряжения, которое используют при проектировании или идентификации элемента, батареи или электрохимической системы.

    [IEV 482-03-31:2004]

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60086-4-2009: Батареи первичные. Часть 4. Безопасность литиевых батарей оригинал документа

    3.10 номинальное напряжение (nominal voltage): Соответствующее приблизительное значение напряжения, которое используют для идентификации первичной батареи.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60086-5-2009: Батареи первичные. Часть 5. Безопасность батарей с водным электролитом оригинал документа

    3.40 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение, установленное для машины изготовителем. При трехфазном питании - напряжение между фазами.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60745-1-2009: Машины ручные электрические. Безопасность и методы испытаний. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    3.2.1 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение, указанное изготовителем для этой машины, или напряжение между фазами (линейное) - при трехфазном питании.

    Источник: ГОСТ IEC 60745-1-2011: Машины ручные электрические. Безопасность и методы испытаний. Часть 1. Общие требования

    3.11 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage), UH (UN): Напряжение при номинальной частоте, прикладываемое между линейными выводами обмотки.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 54801-2011: Трансформаторы тяговые и реакторы железнодорожного подвижного состава. Основные параметры и методы испытаний оригинал документа

    3.7 номинальное напряжение (design voltage): Объявленное изготовителем напряжение, к которому относятся все характеристики устройства управления лампами и которое должно быть не менее 85 % наибольшего значения диапазона нормируемого напряжения.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 61347-1-2011: Устройства управления лампами. Часть 1. Общие требования и требования безопасности оригинал документа

    3.103 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Напряжение, указанное изготовителем, для конкретного корпуса.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 50827.5-2009: Коробки и корпусы для электрических аппаратов, устанавливаемые в стационарные электрические установки бытового и аналогичного назначения. Часть 24. Специальные требования к коробкам и корпусам, предназначенным для установки защитных и аналогичных аппаратов с большой рассеиваемой мощностью оригинал документа

    3.2.1 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage); Ur:Междуфазное напряжение на выводах генератора при номинальных частоте и мощности.

    Примечание - Номинальное напряжение генератора для рабочих и эксплуатационных характеристик устанавливает изготовитель.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р 53986-2010: Электроагрегаты генераторные переменного тока с приводом от двигателя внутреннего сгорания. Часть 3. Генераторы переменного тока оригинал документа

    3.2.1. номинальное напряжение (rated voltage):

    Напряжение, для которого сконструирована установка (или ее часть).

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60519-1-2005: Безопасность электротермического оборудования. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    2.3 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Стандартное напряжение, на которое рассчитан кабель и которое служит для определения параметров электрических испытаний.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60245-1-2006: Кабели с резиновой изоляцией на номинальное напряжение до 450/750 В включительно. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    2.3 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Стандартное напряжение, на которое рассчитан кабель и которое служит для определения параметров электрических испытаний.

    Примечание 1 - Номинальное напряжение выражается сочетанием двух значений U0/U, выраженных в вольтах (В):

    U0 - среднеквадратическое значение между любой изолированной жилой и «землей» (металлическим покрытием кабеля или окружающей средой);

    U - среднеквадратическое значение между любыми двумя фазными жилами многожильного кабеля или системы одножильных кабелей.

    В системе переменного тока номинальное напряжение кабеля должно быть не менее номинального напряжения системы, для которой он предназначен.

    Это условие относится как к значению U0, так и к значению U.

    В системе постоянного тока номинальное напряжение системы должно быть не более полуторного значения номинального напряжения кабеля.

    Примечание 2 - Рабочее напряжение системы может постоянно превышать номинальное напряжение такой системы до 10 %. Кабель можно использовать при рабочем напряжении на 10 % выше его номинального напряжения, если последнее по крайней мере равно номинальному напряжению системы.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60245-1-2009: Кабели с резиновой изоляцией на номинальное напряжение до 450/750 В включительно. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    2.3 номинальное напряжение (rated voltage): Стандартное напряжение, на которое рассчитан кабель, служащее для определения параметров электрических испытаний.

    Номинальное напряжение выражают сочетанием двух значений - U0/U, выраженных в вольтах:

    U0- среднеквадратическое значение между любой изолированной жилой и «землей» (металлическим покрытием кабеля или окружающей средой);

    U - среднеквадратическое значение между любыми двумя фазными жилами многожильного кабеля или системы одножильных кабелей.

    В системе переменного тока номинальное напряжение кабеля должно быть не менее номинального напряжения системы, для которого он предназначен.

    Это требование относится как к значению U0, так и к значению U.

    В системе постоянного тока номинальное напряжение системы должно быть не более полуторного значения номинального напряжения кабеля.

    Примечание - Рабочее напряжение системы может постоянно превышать номинальное напряжение этой системы до 10 %. Кабель можно использовать при рабочем напряжении, на 10 % превышающем номинальное напряжение, если последнее по крайней мере равно номинальному напряжению системы.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р МЭК 60227-1-2009: Кабели с поливинилхлоридной изоляцией на номинальное напряжение до 450/750 В включительно. Часть 1. Общие требования оригинал документа

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > номинальное напряжение

  • 13 East Timor

       Colony of Portugal from the 16th century to December 1975, with an area of 40,000 square kilometers (18,989 square miles). East Timor is located on the eastern portion of the island of Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. From 1975 to August 1999, when it was forcibly annexed and occupied by Indonesia, until May 2002, when it achieved full independence, East Timor was, in effect, a ward of the United Nations.
       In the 16th century, the Portuguese established trading posts on the island, but for centuries few Portuguese settled there, and the "colony" remained isolated and neglected. After the Dutch won control of Indonesia, there was a territorial dispute with Portugal as to who "owned" what on the island of Timor. In 1859, this question was decided as the Dutch and Portuguese governments formally divided the island into a Dutch portion (west) and the Portuguese colony (east) and established the frontier. From the late 19th century to World War I, Portugal consolidated its control of East Timor by means of military campaigns against the Timorese tribes. In addition to colonial officials, a few Portuguese missionaries and merchants occupied East Timor, but few Portuguese ever settled there.
       East Timor's geographic location close to the north coast of Australia and its sharing of one island in the Dutch colony catapulted it into world affairs early in World War II. To forestall a Japanese invasion of Timor, a joint Dutch-Australian expedition landed on 17 December 1941; the Portuguese authorities neither resisted nor cooperated. In February 1942, when Japanese troops landed in Timor, the small allied force fled to the hills and later was evacuated to Australia. Japan occupied all of Timor and the remainder of the Dutch East Indies until Japan's surrender in September 1945. Portugal soon reassumed control.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, East Timorese nationalist parties hoped for rapid decolonization and independence with Lisbon's cooperation. But on 28 November 1975, before a preoccupied Portugal could work out a formal transfer of power, the Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor (FRETILIN), then in control of the former colony's capital, declared independence, and, on 7 December 1975, Indonesian armed forces swiftly invaded, occupied, and annexed East Timor. In the following years, a tragic loss of life occurred. Portugal refused to recognize Indonesia's sovereignty over East Timor and claimed legal sovereignty before the United Nations.
       As Indonesia persistently and brutally suppressed Timorese nationalist resistance, world media attention focused on this still remote island. Several sensational international and Indonesian events altered the status of occupied East Timor, following the continuation of FRETILIN guerrilla resistance. In November 1991, world media disseminated information on the Indonesian forces' slaughter of East Timorese protesters at a cemetery demonstration in the capital of Dili. In 1996, two East Timorese, Bishop Belo and José Ramos Horta, each a symbol of East Timorese resistance and the desire for independence, shared the Nobel Peace Prize. Then, in 1998, in Indonesia, the Suharto regime collapsed and was replaced by a more democratic government, which in January 1999 pledged a free referendum in East Timor. On 30 August 1999, the referendum was held, and nearly 80 percent of the East Timorese voters voted for independence from Indonesia.
       However, Indonesian armed forces and militias reacted brutally, using intimidation, murder, mayhem, and razing of buildings to try to reverse the people's will. Following some weeks of confusion, a United Nations (UN) armed forces, led by Australia, took control of East Timor and declared it a UN protectorate, to last until East Timor was secure from Indonesian aggression and prepared for full independence. East Timor had changed from a Portuguese colony to an Indonesian protectorate/colony to a fledgling nation-in-the-making.
       The status of East Timor as a ward of the UN was made official on 25 October 1999, as the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor began to prepare the country for independence. Appalling conditions prevailed: 70 percent of the country's buildings had been destroyed and nearly half of the population of 800,000 had been driven out of East Timor into uneasy refuge in West Timor, under Indonesian control. A territory without an economy, East Timor lacked police, civil servants, schools, and government records.
       With UN assistance, general elections were held in the spring of 2002; the majority of parliamentary seats were won by FRETILIN, and José "Xanana" Gusmão was elected the first president. On 20 May 2002, East Timor became independent. World luminaries adorned the independence celebrations: UN secretary-general Kofi Annan, former U.S. president Bill Clinton, and other celebrities attended. But East Timor's travails continued with civil strife and uncertainty.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > East Timor

  • 14 дистанция


    distance
    - (строительная или чертежная) (рис. 31) — station
    - взлета, потребная (пвд) — takeoff distance required
    пвд должна быть не больше располагаемой дистанции взлета. пвд должна выбираться как большая из указанных ниже двух величин: — the takeoff distance required shall be the greatest of:
    а) 1,15 дистанции нормального взлета. — а) 1.15 times the gross distance to accelerate with all power-units operating from the starting point to the rotation speed, to effect a transition to climbing flight and attain a screen height of 35 feet.
    б) длины дистанции продолженного взлета (нлгс-2). — b) the gross distance to accelerate with all power-units operating from the starting point to the power-unit failure point, then to accelerate to the rotation speed, and to attain a screen height of 35 feet.
    - взлета, располагаемая (рдв) — takeoff distance available
    рдв равна сумме длины впп, уменьшенной на длину участка выруливания, и свободной зоны (сз) полосы воздушных подходов (нлгс-2) (рис. 112). — the takeoff distance available is an accelerate-stop distance available augmented by the length measured in direction оf takeoff of the surface of the runway, stopway and clearway declared by the aerodrome authority suitable for climb to 15 m (50 feet).
    -, взлетная (lвзл.) — takeoff distance
    расстояние no горизонтали, проходимое самолетом с момента страгивания на линии старта до момента набоpa высоты 10 м (над уровнем впп в точке отрыва самолета) с одновременным достижением скорости не менее безопасной скорости взлета v2, характеризующее собственно взлет самолета (нлгс-2) (рис. 112). — the horizontal distance along the takeoff path from the start of the takeoff to the point at which the airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff surface.
    -, взлетная (до высоты...м) — takeoff distance (to...m)
    - выдерживания (при посадке)hold-off distance
    - выравнивания (при посадке)flare-out distance
    - между двумя разминувшимися в воздухе лаmiss distance
    - набора высоты(horizontal) distance covered in climb
    - (взлетная, прерванного взлета) — (takeoff accelerate-stop) distance
    определяемая для гладкой, сухой впп с жестким покрытием — based on smooth, dry, hard surfaced runways
    - от линии отсчета, горизонтальная — horizontal distance total from reference
    - планированияgliding distance
    -, полная взлетная (lпв) — gross takeoff distance
    расстояние no горизонтали. проходимое самолетом с момента страгивания на линии старта до момента выхода на высоту 400 м (над уровнем впп в точке отрыва самолета), либо до момента, к которому заканчивается переход от взлетной к полетной конфигурации и достигается скорость, равная 1,25 vc, для полетной конфигурации (нлгс-2)(рис.112). — the horizontal distance extending from a standing start to а point in the takeoff at which the airplane is 400 m above the takeoff surface, or at which the transition from the takeoff to en route configuration is completed and a speed 1.25 vs is reached.
    - полная посадочная (lпп)gross landing distance
    ' расстояние по горизонтали, проходимое самолетом с момента входа в глиссаду на высоте 400 м (над уровнем впп в точке ожидаемого касания самолета) при заходе на посадку до момента полной его остановки после пробега по впп (нлгс-2) (рис. 115). — the horizontal distance required for the airplane to land and to come to a complete stop from the point at which the airplane is 400 m above the landing surface.
    -, посадочная — landing distance
    расстояние по горизонтали, проходимое самолетом, с момента пролета высоты 15 м (над уровнем впп в точке ожидаемого касания самолета) при посадке до момента полной его остановки после пробега по впп (нлгс-2) (рис. 115) — the horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to а complete stop (or to a speed of approximately 3 knots for water landings) from a point 50 feet above the landing surface.
    -, потребная взлетная (см. д. взлета, потребная) — takeoff distance required (todr)
    -, потребная посадочная — landing distance required
    -, потребная посадочная - на запасном аэродроме — landing distance required-alternate aerodrome
    -, потребная посадочная - на основном аэродроме — landing distance required-destination aerodrome
    - прерванного взлета (вертолета)rejected takeoff distance
    - прерванного взлета (lпрв, самолета) — accelerate-stop distance
    расстояние по горизонтали, проходимое самолетом с момента страгивания на линии старта до момента полной остановки самолета на летной полосе при прекращении взлета в случае отказа одного критического двигатепя (нлгс-2). -' " — "accelerate-stop distance" means the distance required to accelerate an airplane to a specified speed and, assuming failure of the critical engine at the instant that speed (v1) is attained, to bring the airplane to a stop.
    - прерванного взлета,потребная (пдпв) — accelerate-stop distance required
    дистанция, потребная самолету, для достижения точки отказа критического двигателя от линии старта до точки полной остановки самолета. — the distance required for the airplane to reach the critical point from a standing start and, assuming the critical power-unit to fail suddenly at this point, to stop.
    - прерванного взлета, располагаемая (рдпв) — accelerate-stop distance available
    рпдв равна располагаемой летной полосе, уменьшенной на длину участка выруливания(нлгс-2)(рис.112). — accelerate-stop distance available is equal to the takeoff run available augmented by the length measured in direction of the takeoff of the surface of the runway and stopway.
    - при двух работающих двигателях, потребная взлетная — takеoff distance required with two engines operating
    - при торможении винтами, посадочная — landing distance with reversible propellers
    - при торможении реверсивным устройством, посадочная — landing distance with (effective) reverse thrust
    - продолженного (завершенного) взлета (lзв)continued takeoff distance
    взлетная дистанция, определенная при отказавшем на протяжении взпетной дистанции одном критическом двигателе (нлгс-2). — takeoff distance with а сritiса1 engine inoperative.
    - пролета (двух ла для предотвращения столкновения)miss distance miss distance of collision hazard
    -, проходимая на участке — horizontal distance increment during segment
    - разбегаtakeoff run
    - разбега, потребная (см. "длина разбега, потребная") — takeoff run required
    - разбега, располагаемая (см. "длина разбега, располагаемая") — takeoff run available
    -, располагаемая взлетная (см. "дистанция взлета, располагаемая") — takeoff distance available (toda)
    -, располагаемая посадочная — landing distance available
    длина части поверхности аэродрома свободная от препятствий, способная выдержать вес данного самолета, и лежащая в пределах аэродрома, обеспечивающих безопасный пробег самолета в данном направлении. — the length of that part of the surface of an aerodrome that is free from all obstructions, capable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane under prevailling operating conditions, within the limits of the surface declared available for the ground run of aeroplanes landing in a particular direction.
    -, располагаемая посадочная для влажной впп (рпдв) (рис. 115) — landing distance available (wet runway)
    -, располагаемая посадочная для сухой впп (рпдс) — landing distance available (dry runway)
    принимается равной длине впп, уменьшенной на длину участка выруливания (нлгс-2) (рис. 115).
    - с высоты 15 м, посадочная — landing distance from 15 m
    -, строительная (чертежная) (рис. 131) — station
    - с учетом поправочных коэффициентов, взлетная — corrected takeoff distance
    - участка разгона, горизонтальная — horizontal distance of acceleration segment
    - участка разгона, горизонтальная (четвертый участок траектории взлета) — (fourth) acceleration segment horizontal distance
    -, фактическая посадочная (рис. 115) — landing distance
    -, штилевая — still-air distance
    -, штилевая, эквивалентная — equivalent still-air distance (esad)
    -, чертежная — station
    увеличивать д. на... % на каждые... ос выше нормальной температуры для данной высоты — increase the distance... % per each... ос above standard altitude temperature

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > дистанция

  • 15 גו

    גֵּו, גֵּיו, גַּו, גַּוָּא,constr. גּוֹ, גּוֹא ch. same; 1) (= h. קֶרֶב) belly; innermost. Targ. Ex. 29:13; a. e. Targ. Prov. 26:24. Targ. O. Deut. 3:16 (h. text תּוֹךְ); a. fr.Sabb.152b לגַוֵּיה דביתא (insert וליזול) and go home. Cant. R. to IV, 8 like the hen דמנערא גפח מגווא קטמא (read מִגּוֹא) that shakes her wings off (rising) from between the ashes (Gen. R. s. 75 beg. מן קיטמא). Cant. R. to I, 7 יומא דהוה קאים בגַוֵּיה the day on which he stood, i. e. that every day; a. fr.Pl. גַּוַּיָּא. Targ. Prov. 20:27 (ed. Lag. גַּוַּיָּיה). 2) (with or without ב) among, amid; in, into. Targ. Ex. 14:22; a. fr.Y.Peah VIII, 20d bot. מן גּוֹא לפסא out of the pot. Ḥull.41a אית ליה שותפות בגַוָּהּ he owns a share in it. Ib. 48b קופא לגֵיו if the head of the pin is towards the inside. Lev. R. s. 12 את מפני מלגאו … מלבד pour thou out from inside (the hole), and I shall drink from outside. B. Mets.53b sq., v. בַּר I ch. a. חוּמְשָׁא.Pes.110b אתית לגו, אתית לגאו I have come among (you). Y.Keth.XII, 35b; Y.Kil.IX, 32c bot. גוא ארעאוכ׳ in a unclean land. Y. Keth. l. c.a> bot.; Y. Kil. l. c.b> bot. (גובני) גו בני in the bath-house. Y.Ned.IX, 41b bot. גו שמשא in the sun (in sunlight); a. v. fr. מן גו, מִגּוֹ, מִיגּוֹ because, in consequence of. Y.Taan.II, 65b, v. בּוּךְ. Y.Ber.I, 3b top מן גו דאינון ציבחר because they are brief.B. Mets.39b מיגו דמוקמינןוכ׳ since we have to appoint a guardian for Ib. 5b, a. fr. מ׳ דחשיד אממונאוכ׳ since he is suspected of wrong-doing in money matters, he is also suspected of swearing falsely; a. fr.Hence מִיגּוֹ, מִגּוֹ Miggo, 1) (= h. מִתּוֹךְ, Shebu.45b, and מֵאַחַר, v. אַחַר) a legal rule according to which a deponents statement is accepted as true on the ground that, if he had intended to tell a lie, he might have invented one more advantageous to his case (cmp. B. Bath.31a מה לו לשקר אי בעיוכ׳ why should he lie? If he wanted to lie, he might have said). Keth.16a התם מאי מ׳ איכא what miggo is there in that case, i. e. what choice did she have in inventing a statement, if she intended to tell a lie? Ib. מכדי האי מ׳ והאי מ׳וכ׳ since in this case there is the legal presumption of a miggo, and so is in the other, what is the difference between the one miggo and the other?; a. fr. 2) (cmp. אַגַּב) an action declared valid because one part of it was indisputably legitimate, or because the legal status required for its legitimacy might easily have been obtained. B. Mets.9b מ׳ דאי בעי מפקרוכ׳ since, if he wanted, he might have declared his possession public property, in which case he would have obtained the legal status of poverty entitling him to the corner of the field (פֵּאָה), and since (if he had resigned his property) he would have been entitled to take possession of the corner for himself, he has a right also to take possession of it in behalf of his neighbor. Ib. תרי מ׳ לא אמרינן two miggos cannot be accepted, i. e. two conditions required to make an action legitimate cannot be dispensed with. Ib. 8a Ned.88b; a. e.

    Jewish literature > גו

  • 16 גיו

    גֵּו, גֵּיו, גַּו, גַּוָּא,constr. גּוֹ, גּוֹא ch. same; 1) (= h. קֶרֶב) belly; innermost. Targ. Ex. 29:13; a. e. Targ. Prov. 26:24. Targ. O. Deut. 3:16 (h. text תּוֹךְ); a. fr.Sabb.152b לגַוֵּיה דביתא (insert וליזול) and go home. Cant. R. to IV, 8 like the hen דמנערא גפח מגווא קטמא (read מִגּוֹא) that shakes her wings off (rising) from between the ashes (Gen. R. s. 75 beg. מן קיטמא). Cant. R. to I, 7 יומא דהוה קאים בגַוֵּיה the day on which he stood, i. e. that every day; a. fr.Pl. גַּוַּיָּא. Targ. Prov. 20:27 (ed. Lag. גַּוַּיָּיה). 2) (with or without ב) among, amid; in, into. Targ. Ex. 14:22; a. fr.Y.Peah VIII, 20d bot. מן גּוֹא לפסא out of the pot. Ḥull.41a אית ליה שותפות בגַוָּהּ he owns a share in it. Ib. 48b קופא לגֵיו if the head of the pin is towards the inside. Lev. R. s. 12 את מפני מלגאו … מלבד pour thou out from inside (the hole), and I shall drink from outside. B. Mets.53b sq., v. בַּר I ch. a. חוּמְשָׁא.Pes.110b אתית לגו, אתית לגאו I have come among (you). Y.Keth.XII, 35b; Y.Kil.IX, 32c bot. גוא ארעאוכ׳ in a unclean land. Y. Keth. l. c.a> bot.; Y. Kil. l. c.b> bot. (גובני) גו בני in the bath-house. Y.Ned.IX, 41b bot. גו שמשא in the sun (in sunlight); a. v. fr. מן גו, מִגּוֹ, מִיגּוֹ because, in consequence of. Y.Taan.II, 65b, v. בּוּךְ. Y.Ber.I, 3b top מן גו דאינון ציבחר because they are brief.B. Mets.39b מיגו דמוקמינןוכ׳ since we have to appoint a guardian for Ib. 5b, a. fr. מ׳ דחשיד אממונאוכ׳ since he is suspected of wrong-doing in money matters, he is also suspected of swearing falsely; a. fr.Hence מִיגּוֹ, מִגּוֹ Miggo, 1) (= h. מִתּוֹךְ, Shebu.45b, and מֵאַחַר, v. אַחַר) a legal rule according to which a deponents statement is accepted as true on the ground that, if he had intended to tell a lie, he might have invented one more advantageous to his case (cmp. B. Bath.31a מה לו לשקר אי בעיוכ׳ why should he lie? If he wanted to lie, he might have said). Keth.16a התם מאי מ׳ איכא what miggo is there in that case, i. e. what choice did she have in inventing a statement, if she intended to tell a lie? Ib. מכדי האי מ׳ והאי מ׳וכ׳ since in this case there is the legal presumption of a miggo, and so is in the other, what is the difference between the one miggo and the other?; a. fr. 2) (cmp. אַגַּב) an action declared valid because one part of it was indisputably legitimate, or because the legal status required for its legitimacy might easily have been obtained. B. Mets.9b מ׳ דאי בעי מפקרוכ׳ since, if he wanted, he might have declared his possession public property, in which case he would have obtained the legal status of poverty entitling him to the corner of the field (פֵּאָה), and since (if he had resigned his property) he would have been entitled to take possession of the corner for himself, he has a right also to take possession of it in behalf of his neighbor. Ib. תרי מ׳ לא אמרינן two miggos cannot be accepted, i. e. two conditions required to make an action legitimate cannot be dispensed with. Ib. 8a Ned.88b; a. e.

    Jewish literature > גיו

  • 17 גֵּו

    גֵּו, גֵּיו, גַּו, גַּוָּא,constr. גּוֹ, גּוֹא ch. same; 1) (= h. קֶרֶב) belly; innermost. Targ. Ex. 29:13; a. e. Targ. Prov. 26:24. Targ. O. Deut. 3:16 (h. text תּוֹךְ); a. fr.Sabb.152b לגַוֵּיה דביתא (insert וליזול) and go home. Cant. R. to IV, 8 like the hen דמנערא גפח מגווא קטמא (read מִגּוֹא) that shakes her wings off (rising) from between the ashes (Gen. R. s. 75 beg. מן קיטמא). Cant. R. to I, 7 יומא דהוה קאים בגַוֵּיה the day on which he stood, i. e. that every day; a. fr.Pl. גַּוַּיָּא. Targ. Prov. 20:27 (ed. Lag. גַּוַּיָּיה). 2) (with or without ב) among, amid; in, into. Targ. Ex. 14:22; a. fr.Y.Peah VIII, 20d bot. מן גּוֹא לפסא out of the pot. Ḥull.41a אית ליה שותפות בגַוָּהּ he owns a share in it. Ib. 48b קופא לגֵיו if the head of the pin is towards the inside. Lev. R. s. 12 את מפני מלגאו … מלבד pour thou out from inside (the hole), and I shall drink from outside. B. Mets.53b sq., v. בַּר I ch. a. חוּמְשָׁא.Pes.110b אתית לגו, אתית לגאו I have come among (you). Y.Keth.XII, 35b; Y.Kil.IX, 32c bot. גוא ארעאוכ׳ in a unclean land. Y. Keth. l. c.a> bot.; Y. Kil. l. c.b> bot. (גובני) גו בני in the bath-house. Y.Ned.IX, 41b bot. גו שמשא in the sun (in sunlight); a. v. fr. מן גו, מִגּוֹ, מִיגּוֹ because, in consequence of. Y.Taan.II, 65b, v. בּוּךְ. Y.Ber.I, 3b top מן גו דאינון ציבחר because they are brief.B. Mets.39b מיגו דמוקמינןוכ׳ since we have to appoint a guardian for Ib. 5b, a. fr. מ׳ דחשיד אממונאוכ׳ since he is suspected of wrong-doing in money matters, he is also suspected of swearing falsely; a. fr.Hence מִיגּוֹ, מִגּוֹ Miggo, 1) (= h. מִתּוֹךְ, Shebu.45b, and מֵאַחַר, v. אַחַר) a legal rule according to which a deponents statement is accepted as true on the ground that, if he had intended to tell a lie, he might have invented one more advantageous to his case (cmp. B. Bath.31a מה לו לשקר אי בעיוכ׳ why should he lie? If he wanted to lie, he might have said). Keth.16a התם מאי מ׳ איכא what miggo is there in that case, i. e. what choice did she have in inventing a statement, if she intended to tell a lie? Ib. מכדי האי מ׳ והאי מ׳וכ׳ since in this case there is the legal presumption of a miggo, and so is in the other, what is the difference between the one miggo and the other?; a. fr. 2) (cmp. אַגַּב) an action declared valid because one part of it was indisputably legitimate, or because the legal status required for its legitimacy might easily have been obtained. B. Mets.9b מ׳ דאי בעי מפקרוכ׳ since, if he wanted, he might have declared his possession public property, in which case he would have obtained the legal status of poverty entitling him to the corner of the field (פֵּאָה), and since (if he had resigned his property) he would have been entitled to take possession of the corner for himself, he has a right also to take possession of it in behalf of his neighbor. Ib. תרי מ׳ לא אמרינן two miggos cannot be accepted, i. e. two conditions required to make an action legitimate cannot be dispensed with. Ib. 8a Ned.88b; a. e.

    Jewish literature > גֵּו

  • 18 גֵּיו

    גֵּו, גֵּיו, גַּו, גַּוָּא,constr. גּוֹ, גּוֹא ch. same; 1) (= h. קֶרֶב) belly; innermost. Targ. Ex. 29:13; a. e. Targ. Prov. 26:24. Targ. O. Deut. 3:16 (h. text תּוֹךְ); a. fr.Sabb.152b לגַוֵּיה דביתא (insert וליזול) and go home. Cant. R. to IV, 8 like the hen דמנערא גפח מגווא קטמא (read מִגּוֹא) that shakes her wings off (rising) from between the ashes (Gen. R. s. 75 beg. מן קיטמא). Cant. R. to I, 7 יומא דהוה קאים בגַוֵּיה the day on which he stood, i. e. that every day; a. fr.Pl. גַּוַּיָּא. Targ. Prov. 20:27 (ed. Lag. גַּוַּיָּיה). 2) (with or without ב) among, amid; in, into. Targ. Ex. 14:22; a. fr.Y.Peah VIII, 20d bot. מן גּוֹא לפסא out of the pot. Ḥull.41a אית ליה שותפות בגַוָּהּ he owns a share in it. Ib. 48b קופא לגֵיו if the head of the pin is towards the inside. Lev. R. s. 12 את מפני מלגאו … מלבד pour thou out from inside (the hole), and I shall drink from outside. B. Mets.53b sq., v. בַּר I ch. a. חוּמְשָׁא.Pes.110b אתית לגו, אתית לגאו I have come among (you). Y.Keth.XII, 35b; Y.Kil.IX, 32c bot. גוא ארעאוכ׳ in a unclean land. Y. Keth. l. c.a> bot.; Y. Kil. l. c.b> bot. (גובני) גו בני in the bath-house. Y.Ned.IX, 41b bot. גו שמשא in the sun (in sunlight); a. v. fr. מן גו, מִגּוֹ, מִיגּוֹ because, in consequence of. Y.Taan.II, 65b, v. בּוּךְ. Y.Ber.I, 3b top מן גו דאינון ציבחר because they are brief.B. Mets.39b מיגו דמוקמינןוכ׳ since we have to appoint a guardian for Ib. 5b, a. fr. מ׳ דחשיד אממונאוכ׳ since he is suspected of wrong-doing in money matters, he is also suspected of swearing falsely; a. fr.Hence מִיגּוֹ, מִגּוֹ Miggo, 1) (= h. מִתּוֹךְ, Shebu.45b, and מֵאַחַר, v. אַחַר) a legal rule according to which a deponents statement is accepted as true on the ground that, if he had intended to tell a lie, he might have invented one more advantageous to his case (cmp. B. Bath.31a מה לו לשקר אי בעיוכ׳ why should he lie? If he wanted to lie, he might have said). Keth.16a התם מאי מ׳ איכא what miggo is there in that case, i. e. what choice did she have in inventing a statement, if she intended to tell a lie? Ib. מכדי האי מ׳ והאי מ׳וכ׳ since in this case there is the legal presumption of a miggo, and so is in the other, what is the difference between the one miggo and the other?; a. fr. 2) (cmp. אַגַּב) an action declared valid because one part of it was indisputably legitimate, or because the legal status required for its legitimacy might easily have been obtained. B. Mets.9b מ׳ דאי בעי מפקרוכ׳ since, if he wanted, he might have declared his possession public property, in which case he would have obtained the legal status of poverty entitling him to the corner of the field (פֵּאָה), and since (if he had resigned his property) he would have been entitled to take possession of the corner for himself, he has a right also to take possession of it in behalf of his neighbor. Ib. תרי מ׳ לא אמרינן two miggos cannot be accepted, i. e. two conditions required to make an action legitimate cannot be dispensed with. Ib. 8a Ned.88b; a. e.

    Jewish literature > גֵּיו

  • 19 גַּו

    גֵּו, גֵּיו, גַּו, גַּוָּא,constr. גּוֹ, גּוֹא ch. same; 1) (= h. קֶרֶב) belly; innermost. Targ. Ex. 29:13; a. e. Targ. Prov. 26:24. Targ. O. Deut. 3:16 (h. text תּוֹךְ); a. fr.Sabb.152b לגַוֵּיה דביתא (insert וליזול) and go home. Cant. R. to IV, 8 like the hen דמנערא גפח מגווא קטמא (read מִגּוֹא) that shakes her wings off (rising) from between the ashes (Gen. R. s. 75 beg. מן קיטמא). Cant. R. to I, 7 יומא דהוה קאים בגַוֵּיה the day on which he stood, i. e. that every day; a. fr.Pl. גַּוַּיָּא. Targ. Prov. 20:27 (ed. Lag. גַּוַּיָּיה). 2) (with or without ב) among, amid; in, into. Targ. Ex. 14:22; a. fr.Y.Peah VIII, 20d bot. מן גּוֹא לפסא out of the pot. Ḥull.41a אית ליה שותפות בגַוָּהּ he owns a share in it. Ib. 48b קופא לגֵיו if the head of the pin is towards the inside. Lev. R. s. 12 את מפני מלגאו … מלבד pour thou out from inside (the hole), and I shall drink from outside. B. Mets.53b sq., v. בַּר I ch. a. חוּמְשָׁא.Pes.110b אתית לגו, אתית לגאו I have come among (you). Y.Keth.XII, 35b; Y.Kil.IX, 32c bot. גוא ארעאוכ׳ in a unclean land. Y. Keth. l. c.a> bot.; Y. Kil. l. c.b> bot. (גובני) גו בני in the bath-house. Y.Ned.IX, 41b bot. גו שמשא in the sun (in sunlight); a. v. fr. מן גו, מִגּוֹ, מִיגּוֹ because, in consequence of. Y.Taan.II, 65b, v. בּוּךְ. Y.Ber.I, 3b top מן גו דאינון ציבחר because they are brief.B. Mets.39b מיגו דמוקמינןוכ׳ since we have to appoint a guardian for Ib. 5b, a. fr. מ׳ דחשיד אממונאוכ׳ since he is suspected of wrong-doing in money matters, he is also suspected of swearing falsely; a. fr.Hence מִיגּוֹ, מִגּוֹ Miggo, 1) (= h. מִתּוֹךְ, Shebu.45b, and מֵאַחַר, v. אַחַר) a legal rule according to which a deponents statement is accepted as true on the ground that, if he had intended to tell a lie, he might have invented one more advantageous to his case (cmp. B. Bath.31a מה לו לשקר אי בעיוכ׳ why should he lie? If he wanted to lie, he might have said). Keth.16a התם מאי מ׳ איכא what miggo is there in that case, i. e. what choice did she have in inventing a statement, if she intended to tell a lie? Ib. מכדי האי מ׳ והאי מ׳וכ׳ since in this case there is the legal presumption of a miggo, and so is in the other, what is the difference between the one miggo and the other?; a. fr. 2) (cmp. אַגַּב) an action declared valid because one part of it was indisputably legitimate, or because the legal status required for its legitimacy might easily have been obtained. B. Mets.9b מ׳ דאי בעי מפקרוכ׳ since, if he wanted, he might have declared his possession public property, in which case he would have obtained the legal status of poverty entitling him to the corner of the field (פֵּאָה), and since (if he had resigned his property) he would have been entitled to take possession of the corner for himself, he has a right also to take possession of it in behalf of his neighbor. Ib. תרי מ׳ לא אמרינן two miggos cannot be accepted, i. e. two conditions required to make an action legitimate cannot be dispensed with. Ib. 8a Ned.88b; a. e.

    Jewish literature > גַּו

  • 20 גַּוָּא

    גֵּו, גֵּיו, גַּו, גַּוָּא,constr. גּוֹ, גּוֹא ch. same; 1) (= h. קֶרֶב) belly; innermost. Targ. Ex. 29:13; a. e. Targ. Prov. 26:24. Targ. O. Deut. 3:16 (h. text תּוֹךְ); a. fr.Sabb.152b לגַוֵּיה דביתא (insert וליזול) and go home. Cant. R. to IV, 8 like the hen דמנערא גפח מגווא קטמא (read מִגּוֹא) that shakes her wings off (rising) from between the ashes (Gen. R. s. 75 beg. מן קיטמא). Cant. R. to I, 7 יומא דהוה קאים בגַוֵּיה the day on which he stood, i. e. that every day; a. fr.Pl. גַּוַּיָּא. Targ. Prov. 20:27 (ed. Lag. גַּוַּיָּיה). 2) (with or without ב) among, amid; in, into. Targ. Ex. 14:22; a. fr.Y.Peah VIII, 20d bot. מן גּוֹא לפסא out of the pot. Ḥull.41a אית ליה שותפות בגַוָּהּ he owns a share in it. Ib. 48b קופא לגֵיו if the head of the pin is towards the inside. Lev. R. s. 12 את מפני מלגאו … מלבד pour thou out from inside (the hole), and I shall drink from outside. B. Mets.53b sq., v. בַּר I ch. a. חוּמְשָׁא.Pes.110b אתית לגו, אתית לגאו I have come among (you). Y.Keth.XII, 35b; Y.Kil.IX, 32c bot. גוא ארעאוכ׳ in a unclean land. Y. Keth. l. c.a> bot.; Y. Kil. l. c.b> bot. (גובני) גו בני in the bath-house. Y.Ned.IX, 41b bot. גו שמשא in the sun (in sunlight); a. v. fr. מן גו, מִגּוֹ, מִיגּוֹ because, in consequence of. Y.Taan.II, 65b, v. בּוּךְ. Y.Ber.I, 3b top מן גו דאינון ציבחר because they are brief.B. Mets.39b מיגו דמוקמינןוכ׳ since we have to appoint a guardian for Ib. 5b, a. fr. מ׳ דחשיד אממונאוכ׳ since he is suspected of wrong-doing in money matters, he is also suspected of swearing falsely; a. fr.Hence מִיגּוֹ, מִגּוֹ Miggo, 1) (= h. מִתּוֹךְ, Shebu.45b, and מֵאַחַר, v. אַחַר) a legal rule according to which a deponents statement is accepted as true on the ground that, if he had intended to tell a lie, he might have invented one more advantageous to his case (cmp. B. Bath.31a מה לו לשקר אי בעיוכ׳ why should he lie? If he wanted to lie, he might have said). Keth.16a התם מאי מ׳ איכא what miggo is there in that case, i. e. what choice did she have in inventing a statement, if she intended to tell a lie? Ib. מכדי האי מ׳ והאי מ׳וכ׳ since in this case there is the legal presumption of a miggo, and so is in the other, what is the difference between the one miggo and the other?; a. fr. 2) (cmp. אַגַּב) an action declared valid because one part of it was indisputably legitimate, or because the legal status required for its legitimacy might easily have been obtained. B. Mets.9b מ׳ דאי בעי מפקרוכ׳ since, if he wanted, he might have declared his possession public property, in which case he would have obtained the legal status of poverty entitling him to the corner of the field (פֵּאָה), and since (if he had resigned his property) he would have been entitled to take possession of the corner for himself, he has a right also to take possession of it in behalf of his neighbor. Ib. תרי מ׳ לא אמרינן two miggos cannot be accepted, i. e. two conditions required to make an action legitimate cannot be dispensed with. Ib. 8a Ned.88b; a. e.

    Jewish literature > גַּוָּא

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