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61 Portuguese Communist Party
(PCP)The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) has evolved from its early anarcho-syndicalist roots at its formation in 1921. This evolution included the undisciplined years of the 1920s, during which bolshevization began and continued into the 1930s, then through the years of clandestine existence during the Estado Novo, the Stalinization of the 1940s, the "anarcho-liberal shift" of the 1950s, the emergence of Maoist and Trotskyist splinter groups of the 1960s, to legalization after the Revolution of 25 April 1974 as the strongest and oldest political party in Portugal. Documents from the Russian archives have shown that the PCP's history is not a purely "domestic" one. While the PCP was born on its own without Soviet assistance, once it joined the Communist International (CI), it lost a significant amount of autonomy as CI officials increasingly meddled in PCP internal politics by dictating policy, manipulating leadership elections, and often financing party activities.Early Portuguese communism was a mix of communist ideological strands accustomed to a spirited internal debate, a lively external debate with its rivals, and a loose organizational structure. The PCP, during its early years, was weak in grassroots membership and was basically a party of "notables." It was predominantly a male organization, with minuscule female participation. It was also primarily an urban party concentrated in Lisbon. The PCP membership declined from 3,000 in 1923 to only 40 in 1928.In 1929, the party was reorganized so that it could survive clandestinely. As its activity progressed in the 1930s, a long period of instability dominated its leadership organs as a result of repression, imprisonments, and disorganization. The CI continued to intervene in party affairs through the 1930s, until the PCP was expelled from the CI in 1938-39, apparently because of its conduct during police arrests.The years of 1939-41 were difficult ones for the party, not only because of increased domestic repression but also because of internal party splits provoked by the Nazi-Soviet pact and other foreign actions. From 1940 to 1941, two Communist parties struggled to attract the support of the CI and accused each other of "revisionism." The CI was disbanded in 1943, and the PCP was not accepted back into the international communist family until its recognition by the Cominform in 1947.The reorganization of 1940-41 finally put the PCP under the firm control of orthodox communists who viewed socialism from a Soviet perspective. Although Soviet support was denied the newly reorganized party at first, the new leaders continued its Stalinization. The enforcement of "democratic centralism" and insistence upon the "dictatorship of the proletariat" became entrenched. The 1940s brought increased growth, as the party reached its membership apex of the clandestine era with 1,200 members in 1943, approximately 4,800 in 1946, and 7,000 in 1947.The party fell on hard times in the 1950s. It developed a bad case of paranoia, which led to a witch hunt for infiltrators, informers, and spies in all ranks of the party. The lower membership figures who followed the united antifascist period were reduced further through expulsions of the "traitors." By 1951, the party had been reduced to only 1,000 members. It became a closed, sectarian, suspicious, and paranoiac organization, with diminished strength in almost every region, except in the Alentejo, where the party, through propaganda and ideology more than organizational strength, was able to mobilize strikes of landless peasants in the early 1950s.On 3 January 1960, Álvaro Cunhal and nine other political prisoners made a spectacular escape from the Peniche prison and fled the country. Soon after this escape, Cunhal was elected secretary-general and, with other top leaders, directed the PCP from exile. Trotskyite and Maoist fractions emerged within the party in the 1960s, strengthened by the ideological developments in the international communist movement, such as in China and Cuba. The PCP would not tolerate dissent or leftism and began purging the extreme left fractions.The PCP intensified its control of the labor movement after the more liberal syndical election regulations under Prime Minister Mar- cello Caetano allowed communists to run for leadership positions in the corporative unions. By 1973, there was general unrest in the labor movement due to deteriorating economic conditions brought on by the colonial wars, as well as by world economic pressures including the Arab oil boycott.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the PCP enjoyed a unique position: it was the only party to have survived the Estado Novo. It emerged from clandestinity as the best organized political party in Portugal with a leadership hardened by years in jail. Since then, despite the party's stubborn orthodoxy, it has consistently played an important role as a moderating force. As even the Socialist Party (PS) was swept up by the neoliberal tidal wave, albeit a more compassionate variant, increasingly the PCP has played a crucial role in ensuring that interests and perspectives of the traditional Left are aired.One of the most consistent planks of the PCP electoral platform has been opposition to every stage of European integration. The party has regularly resisted Portuguese membership in the European Economic Community (EEC) and, following membership beginning in 1986, the party has regularly resisted further integration through the European Union (EU). A major argument has been that EU membership would not resolve Portugal's chronic economic problems but would only increase its dependence on the world. Ever since, the PCP has argued that its opposition to membership was correct and that further involvement with the EU would only result in further economic dependence and a consequent loss of Portuguese national sovereignty. Further, the party maintained that as Portugal's ties with the EU increased, the vulnerable agrarian sector in Portugal would risk further losses.Changes in PCP leadership may or may not alter the party's electoral position and role in the political system. As younger generations forget the uniqueness of the party's resistance to the Estado Novo, public images of PCP leadership will change. As the image of Álvaro Cunhal and other historical communist leaders slowly recedes, and the stature of Carlos Carvalhas (general secretary since 1992) and other moderate leaders is enhanced, the party's survival and legitimacy have strengthened. On 6 March 2001, the PCP celebrated its 80th anniversary.See also Left Bloc.Historical dictionary of Portugal > Portuguese Communist Party
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62 πυθμήν
πυθμήν, - ένοςGrammatical information: m.Meaning: `bottom of a vessel, the sea etc., ground, base, underlay, foot, e.g. of a cup, plant, i.e. root-end, stick, stem' (ep. Il., hell. a. late prose), `the lowest number (base) of an arithmetic series' (Pl. a.o.).Compounds: Tately as 2. member e.g. ἀ-πύθμεν-ος `bottomless, footless' (Thphr.; Sommer Nominalkomp. 99); besides (gramm.) withou them. vowel ἀ-πύθμην `id.' (Theognost.) a.o.Derivatives: Dimin. πυθμέν-ιον n. (pap.), - ικός `belonging to the base', - έω `to form a base' (late).Etymology: Formation like λιμήν, ποιμήν (Schwyzer 522, Chantraine Form. 174; not productive). Except for the suffix πυθ-μήν agrees with Skt. budh-ná- m. `bottom, ground, foot, root', IE * bhudh-. Also morphologically these words can be brought together, if one derived budh-na- from * bhudh-mn-o- (the m was soon lost). In Germ. * bhudh- became PGm. * bud- (seen in OE bodan, MLG bōdem(e) etc.); then, after mn \> n, * bud-n- became * butt- \> bot(t)- according to Kluge's law (seen in OE botem \> Engl. bottom), ONord. botn); we also find evidence for PGm. * buÞ- (OHG bodam, OS bothme, ME bothme) which is as yet unexplained; see now G. Kroonen, ABäG 61(2006)xxx-xxx. Further removed is Lat. fundus `bottom etc.', with which MIr. bond, bonn `sole, basis' can be identical (IE * bhund(h)o-). The inner nasal is prob. connected with the nasalsuffix in * bhudh-no- and can be due to old metathesis, as corresponding forms appear also on Indo-Iran. territory, e.g. Av. bū̆na m. `ground, bottom' (from * bundna-?), Prākr. bundha- m. `bottom of a vase'; s. Mayrhofer s. budhnáḥ w. lit.; cf. also πύνδαξ (s.v.). -- Hypotheses in Bq and Ernout-Meillet s. fundus (after Vendryes MSL 18, 305 ff.); further rich lit. in W.-Hofmann s. fundus (WP. 2, 190, Pok. 174). On the meaning in gen. Kretschmer Glotta 22, 115ff. (against Porzig WuS 15, 112 f.); for Greek esp. Furumark Eranos 44, 45 ff. Though some details remain difficult, the reconstruction can hardly be doubted.Page in Frisk: 2,620-621Greek-English etymological dictionary (Ελληνικά-Αγγλικά ετυμολογική λεξικό) > πυθμήν
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63 Bosch, Robert August
[br]b. 23 September 1861 Albeck, near Ulm, Germanyd. 9 March 1942 Stuttgart, Germany[br]German engineer, industrialist and pioneer of internal combustion engine electrical systems.[br]Robert was the eighth of twelve children of the landlord of a hotel in the village of Albeck. He wanted to be a botanist and zoologist, but at the age of 18 he was apprenticed as a precision mechanic. He travelled widely in the south of Germany, which is unusual for an apprenticeship. In 1884, he went to the USA, where he found employment with Thomas A. Edison and his colleague, the German electrical engineer Siegmund Bergmann. During this period he became interested and involved in the rights of workers.In 1886 he set up his own workshop in Stuttgart, having spent a short time with Siemens in England. He built up a sound reputation for quality, but the firm outgrew its capital and in 1892 he had to sack nearly all his employees. Fortunately, among the few that he was able to retain were Arnold Zähringer, who later became Manager, and an apprentice, Gottlieb Harold. These two, under Bosch, were responsible for the development of the low-tension (1897) and the high-tension (1902) magneto. They also developed the Bosch sparking plug, again in 1902. The distributor for multi-cylinder engines followed in 1910. These developments, with a strong automotive bias, were stimulated by Bosch's association with Frederick Simms, an Englishman domiciled in Hamburg, who had become a director of Daimler in Canstatt and had secured the UK patent rights of the Daimler engine. Simms went on to invent, in about 1898, a means of varying ignition timing with low-tension magnetos.It must be emphasized, as pointed out above, that the invention of neither type of magneto was due to Bosch. Nikolaus Otto introduced a crude low-tension magneto in 1884, but it was not patented in Germany, while the high-tension magneto was invented by Paul Winand, a nephew of Otto's partner Eugen Langen, in 1887, this patent being allowed to lapse in 1890.Bosch's social views were advanced for his time. He introduced an eight-hour day in 1906 and advocated industrial arbitration and free trade, and in 1932 he wrote a book on the prevention of world economic crises, Die Verhütung künftiger Krisen in der Weltwirtschaft. Other industrialists called him the "Red Bosch" because of his short hours and high wages; he is reputed to have replied, "I do not pay good wages because I have a lot of money, I have a lot of money because I pay good wages." The firm exists to this day as the giant multi-national company Robert Bosch GmbH, with headquarters still in Stuttgart.[br]Further ReadingT.Heuss, 1994, Robert Bosch: His Life and Achievements (trans. S.Gillespie and J. Kapczynski), New York: Henry Holt \& Co.JB -
64 Breuer, Marcel Lajos
[br]b. 22 May 1902 Pécs, Hungaryd. 1 July 1981 New York (?), USA[br]Hungarian member of the European Bauhaus generation in the 1920s, who went on to become a leader in the modern school of architectural and furniture design in Europe and the United States.[br]Breuer began his student days following an art course in Vienna, but joined the Bauhaus at Weimar, where he later graduated, in 1920. When Gropius re-established the school in purpose-built structures at Dessau, Breuer became a member of the teaching staff in charge of the carpentry and furniture workshops. Much of his time there was spent in design and research into new materials being applied to furniture and interior decoration. The essence of his contribution was to relate the design of furniture to industrial production; in this field he developed the tubular-steel structure, especially in chair design, and experimented with aluminium as a furniture material as well as pieces of furniture made up from modular units. His furniture style was characterized by an elegance of line and a careful avoidance of superfluous detail. By 1926 he had furnished the Bauhaus with such furniture in chromium-plated steel, and two years later had developed a cantilevered chair.Breuer left the Bauhaus in 1928 and set up an architectural practice in Berlin. In the early 1930s he also spent some time in Switzerland. Notable from these years was his Harnischmacher Haus in Wiesbaden and his apartment buildings in the Dolderthal area of Zurich. His architectural work was at first influenced by constructivism, and then by that of Le Corbusier (see Charles-Edouard Jeanneret). In 1935 he moved to England, where in partnership with F.R.S. Yorke he built some houses and continued to practise furniture design. The Isokon Furniture Co. commissioned him to develop ideas that took advantage of the new bending and moulding processes in laminated wood, one result being his much-copied reclining chair.In 1937, like so many of the European architectural refugees from Nazism, he found himself under-occupied due to the reluctance of English clients to embrace the modern architectural movement. He went to the United States at Gropius's invitation to join him as a professor at Harvard. Breuer and Gropius were influential in training a new generation of American architects, and in particular they built a number of houses. This partnership ended in 1941 and Breuer set up practice in New York. His style of work from this time on was still modern, but became more varied. In housing, he adapted his style to American needs and used local materials in a functional manner. In the Whitney Museum (1966) he worked in a sculptural, granite-clad style. Often he utilized a bold reinforced-concrete form, as in his collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi and Bernard Zehrfuss in the Paris UNESCO Building (1953–8) and the US Embassy in the Hague (1954–8). He displayed his masterly handling of poured concrete used in a strikingly expressionistic, sculptural manner in his St John's Abbey (1953–61) in Collegeville, Minnesota, and in 1973 his Church of St Francis de Sale in Michigan won him the top award of the American Institute of Architects.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAmerican Institute of Architects Medal of Honour 1964, Gold Medal 1968. Jefferson Foundation Medal 1968.Bibliography1955, Sun and Shadow, the Philosophy of an Architect, New York: Dodd Read (autobiography).Further ReadingC.Jones (ed.), 1963, Marcel Breuer: Buildings and Projects 1921–1961, New York: Praeger.T.Papachristou (ed.), 1970, Marcel Breuer: New Buildings and Projects 1960–1970, New York: Praeger.DY -
65 Crossley, Joseph
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. Halifax (?), Englandd. September 1868 Halifax (?), England[br]English patentee of successful power-driven carpet looms.[br]Joseph Crossley was the second son of John, the founder of a carpet-weaving firm in Halifax. He did not figure much in public life for he was essentially a business man. It was under his direct superintendence that most of the extensions at Dean Clough Mill, Halifax, were built, and to a very great degree the successful working of the vast establishment that these mills became, covering fifteen acres, was due to him. In 1864 the firm became a limited-liability company, worth over a million pounds c.1880.The company's vital patents for the power-driven carpet looms were taken out in his name. The first, in 1850 in the names of Joseph Crossley, George Collier and James Hudson, was for weaving carpets in a manner similar to the way velvet was woven, with the pile warp threads passing over wires. After a couple of picks of weft, a wire was inserted from the side over the main warp threads but under the pile warp threads. These were lowered and another couple of weft shoots bound in the pile warp. The pile was cut with a knife running along a slot in the top of the wire, and then the wire was removed. There was a further patent in 1851, in the name of Joseph Crossley alone, for improvements in the manufacture of Brussels and cut-pile carpets. An interesting part of this patent was the use of a partly coloured warp to make patterns in the carpets. These vital patents gave the Crossley brothers their dominance in carpet weaving; production on their power looms was six times quicker than by hand. Like his brothers, one of whom was Francis Crossley, he was a great benefactor to charities. The brothers built the Crossley Orphan Home at a cost of £50,000 and endowed it with about £3,000 a year.[br]Bibliography1850, British patent no. 13,267 (power-driven carpet loom).1851, British patent no. 13,474 (improvements in manufacture of Brussels and cut-pile carpets).Further ReadingJ.Hogg (ed.), Fortunes Made in Business, London (contains an account of the firm of John Crossley \& Sons).RLH -
66 Deville, Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 11 March 1818 St Thomas, Virgin Islandsd. 1 July 1881 Boulogne-sur-Seine, France[br]French chemist and metallurgist, pioneer in the large-scale production of aluminium and other light metals.[br]Deville was the son of a prosperous shipowner with diplomatic duties in the Virgin Islands. With his elder brother Charles, who later became a distinguished physicist, he was sent to Paris to be educated. He took his degree in medicine in 1843, but before that he had shown an interest in chemistry, due particularly to the lectures of Thenard. Two years later, with Thenard's influence, he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Besançon. In 1851 he was able to return to Paris as Professor at the Ecole Normale Supérieure. He remained there for the rest of his working life, greatly improving the standard of teaching, and his laboratory became one of the great research centres of Europe. His first chemical work had been in organic chemistry, but he then turned to inorganic chemistry, specifically to improve methods of producing the new and little-known metal aluminium. Essentially, the process consisted of forming sodium aluminium trichloride and reducing it with sodium to metallic aluminium. He obtained sodium in sufficient quantity by reducing sodium carbonate with carbon. In 1855 he exhibited specimens of the metal at the Paris Exhibition, and the same year Napoleon III asked to see them, with a view to using it for breastplates for the Army and for spoons and forks for State banquets. With the resulting government support, he set up a pilot plant at Jarvel to develop the process, and then set up a small company, the Société d'Aluminium at Nan terre. This raised the output of this attractive and useful metal, so it could be used more widely than for the jewellery to which it had hitherto been restricted. Large-scale applications, however, had to await the electrolytic process that began to supersede Deville's in the 1890s. Deville extended his sodium reduction method to produce silicon, boron and the light metals magnesium and titanium. His investigations into the metallurgy of platinum revolutionized the industry and led in 1872 to his being asked to make the platinum-iridium (90–10) alloy for the standard kilogram and metre. Deville later carried out important work in high-temperature chemistry. He grieved much at the death of his brother Charles in 1876, and his retirement was forced by declining health in 1880; he did not survive for long.[br]BibliographyDeville published influential books on aluminium and platinum; these and all his publications are listed in the bibliography in the standard biography by J.Gray, 1889, Henri Sainte-Claire Deville: sa vie et ses travaux, Paris.Further ReadingM.Daumas, 1949, "Henri Sainte-Claire Deville et les débuts de l'industrie de l'aluminium", Rev.Hist.Sci 2:352–7.J.C.Chaston, 1981, "Henri Sainte-Claire Deville: his outstanding contributions to the chemistry of the platinum metals", Platinum Metals Review 25:121–8.LRDBiographical history of technology > Deville, Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
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67 Eastman, George
SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics[br]b. 12 July 1854 Waterville, New York, USAd. 14 March 1932 Rochester, New York, USA[br]American industrialist and pioneer of popular photography.[br]The young Eastman was a clerk-bookkeeper in the Rochester Savings Bank when in 1877 he took up photography. Taking lessons in the wet-plate process, he became an enthusiastic amateur photographer. However, the cumbersome equipment and noxious chemicals used in the process proved an obstacle, as he said, "It seemed to be that one ought to be able to carry less than a pack-horse load." Then he came across an account of the new gelatine dry-plate process in the British Journal of Photography of March 1878. He experimented in coating glass plates with the new emulsions, and was soon so successful that he decided to go into commercial manufacture. He devised a machine to simplify the coating of the plates, and travelled to England in July 1879 to patent it. In April 1880 he prepared to begin manufacture in a rented building in Rochester, and contacted the leading American photographic supply house, E. \& H.T.Anthony, offering them an option as agents. A local whip manufacturer, Henry A.Strong, invested $1,000 in the enterprise and the Eastman Dry Plate Company was formed on 1 January 1881. Still working at the Savings Bank, he ran the business in his spare time, and demand grew for the quality product he was producing. The fledgling company survived a near disaster in 1882 when the quality of the emulsions dropped alarmingly. Eastman later discovered this was due to impurities in the gelatine used, and this led him to test all raw materials rigorously for quality. In 1884 the company became a corporation, the Eastman Dry Plate \& Film Company, and a new product was announced. Mindful of his desire to simplify photography, Eastman, with a camera maker, William H.Walker, designed a roll-holder in which the heavy glass plates were replaced by a roll of emulsion-coated paper. The holders were made in sizes suitable for most plate cameras. Eastman designed and patented a coating machine for the large-scale production of the paper film, bringing costs down dramatically, the roll-holders were acclaimed by photographers worldwide, and prizes and medals were awarded, but Eastman was still not satisfied. The next step was to incorporate the roll-holder in a smaller, hand-held camera. His first successful design was launched in June 1888: the Kodak camera. A small box camera, it held enough paper film for 100 circular exposures, and was bought ready-loaded. After the film had been exposed, the camera was returned to Eastman's factory, where the film was removed, processed and printed, and the camera reloaded. This developing and printing service was the most revolutionary part of his invention, since at that time photographers were expected to process their own photographs, which required access to a darkroom and appropriate chemicals. The Kodak camera put photography into the hands of the countless thousands who wanted photographs without complications. Eastman's marketing slogan neatly summed up the advantage: "You Press the Button, We Do the Rest." The Kodak camera was the last product in the design of which Eastman was personally involved. His company was growing rapidly, and he recruited the most talented scientists and technicians available. New products emerged regularly—notably the first commercially produced celluloid roll film for the Kodak cameras in July 1889; this material made possible the introduction of cinematography a few years later. Eastman's philosophy of simplifying photography and reducing its costs continued to influence products: for example, the introduction of the one dollar, or five shilling, Brownie camera in 1900, which put photography in the hands of almost everyone. Over the years the Eastman Kodak Company, as it now was, grew into a giant multinational corporation with manufacturing and marketing organizations throughout the world. Eastman continued to guide the company; he pursued an enlightened policy of employee welfare and profit sharing decades before this was common in industry. He made massive donations to many concerns, notably the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and supported schemes for the education of black people, dental welfare, calendar reform, music and many other causes, he withdrew from the day-to-day control of the company in 1925, and at last had time for recreation. On 14 March 1932, suffering from a painful terminal cancer and after tidying up his affairs, he shot himself through the heart, leaving a note: "To my friends: My work is done. Why wait?" Although Eastman's technical innovations were made mostly at the beginning of his career, the organization which he founded and guided in its formative years was responsible for many of the major advances in photography over the years.[br]Further ReadingC.Ackerman, 1929, George Eastman, Cambridge, Mass.B.Coe, 1973, George Eastman and the Early Photographers, London.BC -
68 Glenck, Karl Christian Friedrich
SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology[br]b. 13 April 1779 Schwäbisch Hall, Germanyd. 21 November 1845 Gotha, Germany[br]German salt-mining expert who introduced large-scale salt explorations.[br]Having studied law at the University of Erlangen, he became Confidential Secretary to the Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, in whose territory his father had been in charge of a saltworks. When this small country fell to Württemberg in 1806, Glenck continued his mineralogical and geological studies in order to develop methods of finding deposits of salt. He was the first to carry out systematic large-scale salt explorations in Germany, mostly in southern and central parts, and achieved remarkable results that far exceeded former non-systematic findings. He worked either on behalf of governments or companies or at his own risk, and in the early 1820s he settled in Gotha to live in the centre of the regions of greatest interest to him.His career began in 1819 with the discovery of the deposits of Ludwigshall near Wimpfen, Neckar, and prospecting salt near Basel in 1836 was his greatest success: Schweizerhall, opened one year later, made Switzerland self-sufficient in salt production. For fifteen years he had invested large sums into this project, which became the fifth salt-works to come into existence due to his drilling. Glenck worked with stir rods and he developed several new technical devices, such as casing the bore holes with iron pipes instead of wood (1830), and using wooden instead of iron rods to reduce the weight (1834). A flexible connection between rod and drill was to be introduced later by Karl von Oeynhausen. One of Glenck's most important followers in the field of deep-drilling was K.G. Kind.[br]Further ReadingW.Carlé, 1969, "Die Salinistenfamilie Glenck", Lebensbilder aus Schwaben und Franken 11: 118–49 (with substantial biographical information).D.Hoffmann, 1959, 150 Jahre Tiefbobrungen in Deutschland, Vienna and Hamburg, (provides an evaluation of his technological developments).WKBiographical history of technology > Glenck, Karl Christian Friedrich
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69 Haddy, Arthur Charles
[br]b. 16 May 1906 Newbury, Berkshire, Englandd. December 1989[br]English electronics engineer who developed Full Frequency Range Recording for the Decca Record Company and was instrumental in the development of stereo records.[br]He developed recording equipment for. the Crystallate Gramophone Company, becoming Chief Recording Engineer at Decca when Crystallate was taken over. Eventually he was made Technical Director of Decca Record Company Ltd, a position he held until 1980. The developments of good cutterheads accelerated due to contract work for the armed services during the Second World War, because an extended frequency range was needed. This necessitated the solution of the problem of surface noise, and the result became known publicly as the ffrr system. The experience gained enabled Haddy to pioneer European Long Play recording. Haddy started development of a practical stereo record system within the Decca group, and for economic reasons he eventually chose a solution developed outside his direct surveillance by Teldec. The foresight of Decca made the company an equal partner in the standards discussions during the late 1950s, when it was decided to use the American 45/45 system, which utilized the two side walls of the groove. The same foresight had led Decca to record their repertoire in stereo from 1954 in order to prepare for any commercialized distribution system. In 1967 Haddy also became responsible for cassette manufacture, which meant organizing the logistics of a tape-duplication plant.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsOBE 1976.BibliographyHaddy's patents are a good description of some of his technical achievements; for example: UK patent no. 770,465 (greater playing time from a record by changing the groove pitch); UK patent no. 807,301 (using feedback to linearize a cutterhead); UK patent no. 810,106 (two-channel by simultaneous vertical and lateral modulation).Further ReadingG.A.Briggs (ed.), 1961, Audio Biographies, Wharfedale Wireless Works, pp. 157–63. H.E.Roys, "The coming of stereo", Jour. AES 25 (10/11):824–7 (an appreciation of Haddy's role in the standardization of stereo recording).GB-N -
70 Stephenson, George
[br]b. 9 June 1781 Wylam, Northumberland, Englandd. 12 August 1848 Tapton House, Chesterfield, England[br]English engineer, "the father of railways".[br]George Stephenson was the son of the fireman of the pumping engine at Wylam colliery, and horses drew wagons of coal along the wooden rails of the Wylam wagonway past the house in which he was born and spent his earliest childhood. While still a child he worked as a cowherd, but soon moved to working at coal pits. At 17 years of age he showed sufficient mechanical talent to be placed in charge of a new pumping engine, and had already achieved a job more responsible than that of his father. Despite his position he was still illiterate, although he subsequently learned to read and write. He was largely self-educated.In 1801 he was appointed Brakesman of the winding engine at Black Callerton pit, with responsibility for lowering the miners safely to their work. Then, about two years later, he became Brakesman of a new winding engine erected by Robert Hawthorn at Willington Quay on the Tyne. Returning collier brigs discharged ballast into wagons and the engine drew the wagons up an inclined plane to the top of "Ballast Hill" for their contents to be tipped; this was one of the earliest applications of steam power to transport, other than experimentally.In 1804 Stephenson moved to West Moor pit, Killingworth, again as Brakesman. In 1811 he demonstrated his mechanical skill by successfully modifying a new and unsatisfactory atmospheric engine, a task that had defeated the efforts of others, to enable it to pump a drowned pit clear of water. The following year he was appointed Enginewright at Killingworth, in charge of the machinery in all the collieries of the "Grand Allies", the prominent coal-owning families of Wortley, Liddell and Bowes, with authorization also to work for others. He built many stationary engines and he closely examined locomotives of John Blenkinsop's type on the Kenton \& Coxlodge wagonway, as well as those of William Hedley at Wylam.It was in 1813 that Sir Thomas Liddell requested George Stephenson to build a steam locomotive for the Killingworth wagonway: Blucher made its first trial run on 25 July 1814 and was based on Blenkinsop's locomotives, although it lacked their rack-and-pinion drive. George Stephenson is credited with building the first locomotive both to run on edge rails and be driven by adhesion, an arrangement that has been the conventional one ever since. Yet Blucher was far from perfect and over the next few years, while other engineers ignored the steam locomotive, Stephenson built a succession of them, each an improvement on the last.During this period many lives were lost in coalmines from explosions of gas ignited by miners' lamps. By observation and experiment (sometimes at great personal risk) Stephenson invented a satisfactory safety lamp, working independently of the noted scientist Sir Humphry Davy who also invented such a lamp around the same time.In 1817 George Stephenson designed his first locomotive for an outside customer, the Kilmarnock \& Troon Railway, and in 1819 he laid out the Hetton Colliery Railway in County Durham, for which his brother Robert was Resident Engineer. This was the first railway to be worked entirely without animal traction: it used inclined planes with stationary engines, self-acting inclined planes powered by gravity, and locomotives.On 19 April 1821 Stephenson was introduced to Edward Pease, one of the main promoters of the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR), which by coincidence received its Act of Parliament the same day. George Stephenson carried out a further survey, to improve the proposed line, and in this he was assisted by his 18-year-old son, Robert Stephenson, whom he had ensured received the theoretical education which he himself lacked. It is doubtful whether either could have succeeded without the other; together they were to make the steam railway practicable.At George Stephenson's instance, much of the S \& DR was laid with wrought-iron rails recently developed by John Birkinshaw at Bedlington Ironworks, Morpeth. These were longer than cast-iron rails and were not brittle: they made a track well suited for locomotives. In June 1823 George and Robert Stephenson, with other partners, founded a firm in Newcastle upon Tyne to build locomotives and rolling stock and to do general engineering work: after its Managing Partner, the firm was called Robert Stephenson \& Co.In 1824 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) invited George Stephenson to resurvey their proposed line in order to reduce opposition to it. William James, a wealthy land agent who had become a visionary protagonist of a national railway network and had seen Stephenson's locomotives at Killingworth, had promoted the L \& MR with some merchants of Liverpool and had carried out the first survey; however, he overreached himself in business and, shortly after the invitation to Stephenson, became bankrupt. In his own survey, however, George Stephenson lacked the assistance of his son Robert, who had left for South America, and he delegated much of the detailed work to incompetent assistants. During a devastating Parliamentary examination in the spring of 1825, much of his survey was shown to be seriously inaccurate and the L \& MR's application for an Act of Parliament was refused. The railway's promoters discharged Stephenson and had their line surveyed yet again, by C.B. Vignoles.The Stockton \& Darlington Railway was, however, triumphantly opened in the presence of vast crowds in September 1825, with Stephenson himself driving the locomotive Locomotion, which had been built at Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s Newcastle works. Once the railway was at work, horse-drawn and gravity-powered traffic shared the line with locomotives: in 1828 Stephenson invented the horse dandy, a wagon at the back of a train in which a horse could travel over the gravity-operated stretches, instead of trotting behind.Meanwhile, in May 1826, the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway had successfully obtained its Act of Parliament. Stephenson was appointed Engineer in June, and since he and Vignoles proved incompatible the latter left early in 1827. The railway was built by Stephenson and his staff, using direct labour. A considerable controversy arose c. 1828 over the motive power to be used: the traffic anticipated was too great for horses, but the performance of the reciprocal system of cable haulage developed by Benjamin Thompson appeared in many respects superior to that of contemporary locomotives. The company instituted a prize competition for a better locomotive and the Rainhill Trials were held in October 1829.Robert Stephenson had been working on improved locomotive designs since his return from America in 1827, but it was the L \& MR's Treasurer, Henry Booth, who suggested the multi-tubular boiler to George Stephenson. This was incorporated into a locomotive built by Robert Stephenson for the trials: Rocket was entered by the three men in partnership. The other principal entrants were Novelty, entered by John Braithwaite and John Ericsson, and Sans Pareil, entered by Timothy Hackworth, but only Rocket, driven by George Stephenson, met all the organizers' demands; indeed, it far surpassed them and demonstrated the practicability of the long-distance steam railway. With the opening of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1830, the age of railways began.Stephenson was active in many aspects. He advised on the construction of the Belgian State Railway, of which the Brussels-Malines section, opened in 1835, was the first all-steam railway on the European continent. In England, proposals to link the L \& MR with the Midlands had culminated in an Act of Parliament for the Grand Junction Railway in 1833: this was to run from Warrington, which was already linked to the L \& MR, to Birmingham. George Stephenson had been in charge of the surveys, and for the railway's construction he and J.U. Rastrick were initially Principal Engineers, with Stephenson's former pupil Joseph Locke under them; by 1835 both Stephenson and Rastrick had withdrawn and Locke was Engineer-in-Chief. Stephenson remained much in demand elsewhere: he was particularly associated with the construction of the North Midland Railway (Derby to Leeds) and related lines. He was active in many other places and carried out, for instance, preliminary surveys for the Chester \& Holyhead and Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, which were important links in the lines of communication between London and, respectively, Dublin and Edinburgh.He eventually retired to Tapton House, Chesterfield, overlooking the North Midland. A man who was self-made (with great success) against colossal odds, he was ever reluctant, regrettably, to give others their due credit, although in retirement, immensely wealthy and full of honour, he was still able to mingle with people of all ranks.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, on its formation in 1847. Order of Leopold (Belgium) 1835. Stephenson refused both a knighthood and Fellowship of the Royal Society.Bibliography1815, jointly with Ralph Dodd, British patent no. 3,887 (locomotive drive by connecting rods directly to the wheels).1817, jointly with William Losh, British patent no. 4,067 (steam springs for locomotives, and improvements to track).Further ReadingL.T.C.Rolt, 1960, George and Robert Stephenson, Longman (the best modern biography; includes a bibliography).S.Smiles, 1874, The Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, rev. edn, London (although sycophantic, this is probably the best nineteenthcentury biography).PJGR -
71 Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin
[br]b. 26 June 1824 Belfast, Ireland (now Northern Ireland)d. 17 December 1907 Largs, Scotland[br]Irish physicist and inventor who contributed to submarine telegraphy and instrumentation.[br]After education at Glasgow University and Peterhouse, Cambridge, a period of study in France gave Thomson an interest in experimental work and instrumentation. He became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow in 1846 and retained the position for the rest of his career, establishing the first teaching laboratory in Britain.Among his many contributions to science and engineering was his concept, introduced in 1848, of an "absolute" zero of temperature. Following on from the work of Joule, his investigations into the nature of heat led to the first successful liquefaction of gases such as hydrogen and helium, and later to the science of low-temperature physics.Cable telegraphy gave an impetus to the scientific measurement of electrical quantities, and for many years Thomson was a member of the British Association Committee formed in 1861 to consider electrical standards and to develop units; these are still in use. Thomson first became Scientific Adviser to the Atlantic Telegraph Company in 1857, sailing on the Agamemnon and Great Eastern during the cable-laying expeditions. He invented a mirror galvanometer and more importantly the siphon recorder, which, used as a very sensitive telegraph receiver, provided a permanent record of signals. He also laid down the design parameters of long submarine cables and discovered that the conductivity of copper was greatly affected by its purity. A major part of the success of the Atlantic cable in 1866 was due to Thomson, who received a knighthood for his contribution.Other instruments he designed included a quadrant electrostatic voltmeter to measure high voltages, and his "multi-cellular" instrument for low voltages. They could be used on alternating or direct current and were free from temperature errors. His balances for precision current measurement were widely used in standardizing laboratories.Thomson was a prolific writer of scientific papers on subjects across the whole spectrum of physics; between 1855 and 1866 he published some 110 papers, with a total during his life of over 600. In 1892 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kelvin of Largs. By the time of his death he was looked upon as the "father" of British physics, but despite his outstanding achievements his later years were spent resisting change and progress.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsKnighted 1866. Created Lord Kelvin of Largs 1892. FRS 1851. President, Royal Society 1890–4. An original member of the Order of Merit 1902. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers 1874. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1889 and 1907. Royal Society Royal Medal 1856, Copley Medal 1883.Bibliography1872, Reprints of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, London; 1911, Mathematical and Physical Papers, 6 vols, Cambridge (collections of Thomson's papers).Further ReadingSilvanus P.Thompson, 1910, The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs, 2 vols, London (an uncritical biography).D.B.Wilson, 1987, Kelvin and Stokes: A Comparative Study in Victorian Physics, Bristol (provides a present-day commentary on all aspects of Thomson's work).J.G.Crowther, 1962, British Scientists of the 19th Century, London, pp. 199–257 (a short critical biography).GWBiographical history of technology > Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin
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72 Tizard, Sir Henry Thoms
SUBJECT AREA: Weapons and armour[br]b. 23 August 1885 Gillingham, Kent, Englandd. 9 October 1959 Fareham, Hampshire, England[br]English scientist and administrator who made many contributions to military technology.[br]Educated at Westminster College, in 1904 Tizard went to Magdalen College, Oxford, gaining Firsts in mathematics and chemistry. After a period of time in Berlin with Nernst, he joined the Royal Institution in 1909 to study the colour changes of indicators. From 1911 until 1914 he was a tutorial Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, but with the outbreak of the First World War he joined first the Royal Garrison Artillery, then, in 1915, the newly formed Royal Flying Corps, to work on the development of bomb-sights. Successively in charge of testing aircraft, a lieutenant-colonel in the Ministry of Munitions and Assistant Controller of Research and Experiments for the Royal Air Force, he returned to Oxford in 1919 and the following year became Reader in Chemical Thermodynamics; at this stage he developed the use of toluene as an air-craft-fuel additive.In 1922 he was appointed an assistant secretary at the government Department of Industrial and Scientific Research, becoming Principal Assistant Secretary in 1922 and its Permanent Director in 1927; during this time he was also a member of the Aeronautical Research Committee, being Chairman of the latter in 1933–43. From 1929 to 1942 he was Rector of Imperial College. In 1932 he was also appointed Chairman of a committee set up to investigate possible national air-defence systems, and it was largely due to his efforts that the radar proposals of Watson-Watt were taken up and an effective system made operational before the outbreak of the Second World War. He was also involved in various other government activities aimed at applying technology to the war effort, including the dam-buster and atomic bombs.President of Magdalen College in 1942–7, he then returned again to Whitehall, serving as Chairman of the Advisory Council on Scientific Policy and of the Defence Research Policy Committee. Finally, in 1952, he became Pro-Chan-cellor of Southampton University.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAir Force Cross 1918. CB 1927. KCB 1937. GCB 1949. American Medal of Merit 1947. FRS 1926. Ten British and Commonwealth University honorary doctorates. Hon. Fellowship of the Royal Aeronautical Society. Royal Society of Arts Gold Medal. Franklin Institute Gold Medal. President, British Association 1948. Trustee of the British Museum 1937–59.Bibliography1911, The sensitiveness of indicators', British Association Report (describes Tizard's work on colour changes in indicators).Further Reading1961, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society VII, London: Royal Society.KFBiographical history of technology > Tizard, Sir Henry Thoms
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73 Volta, Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio
SUBJECT AREA: Electricity[br]b. 18 February 1745 Como, Italyd. 5 March 1827 Como, Italy[br]Italian physicist, discoverer of a source of continuous electric current from a pile of dissimilar metals.[br]Volta had an early command of English, French and Latin, and also learned to read Dutch and Spanish. After completing studies at the Royal Seminary in Como he was involved in the study of physics, chemistry and electricity. He became a teacher of physics in his native town and in 1779 was appointed Professor of Physics at the University of Pavia, a post he held for forty years.With a growing international reputation and a wish to keep abreast of the latest developments, in 1777 he began the first of many travels abroad. A journey started in 1781 to Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Holland, France and England lasted about one year. By 1791 he had been elected to membership of many learned societies, including those in Zurich, Berlin, Berne and Paris. Volta's invention of his pile resulted from a controversy with Luigi Galvani, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna. Galvani discovered that the muscles of frogs' legs contracted when touched with two pieces of different metals and attributed this to a phenomenon of the animal tissue. Volta showed that the excitation was due to a chemical reaction resulting from the contact of the dissimilar metals when moistened. His pile comprised a column of zinc and silver discs, each pair separated by paper moistened with brine, and provided a source of continuous current from a simple and accessible source. The effectiveness of the pile decreased as the paper dried and Volta devised his crown of cups, which had a longer life. In this, pairs of dissimilar metals were placed in each of a number of cups partly filled with an electrolyte such as brine. Volta first announced the results of his experiments with dissimilar metals in 1800 in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Society. This letter, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society, has been regarded as one of the most important documents in the history of science. Large batteries were constructed in a number of laboratories soon after Volta's discoveries became known, leading immediately to a series of developments in electrochemistry and eventually in electromagnetism. Volta himself made little further contribution to science. In recognition of his achievement, at a meeting of the International Electrical Congress in Paris in 1881 it was agreed to name the unit of electrical pressure the "volt".[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1791. Royal Society Copley Medal 1794. Knight of the Iron Crown, Austria, 1806. Senator of the Realm of Lombardy 1809.Bibliography1800, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 18:744–6 (Volta's report on his discovery).Further ReadingG.Polvani, 1942, Alessandro Volta, Pisa (the best account available).B.Dibner, 1964, Alessandro Volta and the Electric Battery, New York (a detailed account).C.C.Gillispie (ed.), 1976, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. XIV, New York, pp.66–82 (includes an extensive biography).F.Soresni, 1988, Alessandro Volta, Milan (includes illustrations of Volta's apparatus, with brief text).GWBiographical history of technology > Volta, Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio
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74 Watt, James
SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 19 January 1735 Greenock, Renfrewshire, Scotlandd. 19 August 1819 Handsworth Heath, Birmingham, England[br]Scottish engineer and inventor of the separate condenser for the steam engine.[br]The sixth child of James Watt, merchant and general contractor, and Agnes Muirhead, Watt was a weak and sickly child; he was one of only two to survive childhood out of a total of eight, yet, like his father, he was to live to an age of over 80. He was educated at local schools, including Greenock Grammar School where he was an uninspired pupil. At the age of 17 he was sent to live with relatives in Glasgow and then in 1755 to London to become an apprentice to a mathematical instrument maker, John Morgan of Finch Lane, Cornhill. Less than a year later he returned to Greenock and then to Glasgow, where he was appointed mathematical instrument maker to the University and was permitted in 1757 to set up a workshop within the University grounds. In this position he came to know many of the University professors and staff, and it was thus that he became involved in work on the steam engine when in 1764 he was asked to put in working order a defective Newcomen engine model. It did not take Watt long to perceive that the great inefficiency of the Newcomen engine was due to the repeated heating and cooling of the cylinder. His idea was to drive the steam out of the cylinder and to condense it in a separate vessel. The story is told of Watt's flash of inspiration as he was walking across Glasgow Green one Sunday afternoon; the idea formed perfectly in his mind and he became anxious to get back to his workshop to construct the necessary apparatus, but this was the Sabbath and work had to wait until the morrow, so Watt forced himself to wait until the Monday morning.Watt designed a condensing engine and was lent money for its development by Joseph Black, the Glasgow University professor who had established the concept of latent heat. In 1768 Watt went into partnership with John Roebuck, who required the steam engine for the drainage of a coal-mine that he was opening up at Bo'ness, West Lothian. In 1769, Watt took out his patent for "A New Invented Method of Lessening the Consumption of Steam and Fuel in Fire Engines". When Roebuck went bankrupt in 1772, Matthew Boulton, proprietor of the Soho Engineering Works near Birmingham, bought Roebuck's share in Watt's patent. Watt had met Boulton four years earlier at the Soho works, where power was obtained at that time by means of a water-wheel and a steam engine to pump the water back up again above the wheel. Watt moved to Birmingham in 1774, and after the patent had been extended by Parliament in 1775 he and Boulton embarked on a highly profitable partnership. While Boulton endeavoured to keep the business supplied with capital, Watt continued to refine his engine, making several improvements over the years; he was also involved frequently in legal proceedings over infringements of his patent.In 1794 Watt and Boulton founded the new company of Boulton \& Watt, with a view to their retirement; Watt's son James and Boulton's son Matthew assumed management of the company. Watt retired in 1800, but continued to spend much of his time in the workshop he had set up in the garret of his Heathfield home; principal amongst his work after retirement was the invention of a pantograph sculpturing machine.James Watt was hard-working, ingenious and essentially practical, but it is doubtful that he would have succeeded as he did without the business sense of his partner, Matthew Boulton. Watt coined the term "horsepower" for quantifying the output of engines, and the SI unit of power, the watt, is named in his honour.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1785. Honorary LLD, University of Glasgow 1806. Foreign Associate, Académie des Sciences, Paris 1814.Further ReadingH.W.Dickinson and R Jenkins, 1927, James Watt and the Steam Engine, Oxford: Clarendon Press.L.T.C.Rolt, 1962, James Watt, London: B.T. Batsford.R.Wailes, 1963, James Watt, Instrument Maker (The Great Masters: Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1), London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers.IMcN -
75 Okikurumi
is name of Aynu cultural hero (Pilsudski thought that Okikurumi was closely connected with the area of Saru and other areas mythology knows another name: Mocarok, Kasunre, Ikoresuye, Sirakte). Okikurumi was the main hero of oyna, mythology poems. According to the evidence collected by B. Chamberlain Okikurumi had taught people to hunt and to fish and his younger sister and wife named Turesi Maci had taught people to sew and to weave. N. A. Nevski, considered Okikurumi as founder of each sphere of Aynu culture each their faith… Okikurumi was also named Oyna-kamuy that mean deity of oyna. Okikurumi was also named Aynu-rak-kur or A-e-oyna-kamuy (person smelling Aynu people or person about whom we compose poems). So, I think, that term god or deity isn’t correct in connection to such being as Okikurumi is. I believe that considering Okikurumi as superhuman being (in Nietzschean understanding) can be more usefull and correct. According to a legend Okikurumi was born by the following way: the highest deities ordered to Kotan kara kamuy (settlements made deity) to descend to the earth and to set it to right. Kotan kara kamuy had dug through rivers’ valleys and had driven his mattock into the ground, then he ascended to the heaven. This mattock took root and became elm-tree, more exactly the goddess of elm-tree – Cikisani. Pa kor kamuy (deity of year) was flying above the land, admiring about made work and sat at the elm-tree to have a rest. Due to this chance goddess Cikisani became pregnant and she bore son, late named Ookikurumi or Aynurakkur. Elm-tree was used by Aynu people in getting fire by friction. So Okikurumi is connected with fire. K. Kindaiti also studying this question paid attention to the semantics of word Ci-ki-sa-ni literally it means: ‘tree from which they get fire’. When Okikurumi become adult Cikisani made a present to him – magic sword. When Ookikurumi snatched it out around this sword immediately appeared flame annihilating ghosts of darkness and evil. Because of it sheath and hem of Okikurumi’s clothes (kosonte) were always singed. Культурный герой Айну (Пилсудский полагал, что имя Окикуруми тесно связано с местностью Сару и мифология других местностей знает другие имена: Моцарок, Касунрэ, Икорэсуйэ, Сирактэ). Окикуруми является главным героем ойна. Согласно Б. Чемберлену, Окикуруми научил людей охотиться и ловить рыбу, а его младшая сестра и жена – Трэси Маци ткать и шить. Н. А. Невский рассматривал Окикуруми как основателя всего айнского образа жизни. Окикуруми также называли Oyna-kamuy Божество юкар, Aynu-rak-kur Существо, пахнущее людьми, A-e-oyna-kamuy Бог, о котором мы слагаем ойна. Поэтому, я полагаю, что термин “бог”, “божество” не совсем корректен по отношению к Окикуруми, и предлагаю использовать термин “сверхчеловеческое существо” (возможно в ницшеанском понимании). Согласно одной легенде, Окикуруми родился следующим образом: высшие божества приказали Kotan kara kamuy (Божеству, устроившему поселения) спуститься на землю и привести ее в порядок. Он прорыл долины рек и перед тем, как вернуться обратно на небо, воткнул мотыгу в землю. Мотыга пустила корни и стала вязом, точнее божеством вяза – Цикисани, Pa kor kamuy (Бог, хранитель года) пролетал над землей, осматривая проделанную работу и присел отдохнуть на дерево Цикисани. Из-за этого Цикисани стала беременной и родила сына, которого позднее назвали Окикуруми. Вяз использовался Айну для добывания огня трением. Поэтому Окикуруми связан с огнем. Киндаити Кёсукэ интерпретировал имя Ci-ki-sa-ni как “дерево, из которого мы получаем огонь”. Когда Окикуруми стал взрослым его мать подарила ему магический меч, который вспыхивал как только Окикуруми вынимал его из ножен, и уничтожал духов тьмы и зла. Поэтому ножны и подол халата Окикуруми всегда были опалены. -
76 more
mɔ:
1. прил.
1) сравн. от much
1., many
1.
2) более многочисленный;
присутствующий в большем количестве, в большей степени, в большем объеме She has more merits than her sister. ≈ У нее больше достоинств, чем у ее сестры.
3) добавочный, дополнительный;
дальнейший;
(употр. с числительным или неопределенным местоимением) Two more hostages have been killed. ≈ Еще двое заложников было убито. Would you like some more tea? ≈ Вы не хотите еще чая? Syn: additional, further ∙ any more
2. нареч.
1) сравн. от much
2.
2) служит для образования сравн. ст. многосложных прилагательных и наречий morebeautiful ≈ более красивый, красивее much more difficult ≈ намного более трудный
3) больше;
в большей степени You should eat more. ≈ Вам надо больше есть. She is more of a poet than a musician. ≈Она больше поэт, чем музыкант.
4) еще;
в добавление, к тому же Syn: in addition, further
5) опять, снова once more ≈ еще раз Syn: again, anew ∙ more or less ≈ более или менее, приблизительно the more... the more ≈ чем больше..., тем больше the more he has the more he wants ≈ чем больше он имеет, тем большего он хочет the more the better ≈ чем больше, тем лучше neither more nor less than ≈ ни больше, ни меньше как;
не что иное, как all the more so ≈ тем более never more ≈ никогда
3. сущ.
1) большее количество;
что-л. дополнительное She kept on asking if I wanted more. ≈ Она продолжала спрашивать, не хочу ли я еще чего-нибудь.
2) что-л. более важное And what is more, you have to help him. ≈ А самое главное, ты должен помочь ему./ Более того ты должен помочь ему. ∙ hope to see more of you ≈ надеюсь чаще вас видеть we saw no more of him ≈ мы его больше не видели compar от much и many больший, более многочисленный, значительный, интенсивный и т. п. - to have * patience than... иметь больше терпения, чем... - I've got * books than you у меня больше книг, чем у вас - there were * accidents несчастные случаи стали более многочисленными /участились/ - there is * truth in it than you think в этом больше правды, чем вы думаете - they are * их больше, они многочисленнее - * of us are going нас идет больше;
нас идет еще несколько человек - * will attend this year than ever before в этом году будет больше посетителей, чем когда-либо больший (с числами) - ten is two * than eight десять на два больше, чем восемь добавочный, дополнительный;
еще - one * еще один - I have got two * tickets у меня есть еще два билета - we have plenty * food у нас еще много еды - do you want any * (tea) ? хотите еще (чаю) ? - (to be) fifty and * (быть) пятидесяти лет с лишком /с гаком/ - children of twelve years old and * дети двенадцати лет и старше - I want some * я хочу еще (немного) - I want no * я больше не хочу - what * do you want? что ты еще хочешь? - has she any * children? у нее есть еще дети? > the * fool you тем хуже для тебя > without * ado (устаревшее) без дальнейших проволочек /церемоний/ больше, более - to attend * to details больше обращать внимания на детали /на мелочи/ - you need to sleep * вам надо больше спать - to be * like one's father than one's mother больше походить на отца, чем на мать - much * гораздо больше - you've got to study much * вам необходимо заниматься гораздо /намного/ больше - he was * frightened than hurt он больше испугался, чем ушибся - * than более чем - it is * than enough этого более чем достаточно - I am * than satisfied я более чем доволен - you thanked her, which is * than I did вы поблагодарили ее, чего я не сделал - he got no * than his due он получил столько, сколько ему положено - he is no * a professor than I am он такой же профессор, как я - I can not give * я больше дать не могу - we can do no * мы ничего больше сделать не можем - * cannot be said больше нечего сказать /добавить (к сказанному) /;
что еще можно сказать /добавить (к сказанному) / - (say) no * сказано достаточно - I needn't say *, I need say no * мне больше нечего добавить - I could stand no * (of it) я (этого) больше не мог переносить - his report is * than a survey его сообщение не просто обзор, а нечто более серьезное еще;
опять, снова;
в добавок - once * еще раз - twice * еще два раза - never * никогда (больше) - * and * еще и еще;
все более;
все больше и больше - I became * and * tired я все больше уставал - I feel it * and * every day я ощущаю это все более остро с каждым днем - I shall not return any * я больше не вернусь - we saw him no * мы его больше не видели служит для образования сравнит. ст. многосложных прилагательных и наречий более - * beautiful более прекрасный - * easily легче - * intensely более напряженно > * or less более или менее;
до некоторой степени;
приблизительно > neither * nor less than... ни больше (и) не меньше, как...;
не что иное, как... > the *... the * чем больше..., тем больше... > the * he has the * he wants чем больше он имеет, тем большего он хочет > the * the better чем больше, тем лучше > the * the merrier чем больше, тем веселее;
в тесноте, да не в обиде > * so того более > she is beautiful but her sister is * so она красива, но ее сестра еще красивее > (all) the * so, as /because/... тем более, что;
тем паче, что... > * dead than alive смертельно усталый > * like скорее > there was * like a hundred than fifty там было скорее сто, чем пятьдесят > the *'s the pity тем более досадно;
как жаль;
тем хуже > what is *, and * и вдобавок;
больше того;
что еще важно (отметить) ;
а кроме того > hope to see * of you надеюсь чаще вас видеть > we saw no * of him мы его больше не видели > that is * than I can tell /say/ этого я не знаю > * is meant than meets the eye /the ear/ это не так просто;
имеется в виду /подразумевается/ больше, чем кажется на первый взгляд /сначала/ > there's * to come это еще не все;
смотри продолжение( текста на следующих страницах) > of which * anon (устаревшее) мы к этому еще вернемся > to be no * (возвышенно) умереть;
перестать существовать > he is no * его уже нет (в живых), его не стало bring some ~ water принесите еще воды ~ больший, более многочисленный;
he has more ability than his predecessors у него больше умения, чем у его предшественников he is no ~ его нет в живых no: he is ~ more его нет в живых, он умер;
he cannot come, no more can I он не может прийти, как и я hope to see ~ of you надеюсь чаще вас видеть;
we saw no more of him мы его больше не видели more больше;
you should walk more вам надо больше гулять ~ большее количество;
дополнительное количество;
what is more вдобавок, больше того ~ больший, более многочисленный;
he has more ability than his predecessors у него больше умения, чем у его предшественников ~ добавочный, еще (употр. с числительным или неопределенным местоимением) ;
two more cruisers were sunk еще два крейсера были потоплены ~ еще;
опять, снова;
once more еще раз;
more or less более или менее, приблизительно ~ служит для образования сравн. ст. многосложных прилагательных и наречий: more powerful более мощный ~ сравн. ст. от much ~ сравн. ст. от much;
many the ~... the ~ чем больше..., тем больше;
the more he has the more he wants чем больше он имеет, тем большего он хочет the ~... the ~ чем больше..., тем больше;
the more he has the more he wants чем больше он имеет, тем большего он хочет ~ служит для образования сравн. ст. многосложных прилагательных и наречий: more powerful более мощный the ~ the better чем больше, тем лучше the: ~ тем;
чем;
the more the better чем больше, тем лучше ~ сравн. ст. от much ~ сравн. ст. от much;
many most: ~ превосх. ст. от much ~ превосх. ст. от much;
many much: much (при сравн. ст.) гораздо, значительно;
much more natural гораздо естественнее;
much better намного лучше ~ a (more;
most) много;
much snow много снега;
much time много времени ~ многое ~ adv (more;
most) очень;
I am much obliged to you я вам очень благодарен ~ почти, приблизительно;
much of a size (a height, etc.) почти того же размера (той же высоты и т. п.) neither ~ nor less than ни больше, ни меньше как;
не что иное, как;
all the more so тем более never ~ никогда ~ еще;
опять, снова;
once more еще раз;
more or less более или менее, приблизительно the ~... the ~ чем больше..., тем больше;
the more he has the more he wants чем больше он имеет, тем большего он хочет there is ~ to come это еще не все ~ добавочный, еще (употр. с числительным или неопределенным местоимением) ;
two more cruisers were sunk еще два крейсера были потоплены hope to see ~ of you надеюсь чаще вас видеть;
we saw no more of him мы его больше не видели ~ большее количество;
дополнительное количество;
what is more вдобавок, больше того more больше;
you should walk more вам надо больше гулять -
77 more
1. [mɔ:] a1. compar от much II, III и many II2. 1) больший, более многочисленный, значительный, интенсивный и т. п.to have [to show] more patience [craft, ability, knowledge] than... - иметь [проявлять] больше терпения [искусства, умения, знаний], чем...
I've got more books than you - у меня больше книг, чем у вас
there were more accidents - несчастные случаи стали более многочисленными /участились/
there is more truth in it than you think - в этом больше правды, чем вы думаете
they are more - их больше, они многочисленнее
more of us are going - а) нас идёт больше; б) нас идёт ещё несколько человек
more will attend this year than ever before - в этом году будет больше посетителей, чем когда-л.
2) больший ( с числами)ten is two more than eight - десять на два больше, чем восемь
3. добавочный, дополнительный; ещёone [two, three] more - ещё один [два, три]
we have plenty [some, a little] more food - у нас ещё много [есть немного] еды
do you want any more (tea)? - хотите ещё (чаю)?
(to be) fifty and more - (быть) пятидесяти лет с лишком /с гаком/
what more do you want? - что ещё ты хочешь?
has she any more children - у неё есть ещё дети?
♢
the more fool you - тем хуже для тебя2. [mɔ:] advwithout more ado - уст. без дальнейших проволочек /церемоний/
1. compar от much II2. больше, болееto attend more to details - больше обращать внимания на детали /на мелочи/
to be more like one's father than one's mother - больше походить на отца, чем на мать
you've got to study much more - вам необходимо заниматься гораздо /намного/ больше
he was more frightened than hurt - он больше испугался, чем ушибся
you thanked her, which is more than I did - вы поблагодарили её, чего я не сделал
he got no more than his due - он получил столько, сколько ему положено
he is no more a professor than I am - он такой же профессор, как я
more cannot be said - больше нечего сказать /добавить (к сказанному)/; что ещё можно сказать /добавить (к сказанному)/
I needn't say more, I need say no more - мне больше нечего добавить
his report is more than a survey - его сообщение не просто обзор, а нечто более серьёзное
3. ещё; опять, снова; в добавокmore and more - а) ещё и ещё; б) всё более; всё больше и больше
I feel it more and more every day - я ощущаю это всё более остро с каждым днём
I shall not return [go there] any more - я больше не вернусь [не пойду туда]
4. служит для образования сравнит. ст. многосложных прилагательных и наречий болееmore beautiful [agreeable, curious, difficult, serious] - более прекрасный [приятный, любопытный, трудный, серьёзный]
♢
more or less - более или менее; до некоторой степени; приблизительноneither more nor less than... - ни больше (и) ни меньше, как...; не что иное, как...
the more... the more - чем больше..., тем больше
the more he has the more he wants - чем больше он имеет, тем большего он хочет
the more the better - чем больше, тем лучше
the more the merrier - чем больше, тем веселее; ≅ в тесноте, да не в обиде
she is beautiful but her sister is more so - она красива, но её сестра ещё красивее
(all) the more so, as /because/... - тем более, что; тем паче, что...
there was more like a hundred than fifty - там было скорее сто, чем пятьдесят
the more's the pity - тем более досадно; как жаль; тем хуже
what is more, and more - и вдобавок; больше того; что ещё важно (отметить); а кроме того
that is more than I can tell /say/ - этого я не знаю
more is meant than meets the eye /the ear/ - это не так просто; имеется в виду /подразумевается/ больше, чем кажется на первый взгляд /сначала/
there's more to come - это ещё не всё; смотри продолжение ( текста на следующих страницах)
of which more anon - уст. мы к этому ещё вернёмся
to be no more - возвыш. умереть; перестать существовать
he is no more - его уже нет (в живых), его не стало
-
78 AIDS-orphan
Общая лексика: ребёнок, родители которого умерли от СПИДа (an AIDS orphan is a child who became an orphan because of death due to HIV/AIDS) -
79 AIDS-orphans
1) Общая лексика: дети, родители которых умерли от СПИДа (an AIDS orphan is a child who became an orphan because of death due to HIV/AIDS)2) Юридический термин: сироты СПИДа -
80 дети, родители которых умерли от СПИДа
General subject: AIDS-orphans (an AIDS orphan is a child who became an orphan because of death due to HIV/AIDS)Универсальный русско-английский словарь > дети, родители которых умерли от СПИДа
Страницы
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