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1 Best and Smith's Reports
Юридический термин: сборник решений Суда королевской скамьи (составители Бест и Смит, 1861-1870), сборник решений Суда королевской скамьи, составители Бест и Смит (1861-1870)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Best and Smith's Reports
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2 B.&S.
сокр. от Best and Smith's Reportsсборник решений Суда королевской скамьи, составители Бест и Смит (1861-1870) -
3 civil war
((a) war between citizens of the same state: the American Civil War.) guerra civilcivil war n guerra civilguerra civil: guerra f civiln.• guerra civil s.f.mass & count noun guerra f civilthe Civil War — la guerra civil; ( in US) la guerra de Secesión
••
Cultural note:
La Guerra de Secesión (1861-1865), entre los estados del norte y los del sur de EEUU, se inició principalmente a raíz del problema de los esclavos. Abraham Lincoln, elegido presidente en 1860, se oponía a la esclavitud, pero sostenía que no le pondría fin. Once estados del sur, donde la economía agrícola dependía del trabajo de los esclavos, no lo creyeron así y en 1861 formaron la Confederate States of America, a menudo llamada The Confederacy (La Confederación) para separarse de la Unión. La Guerra estalló el 12 de abril. Al rendirse la Confederación el 9 de abril de 1865 habían muerto 620.000 personas. Lincoln fue asesinado cinco días más tarde. Se abolió la esclavitud y en 1870, posteriores enmiendas a la Constitución otorgaron a los negros, al menos en teoría, los mismos derechos de los blancosMuchas de las causas que provocaron la guerra civil (1642-1651) entre los Royalists (monárquicos) o Cavaliers (partidarios del rey Carlos I) y las fuerzas parlamentarias (apodadas Roundheads), encabezadas por Oliver Cromwell, tenían que ver con los problemas religiosos y económicos de la época. Desde tiempos del rey Enrique VIII el parlamento había luchado por conseguir más poder frente al monarca, y el intento de Carlos I de arrestar a los miembros del cuerpo legislativo, al negarle éste los fondos necesarios para seguir gobernando como autócrata, fue lo que desencadenó el conflicto militar. Vencido en las batallas de Marston Moor (1644) y Naseby (1645), el rey se entregó al ejército escocés un año más tarde. Condenado a muerte por una comisión parlamentaria bajo Cromwell, fue ajusticiado en 1649. Durante los años de la Commonwealth que siguieron, el Protector (Cromwell) se mostró tan intolerante como su predecesor. Disolvió el Parlamento en varias ocasiones y gobernó durante varios años como dictador. La monarquía fue restaurada en 1660 bajo Carlos II, hijo de Carlos I* * *mass & count noun guerra f civilthe Civil War — la guerra civil; ( in US) la guerra de Secesión
••
Cultural note:
La Guerra de Secesión (1861-1865), entre los estados del norte y los del sur de EEUU, se inició principalmente a raíz del problema de los esclavos. Abraham Lincoln, elegido presidente en 1860, se oponía a la esclavitud, pero sostenía que no le pondría fin. Once estados del sur, donde la economía agrícola dependía del trabajo de los esclavos, no lo creyeron así y en 1861 formaron la Confederate States of America, a menudo llamada The Confederacy (La Confederación) para separarse de la Unión. La Guerra estalló el 12 de abril. Al rendirse la Confederación el 9 de abril de 1865 habían muerto 620.000 personas. Lincoln fue asesinado cinco días más tarde. Se abolió la esclavitud y en 1870, posteriores enmiendas a la Constitución otorgaron a los negros, al menos en teoría, los mismos derechos de los blancosMuchas de las causas que provocaron la guerra civil (1642-1651) entre los Royalists (monárquicos) o Cavaliers (partidarios del rey Carlos I) y las fuerzas parlamentarias (apodadas Roundheads), encabezadas por Oliver Cromwell, tenían que ver con los problemas religiosos y económicos de la época. Desde tiempos del rey Enrique VIII el parlamento había luchado por conseguir más poder frente al monarca, y el intento de Carlos I de arrestar a los miembros del cuerpo legislativo, al negarle éste los fondos necesarios para seguir gobernando como autócrata, fue lo que desencadenó el conflicto militar. Vencido en las batallas de Marston Moor (1644) y Naseby (1645), el rey se entregó al ejército escocés un año más tarde. Condenado a muerte por una comisión parlamentaria bajo Cromwell, fue ajusticiado en 1649. Durante los años de la Commonwealth que siguieron, el Protector (Cromwell) se mostró tan intolerante como su predecesor. Disolvió el Parlamento en varias ocasiones y gobernó durante varios años como dictador. La monarquía fue restaurada en 1660 bajo Carlos II, hijo de Carlos I -
4 CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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Costa Gomes-o Ultimo Marechal. Lisbon: Edit. Noticias, 1998.■ Domingos, Emídio Da Veiga. Portugal Político. Análise das Instituiçoes. Lisbon, 1989.■ Goldey, David. "Elections and the Consolidation of Portuguese Democracy: 1974-1983." Electoral Studies 2, 3 (1983): 229-40.■ Graham, Lawrence S. "Institutionalizing Democracy: Governance in Post-1974 Portugal." In Ali Farazmand, ed., Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration, 81-90. New York: Dekker, 1991.■, and Douglas L. Wheeler, eds. In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and Its Consequences. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Gunther, Richard. "Spain and Portugal." In G. A. Dorfman and P. J. Duignan, eds., Politics in Western Europe, 186-236. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1988.■ Magone, José Maria. European Portugal: The Difficult Road to Sustainable Democracy. Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1997.■ Maxwell, Kenneth. The Making of Portuguese Democracy. 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Portugal ( Including the Azores and Spain) in Search of New Directions: Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976.■ Pereira, J. Pacheco. "A Case of Orthodoxy: The Communist Party of Portugal." In Waller and Fenema, eds., Communist Parties in Western Europe: Adaptation or Decline? Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988.■ Pilmott, Ben. "Socialism in Portugal: Was It a Revolution?" Government and Opposition 7 (Summer 1977).■. "Were the Soldiers Revolutionary? The Armed Forces Movement in Portugal, 1973-1976." Iberian Studies 7, 1 (1978): 13-21.■, and Jean Seaton. "Political Power and the Portuguese Media." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 43-57. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Porch, Douglas. The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution. London: Croom Helm and Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1977.■ Pouchin, Dominique. Portugal, quelle révolution? 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Portuguese Revolution, 1974-1976. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1976.■ Spínola, Antônio de. Portugal e o Futuro. Lisbon, 1974.■. País Sem Rumo: Contributo para a História de uma Revolução. Lisbon, 1978.■ Story, Jonathan. "Portugal's Revolution of Carnations: Patterns of Change and Continuity." International Affairs 52 (July 1976): 417-34. Sweezey, Paul. "Class Struggles in Portugal." Monthly Review 27, 4 (Sept. 1975): 1-26.■ Szulc, Tad. "Lisbon and Washington: Behind Portugal's Revolution." Foreign Policy 21 (Winter 1975-76): 3-62. Tavares de Almeida, Antônio. Balsemão: O retrato. Lisbon, 1981. "Vasco." Desenhos Políticos. Lisbon, 1974.■ Vasconcelos, Alvaro. "Portugal in Atlantic-Mediterranean Security." In Douglas T. Stuart, ed., Politics and Security in the Southern Region of the Atlantic Alliance, 117-36. London: Macmillan, 1988.■ Wheeler, Douglas L. "Golpes militares e golpes literários. A literatura do golpe de 25 de Abril de 1974 em contexto histôrico." Penélope. Fazer E Desfazer A História, 19-20 (1998): 191-212.■. "Tributo ao Historiador dos Historiadores. Memorias de A.H.de Oliveira Marques (1933-2007)," Historia XXIX, 95, III series (March 2007), 18-22.■ Wiarda, Howard J. Transcending Corporatism? The Portuguese Corporative System and the Revolution of 1974. Columbia: Institute of International Studies, University of South Carolina, 1976.■. The Transition to Democracy in Spain and Portugal. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1989. Wise, Audrey. Eyewitness in Revolutionary Portugal. With a Preface by Judith Hart, MP. London: Spokesman, 1975.■ PHYSICAL FEATURES: GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, FAUNA, AND FLORA■ Birot, Pierre. Le Portugal: Étude de géographie régionale. Paris, 1950.■ Embleton, Clifford. Geomorphology of Europe. London: Macmillan, 1984.■ Girão, Aristides de Amorim. Divisão regional, divisão agrícola e divisão administrativa. Coimbra, 1932.■. 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In Trabalhos de antropologia e etnologia. 28, 3-4 (1988).■ Alarcão, Jorge de, ed. "Do Paleolítico va arte visigótica." Vol. 1, História da■ Arte em Portugal. Lisbon: Alfa, 1986.■. Roman Portugal, 3 vols. Warminister, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■. Portugal Das Orígens A Romanização. Vol. I. In J. Serrão and A. H. de Oliveira Marques, eds. Nova História de Portugal. Lisbon: Presença, 1990. Anderson, James M., and M. S. Lea. Portugal 1001 Sights: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary and Robert Hale, 1994.■ Balmuth, Miriam S., Antonio Gilman, and Lourdes Prados-Torreira, eds. Encounters and Transformations: The Archaeology of Iberia in Transition. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology, no. 7. Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997.■ Beirão, C. M. M. Une civilization protohistorique du Sud au Portugal ( 1er Age du Fer). Paris: D. Boccard, 1986.■ Cardoso, João Luís, Santinho A. Cunha, and Delberto Aguiar. O Homem Pre-Histórico no Concelho de Oeiras. Oeiras, Portugal: Estudos Arquelógicos de Oeiras, 1991.■ Harrison, Richard J. The Bell Beaker Cultures of Spain and Portugal. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977.■ Mangas, Júlio, ed. Hispania epigraphica. Madrid, 1989.■ Maloney, Stephanie J. "The Villa of Toerre de Palma, Portugal: Archaeology and Preservation." Portuguese Studies Review VIII, 1 (Fall-Winter, 1999-2000): 14-28.■ Savory, H. N. Spain and Portugal: The Prehistory of the Iberian Peninsula. London, 1968.■ Silva, A. C. F. A cultura castreja no Noroeste de Portugal. Paços de Ferreira:■ Museu da Citânia de Sanfins, 1986. Straus, L. G. Iberia before the Iberians. Albuquerque, N.M., 1992.■ FOREIGN TRAVELERS AND RESIDENTS' ACCOUNTS■ Andersen, Hans Christian. A Visit to Portugal 1866. London: Peter Owen, 1972.■ Beckford, William. Italy, with Sketches of Spain and Portugal. Paris: Baudry's European Library, 1834.■ Boyd Alexander, ed. London: Hart-Davies, 1954.■. 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Brother Luiz de Sousa [play]. Edgar Prestage, trans. London: Elkin Mathess, 1909.■. Travels in My Homeland. John M. Parker, trans. London: Peter Owen and UNESCO, 1987. Griffin, Jonathan. Camões: Some Poems Translated from the Portuguese by Jonathan Griffin. London: Menard Press, 1976. Jorge, Lídia. The Murmuring Coast. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.■ Lisboa, Eugénio, ed. Portuguese Short Fiction. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet, 1997.■ Lopes, Fernão. The English in Portugal 1367-87: Extracts from the Chronicles of Dom Fernando and Dom João. Derek W. Lomax and R. J. Oakley, eds. and trans. Warminster, U.K.: Aris & Phillips, 1988.■ Macedo, Helder, ed. Contemporary Portuguese Poetry: An Anthology in English. Helder Macedo, et al., trans. Manchester, U.K.: Carcanet New Press, 1978.■ Martins, J. P. De Oliveira. A History of Iberian Civilization. Aubrey F. G. Bell, trans.; preface by Salvador de Madariaga. New York: Cooper Square, 1969.■ Mendes Pinto, Fernão. 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S. de Winton. Survey of Education in Portugal. London, 1942.■ Hirsch, Elizabeth Feist. Damião de Góis: The Life and Thought of a Portuguese Humanist. The Hague, 1967.■ Lemos, Maximiano. Arquivos de História da Medicina Portuguesa. Several vols. Lisbon, 1886-1923. Vol. I. História da Medicina em Portugal. Doutrina e Instituições. Lisbon, 1899.■ Mira, Matias Ferreira de. História da Medicina Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1948.■ Orta, Garcia de. Colóquios dos Simples e Drogas e Cousas Medicinais da India. Conde de Ficalho, ed., 2 vols. Lisbon, 1891-95.■ Osório, J. Pereira. História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1986-89.■ Pina, Luís de. "Uma prioridade portuguesa do século XVI. João de Barros e a Dactiloscópia Oriental." Arquivo da Repartição de Antropologia Criminal IV (1936).■. "As Ciências na História do Império Colonial Português — Séculos XV a XIX." Anais de Faculdade de Ciências do Porto ( 1939-10).■. "Os Portugueses Mestres de Ciência e Metras no Estrangeiro." Actas do Congresso do Mundo Português. Lisbon, 1940.■. "A Ciência em Portugal (bosquejo Histórico)." In Secretariado Nacional da Informação, ed., Portugal: Breviário Da Pátria Para Os Portugueses Ausentes, 277-301. Lisbon, 1946.■ Richards, Robert A. C., ed. Guide to World Science: Vol. 9: Spain and Portugal, 2nd ed. Guernsey, U.K.: F. H. Books, 1974.■ Saraiva, António José. História da Cultura em Portugal, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1950-62.■ ———. "João de Barros." In Serrao, ed., Dicionário de História de Portugal 1 (1963): 307-8.■ Silvestre Ribeiro, José. História dos Establecimentos Scientíficos, Literários e Artísticos de Portugal nos Successivos Reinados da Monarchia, 3 vols. Lisbon, 1871-83.■ Veiga-Pires, J. A., and Ronald G. Grainger, eds. Pioneers in Angiography: The Portuguese School ofAngiography. Lancaster, U.K.: MTP Press, 1982.■ Walker, Timothy. "Doctors, Folk Medicine and the Inquisition: The Repression of Popular Healing in Portugal during the Enlightenment Era." Ph.D. dissertation, History Department, Boston University, 2001.■ Barbosa, Madelena. "Women in Portugal." Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981): 477-80.■ Barreno, Maria Isabel, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa. Novas Cartas Portuguesas. Lisbon, 1972.■ ———. The Three Marias. New Portuguese Letters. Helen R. Lane, trans. New York: Doubleday, 1975.■ Brettell, Caroline B. We Have Already Cried Many Tears: The Stories of Three Portuguese Migrant Women. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1982.■ Ferreira, Virginia. "Engendering Portugal: Social Change, State Politics, and Women's Social Mobilization." In António Costa Pinto, ed., Modern Portugal, 162-88. Palo Alto, Calif.: SPOSS, 1998.■ Goodwin, Mary. "Portuguese Feminism." Portuguese Studies Newsletter 17 (Spring-Summer 1987): 12-13.■ Lamas, Maria. As Mulheres do Meu País. Lisbon, 1948.■ "Mulheres Portuguesas e Feminismo." Análise Social [special number on Portuguese Women and Feminism] 22 (1986): 92-93.■ Osório, Ana de Castro. As Mulheres Portuguesas. Lisbon, 1905.■ Sadlier, Darlene J. The Question of How: Women Writers and New Portuguese Literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood; Contributions in Women's Studies, no. 109, 1989.■ Silva, Manuela. The Employment of Women in Portugal. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications, European Communities, 1984. Velho da Costa, Maria. Maina Mendes. Lisbon, 1974.■ Vicente, Ana, and Maria Reynolds de Souza. Family Planning in Portugal. Lisbon, 1984.■ Almeida, Fortunato de. História da Igreja em Portugal. 6 vols. Coimbra, 1910-24, and Oporto, 1967-72. Alonso, Joaquim Maria. The Secret of Fátima: Fact and Legend. Cambridge, Mass.: Ravengate Press, 1979. Alves, José da Felicidade, ed. Católicos e política de Humberto Delgado à Marcelo Caetano. Lisbon, 1969. Araújo, Miguel de, ed. Dicionario político; 1; Os Bispos e a revoluçao de Abril. Lisbon, 1976. Bishko, Charles Julian. Spanish and Portuguese Monastic History 600-1300. London, Variorum Reprints, 1984.■ Blanshard, Paul. Freedom and Catholic Power in Spain and Portugal. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962.■ Boxer, C. R. The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion 1440-1770. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978. Bruneau, Thomas C. "Church and State in Portugal: Crises of Cross and Sword." Journal of Church and State XVIII (1976): 463-90. Freire, José Geraldes. Resistência Católico ao Salazarismo-Marcelismo. Oporto, 1976.■ Herculano, Alexandre. History of the Origin and Establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal. John C. Banner, trans. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1962.■ IPOPE. Estudo sobre liberdade e religião em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973. Johnston, Francis. Fátima: The Great Sign. Chulmleigh, U.K.: Augustine Publications, 1980.■ Kondor, Fr. Louis. Fátima in Lucia's Own Words: Sister Lucia's Memoirs. Fatima: Postulation Center, 1976. Lourenço, Joaquim Maria. Situação jurídica da Igreja em Portugal. Coimbra, 1943.■ Mattoso, José. Religião e Cultura na Idade Média Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1982. Miller, Samuel J. Portugal and Rome c. 1748-1830: An Aspect of Catholic Enlightenment. Rome: Universita Gregoriana Editrice, 1978. O'Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.■ Pattee, Richard. Portugal and the Portuguese World. Milwaukee, Wisc.: Bruce, 1957.■ Prestage, Edgar. Portugal: A Pioneer of Christianity. Lisbon, 1945.■ Richard, Robert. Etudes sur l'histoire morale et religieuse de Portugal. Paris: Centro Cultural de Gulbenkian, 1970.■ Robinson, Richard A. H. "The Religious Question and Catholic Revival in Portugal, 1900-1930." Journal of Contemporary History XII (1977): 345-62.■. Contemporary Portugal: A History. London: Allen & Unwin, 1979.■ Rodrigues, R. P. Francisco. História da Companhia de Jesus na Assistência de Portugal, 7 vols. Lisbon, 1931-50.■ Roth, Cecil. A History of the Marranos. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1932.■ Agriculture, Viticulture, and Fishing■ Abreu-Ferreira, Darlene. "The Portuguese in Newfoundland: Documentary Evidence Examined." Portuguese Studies Review 4, 1 (1995-96): 11-33.■ Allen, H. Warner. The Wines of Portugal. London: Michael Joseph, 1963.■ Barros, Afonso de. A reforma agrária em Portugal. Oeiras, 1979.■ Beamish, Huldine V. The Hills of Alentejo. London: Geoffrey Bles, 1958.■ Bennett, Norman R. "The Golden Age of the Port Wine System, 1781-1807." The International History Review XII (1990): 221-18.■ Black, Richard. "The Myth of Subsistence: Market Production in the Small Farm Sector of Northern Portugal." Iberian Studies 1, 8 (1989): 25-41.■ Bravo, Pedro, and Duarte de Oliveira. Viticulture Moderna. Lisbon, 1974.■. Vinhas e Vinhos De Portugal. Lisbon, 1979.■ Cabral, Manuel V. "Agrarian Structures and Recent Movements in Portugal." Journal of Peasant Studies 4, 5 (July 1978): 411-45.■ Cardoso, José Carvalho. A Agricultura Portuguesa. Lisbon, 1973.■ Carvalho, Bento de. Guía Dos Vinhos Portugueses. Lisbon, 1982.■ Clarke, Robert. Open Boat Whaling in the Azores: The History and Present Methods of a Relic Industry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954.■ Cockburn, Ernest. Port Wine and Oporto. London: Wine & Spirit, 1949. Cole, S. C. "Cod, Cod Country and Family: The Portuguese Newfoundland Fishery." Mast 3, 1 (1990): 1-29.■ Coull, James. The Fisheries of Europe. London: G. Bell & Sons, 1972.■ Croft-Cooke, Rupert. Port. London: Putnam, 1957.■. Madeira. London: Putnam, 1961.■ Delaforce, John. The Factory House at Oporto. London: Christie's Wine Publications, 1979 and later eds.■ Doel, Patricia A. Port O'Call: Memories of the Portuguese White Fleet in St. John's Newfoundland. St. John's, Newfoundland: ISER, 1992.■ Fletcher, Wyndham. Port: An Introduction to Its History and Delights. London: Bernet, 1978.■ Francis, A. D. The Wine Trade. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1972.■ Freitas, Eduardo, João Ferreira de Almeida, and Manuel Villaverde Cabral. Modalidades de penetração do capitalismo na agricultura: estruturas agrárias em Portugal Continental, 1950-1970. Lisbon, 1976.■ Gonçalves, Francisco Esteves. Portugal: A Wine Country. Lisbon, 1984.■ Gulbenkian Foundation. Agrarian Reform. Lisbon, 1981.■ Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Walker, 1997.■ Malefakis, Edward. "Two Iberian Land Reforms Compared: Spain, 1931-1936 and Portugal, 1974—1978." In Gulbenkian Foundation, Agrarian Reform. Lisbon, 1981.■ Moutinho, M. História da pesca do bacalhau. Lisbon: Imprensa Universitária, 1985.■ Oliveira Marques, A. H. de. lntrodução a história da agricultura em Portugal.■ Lisbon, 1968. Pato, Octávio. O Vinho. Lisbon, 1971.■ Pearson, Scott R. Portuguese Agriculture in Transition. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987.■ Postgate, Raymond. Portuguese Wine. London: Dent, 1969.■ Read, Jan. The Wines of Portugal. London: Faber & Faber, 1982.■ Robertson, George. Port. London: Faber & Faber, 1982 ed.■ Rutledge, Ian. "Land Reform and the Portuguese Revolution." Journal of Peasant Studies 5, 1 (Oct. 1977): 79-97.■ Sanceau, Elaine. The British Factory at Oporto. Oporto, 1970.■ Simon, Andre L. Port. London: Constable, 1934.■ Simões, J. Os grandes trabalhadores do Mar: Reportagens na Terra Nova e na Groenlândia. Lisbon: Gazeta dos Caminho de Ferro, 1942.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992: Special Report. New York: Camões Center/RIIC, Columbia University, 1990.■ Stanislawski, Dan. Landscapes of Bacchus: The Vine in Portugal. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970.■ Teixeira, Carlos, and Victor M. Pereira da Rosa, eds. The Portuguese in Canada: From the Seat to the City. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000.■ Unwin, Tim. "Farmers' Perceptions of Agrarian Change in Northwest Portugal." Journal of Rural Studies 1, 4 (1985): 339-57.■ Valadão do Valle, E. Bacalhau: tradições históricas e económicos. Lisbon, 1991.■ Venables, Bernard. Baleia! The Whalers of Azores. London: Bodley Head, 1968.■ Villiers, Alan. The Quest of the Schooner Argus: A Voyage to the Banks and Greenland. New York: Scribners, 1951. World Bank. Portugal: Agricultural Survey. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978.■ ECONOMY, INDUSTRY, AND DEVELOPMENT■ Aiyer, Srivain, and Shahid A. Chandry. Portugal and the E.E.C.: Employment and Implications. Lisbon, 1979.■ Baklanoff, Eric N. The Economic Transformation of Spain and Portugal. New York: Praeger, 1978.■. "Changing Systems: The Portuguese Revolution and the Public Enterprise Sector." ACES ( Association of Comparative Economic Studies) Bulletin 26 (Summer-Fall 1984): 63-76.■. "Portugal's Political Economy: Old and New." In K. Maxwell and M. Haltzel, eds., Portugal: Ancient Country, Young Democracy, 37-59. Washington, D.C.: Wilson Center Press, 1990.■ Barbosa, Manuel P. Growth, Migration and the Balance of Payments in a Small, Open Economy. New York: Garland, 1984.■ Braga de Macedo, Jorge, and Simon Serfaty, eds. Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1981.■ Carvalho, Camilo, et al. Sabotagem Econômica: " Dossier" Banco Espírito Santo e Comercial de Lisboa. Lisbon, 1975.■ Corkill, David. The Development of the Portuguese Economy: A Case of Euro-peanization. London: Routledge, 1999.■ Cravinho, João. "The Portuguese Economy: Constraints and Opportunities." In K. Maxwell, ed., Portugal in the 1980s, 111-65. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1986.■ Dornsbusch, Rudiger, Richard S. Eckhaus, and Lane Taylor. "Analysis and Projection of Macroeconomic Conditions in Portugal." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 299-330. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.■ The Economist (London). "On the Edge of Europe: A Survey of Portugal." (June 30, 1981): 3-27.■. "Coming Home: A Survey of Portugal." (May 28, 1988).■. 'The New Iberia: Not Quite Kissing Cousins" [Spain and Portugal]. (May 5, 1990): 21-24.■ Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian and German Marshall Fund of the U.S., eds. II Conferência Internacional sobre e Economia Portuguesa, 2 vols. Lisbon, 1979.■ Hudson, Mark. Portugal to 1993: Investing in a European Future. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit/Special Report No. 11 57/EIU Economic Prospects Series, 1989.■ International Labour Office (ILO). Employment and Basic Needs in Portugal. Geneva: ILO, 1979.■ Kavalsky, Basil, and Surendra Agarwal. Portugal: Current and Prospective Economic Trends. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978.■ Krugman, Paul, and Jorge Braga de Macedo. "The Economic Consequences of the April 25th Revolution." Economia III (1979): 455-83.■ Lewis, John R., and Alan M. Williams. "The Sines Project: Portugal's Growth Centre or White Elephant?" Town Planning Review 56, 3 (1985): 339-66.■ Makler, Harry M. "The Consequences of the Survival and Revival of the Industrial Bourgeoisie." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 251-83. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■ Marques, A. La Politique Economique Portugaise dans la Période de la Dictature ( 1926-1974). Doctoral thesis, 3rd cycle, University of Grenoble, France, 1980.■ Martins, B. Sociedades e grupos em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973.■ Mata, Eugenia, and Nuno Valério. História Econômica De Portugal: Uma Perspectiva Global. Lisbon: Edit. Presença, 1994. Murteira, Mário. "The Present Economic Situation: Its Origins and Prospects." In L. S. Graham and H. M. Makler, eds., Contemporary Portugal, 331-42. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979. OCED. Economic Survey: Portugal: 1988. Paris: OCED, 1988 [see also this series since 1978].■ Pasquier, Albert. L'Economie du Portugal: Données et Problémes de Son Expansion. Paris: Librarie Generale de Droit, 1961. Pereira da Moura, Francisco. Para onde vai e economia portuguesa? Lisbon, 1973.■ Pintado, V. Xavier. Structure and Growth of the Portuguese Economy. Geneva: EFTA, 1964.■ Pitta e Cunha, Paulo. "Portugal and the European Economic Community." In L. S. Graham and D. L. Wheeler, eds., In Search of Modern Portugal, 321-38. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.■. "The Portuguese Economic System and Accession to the European Community." In E. Sousa Ferreira and W. C. Opello, Jr., eds., Conflict and Change in Portugal, 1974-1984, 281-300. Lisbon, 1985. Porto, Manuel. "Portugal: Twenty Years of Change." In Alan Williams, ed., Southern Europe Transformed, 84-112. London: Harper & Row, 1984. Quarterly Economic Review. London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1974-present.■ Salgado de Matos, Luís. Investimentos Estrangeiros em Portugal. Lisbon, 1973 and later eds.■ Schmitt, Hans O. Economic Stabilisation and Growth in Portugal. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1981.■ Smith, Diana. Portugal and the Challenge of 1992. New York: Camões Center, RIIC, Columbia University, 1989.■ Tillotson, John. The Portuguese Bank Note Case [ 1920s]: Legal, Economic and Financial Approaches to the Measure of Damages in Contract. Manchester, U.K.: Faculty of Law, University of Manchester, 1992.■ Tovias, Alfred. Foreign Economic Relations of the Economic Community: The Impact of Spain and Portugal. Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 1990.■ Valério, Nuno. A moeda em Portugal, 1913-1947. Lisbon: Sá da Costa, 1984.■. As Finanças Públicas Portuguesas Entre As Duas Guerras Mundiais. Lisbon: Cosmos, 1994.■ World Bank. Portugal: Current and Prospective Economic Trends. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978 and to the present.■ PHOTOGRAPHY ON PORTUGAL■ Alves, Afonso Manuel, Antônio Sacchetti, and Moura Machado. Lisboa. Lisbon, 1991.■ Antunes, José. Lisboa do nosso olhar; A look on Lisbon. Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1991. Beaton, Cecil. Near East. London: Batsford, 1943.■. Lisboa 1942: Cecil Beaton, Lisbon 1942. Lisbon: British Historical Society of Portugal/Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1995.■ Bottineau, Yves. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1957.■ Câmara Municipal de Lisboa. 7 Olhares ( Seven Viewpoints). Lisbon: Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, 1998.■ Capital, A. Lisboa: Imagens d'A Capital. Lisbon: Edit. Notícias, 1984.■ Dias, Marina Tavares. Photographias de Lisboa, 1900 ( Photographs of Lisbon, 1900). Lisbon: Quimera, 1991.■. Os melhores postais antigos de Lisboa ( The best old postcards of Lisbon). Lisbon: Químera, 1995.■ Finlayson, Graham, and Frank Tuohy. Portugal. London: Thames & Hudson, 1970.■ Glassner, Helga. Portugal. Berlin-Zurich: Atlantis-Verlag, 1942. Hopkinson, Amanda, ed. Reflections by Ten Portuguese photographers. Bark-way, U.K.: Frontline/Portugal 600, 1996.■ Lima, Luís Leiria, and Isabel Salema. Lisboa de Pedra e Bronze. Lisbon, 1990.■ Martins, Miguel Gomes. Lisboa ribeirinha ( Riverside Lisbon). Lisbon: Arquivo Municipal, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 1994. Vieira, Alice. Esta Lisboa ( This Lisbon). Lisbon: Caminho, 1994. Wohl, Hellmut, and Alice Wohl. Portugal. London: Frederick Muller, 1983.■ EQUESTRIANISM■ Andrade, Manoel Carlos de, Luz da Liberal e Nobre Arte da Cavallaria. Lisbon, 1790.■ Graciosa, Filipe. Escola Portuguesa de Arte Equestre. Lisbon, 2004.■ Horsetalk Magazine. Published in New Zealand.■ Oliveira, Nuno. Reflections on the Equestrian Art. London, 2000.■ Russell, Eleanor, ed. The Truth in the Teaching of Nuno Oliveira. Stanhope,■ Queensland, Australia, 2003. Vilaca, Luis V., and Pedro Yglesias d'Oliveira, eds. LUSITANO. Coudelarias De Portugal. O Cavalo ancestral do Sudoeste da Europa. Lisbon: ICONOM, 2005.■ Websites of interest: www.equestrian.pt portugalweb.comHistorical dictionary of Portugal > CULTURE, LITERATURE, AND LANGUAGE
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5 Percy, John
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 23 March 1817 Nottingham, Englandd. 19 June 1889 London, England[br]English metallurgist, first Professor of Metallurgy at the School of Mines, London.[br]After a private education, Percy went to Paris in 1834 to study medicine and to attend lectures on chemistry by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. After 1838 he studied medicine at Edinburgh, obtaining his MD in 1839. In that year he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Queen's College, Birmingham, moving to Queen's Hospital at Birmingham in 1843. During his time at Birmingham, Percy became well known for his analysis of blast furnace slags, and was involved in the manufacture of optical glass. On 7 June 1851 Percy was appointed Metallurgical Professor and Teacher at the Museum of Practical Geology established in Jermyn Street, London, and opened in May 1851. In November of 1851, when the Museum became the Government (later Royal) School of Mines, Percy was appointed Lecturer in Metallurgy. In addition to his work at Jermyn Street, Percy lectured on metallurgy to the Advanced Class of Artillery at Woolwich from 1864 until his death, and from 1866 he was Superintendent of Ventilation at the Houses of Parliament. He served from 1861 to 1864 on the Special Committee on Iron set up to examine the performance of armour-plate in relation to its purity, composition and structure.Percy is best known for his metallurgical text books, published by John Murray. Volume I of Metallurgy, published in 1861, dealt with fuels, fireclays, copper, zinc and brass; Volume II, in 1864, dealt with iron and steel; a volume on lead appeared in 1870, followed by one on fuels and refractories in 1875, and the first volume on gold and silver in 1880. Further projected volumes on iron and steel, noble metals, and on copper, did not materialize. In 1879 Percy resigned from his School of Mines appointment in protest at the proposed move from Jermyn Street to South Kensington. The rapid growth of Percy's metallurgical collection, started in 1839, eventually forced him to move to a larger house. After his death, the collection was bought by the South Kensington (later Science) Museum. Now comprising 3,709 items, it provides a comprehensive if unselective record of nineteenth-century metallurgy, the most interesting specimens being those of the first sodium-reduced aluminium made in Britain and some of the first steel produced by Bessemer in Baxter House. Metallurgy for Percy was a technique of chemical extraction, and he has been criticized for basing his system of metallurgical instruction on this assumption. He stood strangely aloof from new processes of steel making such as that of Gilchrist and Thomas, and tended to neglect early developments in physical metallurgy, but he was the first in Britain to teach metallurgy as a discipline in its own right.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1847. President, Iron and Steel Institute 1885, 1886.Bibliography1861–80, Metallurgy, 5 vols, London: John Murray.Further ReadingS.J.Cackett, 1989, "Dr Percy and his metallurgical collection", Journal of the Hist. Met. Society 23(2):92–8.RLH -
6 Civil Rights Act of 1866
док.эк. тр., юр., амер. закон "О гражданских правах", 1866 г.* (законодательный акт Конгресса США, принятый вскоре после Гражданской войны 1861-1865 гг. и направленный против дискриминации чернокожего населения США; провозгласил равенство всех лиц, находящихся под юрисдикцией США, в правах заключать договоры, возбуждать иски, давать показания, иметь юридическую защиту от посягательств на личность и имущество, равно как и равенство в обязанностях; в 1870 и 1871 гг. были ратифицированы новые поправки к закону "О гражданских правах", кроме того, закон несколько раз переиздавался в связи с послевоенной реконструкцией и неполной легитимностью Конгресса; в современной форме закон представлен параграфами 1981, 1983 и 1985 в 42-м разделе Свода законов США; направлен на борьбу с дискриминацией по расовому признаку в области трудовых отношений; закон обеспечивает истцу компенсацию ущерба и наказание виновника дискриминации в иной форме, хотя в некоторых случаях рекомендует обращаться в третейский суд)Syn:See:Англо-русский экономический словарь > Civil Rights Act of 1866
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7 Charleston
I1) Город на юго-востоке штата Южная Каролина. Расположен на узком полуострове между эстуариями рек Эшли [ Ashley River] (первоначально находился только на ее западном берегу) и Купер [Cooper River] у входа в залив Атлантического океана. 96,6 тыс. жителей (2000). В МСА Чарлстон - Норт-Чарлстон [Charleston - North Charleston MSA (MSA)] 549 тыс. человек (2000). Административный центр [ county seat] округа Чарлстон [Charleston County]. Второй по величине город штата. Крупный порт на Атлантическом побережье; глубоководная гавань. Транспортный узел. Химическая промышленность (производство удобрений, красителей, синтетического волокна, нефтехимия), производство бумаги, сигар, судостроение, приборостроение. Курорт. Чарлстонский колледж [College of Charleston] (1770) - старейший муниципальный колледж США, Цитадель [ Citadel, The] (1842), Мединский университет Южной Каролины [Medical University of South Carolina] (1824), Чарлстонский университет Юга [Charleston Southern University] (1964), Технический колледж Трайдент [Trident Technical College] (1964). Основан в 1670 на западном берегу р. Эшли и назван Чарлз-Таун [Charles Towne] в честь английского короля Карла II. В 1680 поселение перенесено на полуостров и вскоре получило развитие как торговый центр и транспортный узел для продукции плантаций региона (хлопок, рис, индиго), став также крупным портом ввоза рабов. В 1722 назывался "Город и порт Чарльза" [Charles City and Port]. Уже к середине XVIII в. город был важным культурным центром; здесь была крупнейшая в колониях еврейская община, жили французские гугеноты. В 1775 здесь собирался провинциальный конгресс, провозгласивший создание штата Южная Каролина. Во время Войны за независимость [ War of Independence] горожане дважды отражали нападения англичан (в 1776 и в 1779), но в 1780 Чарлстон был захвачен и удерживался ими до 1782. Статус города и современное название с 1783. До 1790 был столицей штата. На город не распространялись ограничения, наложенные британскими властями на торговлю с США, и Чарлстон был главным зимним портом страны вплоть до начала англо-американской войны 1812-14 [ War of 1812]. Позднее усилилась зависимость экономики от монокультуры хлопка [ King Cotton], в финансовой сфере и торговле господствовали северяне. 20 декабря 1860 в городе был принят Ордонанс о сецесии Южной Каролины [ ordinance of secession]. В феврале 1865 после 19-месячной осады город был захвачен армией Союза [ Union Army]. Открытие фосфатных залежей (1867) стало важным источником промышленного развития Чарлстона. В 1886 город серьезно пострадал от землетрясения. Возрождение экономики было связано с созданием военно-морской верфи (1901) и развитием военной промышленности во время второй мировой войны. В 1989 ураган "Хьюго" [Hurricane Hugo] нанес серьезный ущерб Чарлстону. Закрытие военной судоверфи и военно-морской базы [ Charleston Naval Base] в апреле 1996 также негативно сказалось на городской экономике. Среди достопримечательностей - историческая часть города с разнообразной архитектурой, в том числе колониального периода, живописными двориками и садами (особенно в кварталах к югу от Маркет-стрит [Market Street]); фортификационные сооружения у Чарлстонской бухты [Charleston Harbor] форт Самтер [ Fort Sumter] (примерно в 5,5 км к юго-востоку от города), нападение на который 12 апреля 1861 стало первым сражением Гражданской войны [ Civil War], крепость Пинкни [Castle Pinckney] (1797), а также Форт Моултри [Fort Moultrie] на острове Салливана [Sullivans Island]; Художественный музей Гиббса [Gibbes Museum of Art], Чарлстонское библиотечное общество [Charleston Library Society] (1748), одна из первых библиотек в стране, Каролинская ассоциация искусств [Carolina Art Association] (1858). Чарлстонский музей [Charleston Museum] (1773) является старейшим в США. Много исторических памятников в пригороде. Место проведения известного ежегодного фестиваля искусств.2) Город в центральной части штата Западная Вирджиния. Расположен у слияния рек Канова [ Kanawha River] и Элк [Elk River], в Аллеганах [ Allegheny Mountains]. Столица штата Западная Вирджиния, административный центр округа Канова [Kanawha County]. 53,4 тыс. жителей (2000); крупнейший город штата. В МСА Чарлстон [Charleston MSA] 251,6 тыс. человек (2000). Крупный центр угольной и химической промышленности (производство пластмасс, минеральных удобрений), металлообрабатывающая промышленность, деревообработка. Торгово-промышленный центр района добычи битуминозного угля, нефти, газа. Аэропорт Йегера [Yeager Airport] в северо-восточном пригороде (назван в честь уроженца этих мест летчика-испытателя Ч. Йегера [ Yeager, Charles Elwood (Chuck)]). Чарлстонский университет [Charleston, University of] (1888; ранее назывался колледж Морриса Харви [Morris Harvey College]). Среди достопримечательностей - парк Кунскин [Coonskin Park], реставрированный особняк "Рассвет" [Sunrise] с планетарием и художественным музеем, здание Капитолия штата [State Capitol] (строительство завершено в 1932; архитектор К. Джилберт [ Gilbert, Cass]), особняк губернатора. Новый центр искусств и наук Западной Вирджинии [Center for the Arts and Sciences of West Virginia] включает музей штата, архивы, библиотеку, театр. Основан в 1788 как форт Ли [Fort Lee], построенный полковником Дж. Кленденином [Clendenin, George] по разрешению Т. Джефферсона [ Jefferson, Thomas]. Позднее район был заселен иммигрантами шотландско-ирландского происхождения [ Scotch-Irish] и выходцами из Германии. Поселение было названо Чарльз-Таун [Charles Town] в честь отца Кленденина (1794), а в 1819 получило современное название. Город лежал на пути миграции в долину р. Огайо [ Ohio River]. В начале 90-х годов XVIII в. интересы его жителей в законодательной ассамблее Вирджинии представлял знаменитый Д. Бун [ Boone, Daniel]. В первые десятилетия XIX в. был важным центром производства соли. В результате сражения за Чарлстон [Charleston, Battle of] во время Гражданской войны [ Civil War] 13 сентября 1862 город был оккупирован северянами. Получив статус города в 1870, Чарлстон был временной столицей штата в 1870-75; в 1885 был окончательно утвержден в качестве столицы.3) Город на востоке штата Иллинойс, на р. Эмбаррас [Embarrass River]. 21 тыс. жителей (2000). Административный центр округа Коулс [Coles County] (с 1830). Центр сельскохозяйственного района. Производство обуви. Основан в 1826 неким Б. Паркером [Parker, Benjamin] и назван в честь первого почтмейстера Чарлза Мортона [Morton, Charles]. Статус поселка [ village] с 1835, статус города [ city] с 1865. Городок служил местом адвокатской практики будущего президента А. Линкольна [ Lincoln, Abraham], здесь же в сентябре 1858 прошли его четвертые по счету дебаты с А. Дугласом [ Lincoln-Douglas Debates]. Университет Восточного Иллинойса [Eastern Illinois University] (1895). В пригороде парк к реконструкцией хижины семьи Линкольнов [Lincoln Log State Historic Site], парк штата Фокс-Ридж [Fox Ridge State Park], озеро Чарлстон [Lake Charleston].IIБальный танец, популярный в 1925-27, зародившийся среди негров г. Чарлстона, шт. Южная Каролина, где они составляют примерно одну треть населения. Музыкальный размер 4/4 с синкопированным ритмом. Вторая волна популярности - в 1960-70-х годах -
8 Stephens, Alexander Hamilton
(1812-1883) Стивенс, Александр ГамильтонПолитический деятель, юрист, сторонник прав штатов [ states' rights]. В 1836-42 - член законодательного собрания штата Джорджия. В 1843-59 и 1873-82 член Палаты представителей [ House of Representatives] от штата Джорджия, до Гражданской войны [ Civil War] был одним из лидеров южных вигов [ Whigs], поддерживал принятие Компромисса 1850 [ Compromise of 1850], с 1852 - в Демократической партии [ Democratic Party]. В период политического кризиса 1860-61 выступал против сецессии [ Secession], но в итоге поддержал свой штат в январе 1861. В 1861-65 - вице-президент Конфедеративных штатов Америки [ Confederate States of America]. Критиковал Дж. Дэвиса [ Davis, Jefferson] за нарушения прав человек, введение военного положения и др. После войны в течение пяти месяцев содержался под стражей. В 1882-83 - губернатор штата Джорджия. Автор труда "Последняя война между штатами с точки зрения Конституции" ["A Constitutional View of the Late War between the States"] (2 тт., 1867, 1870).English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Stephens, Alexander Hamilton
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9 Alleyne, Sir John Gay Newton
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 8 September 1820 Barbadosd. 20 February 1912 Falmouth, Cornwall, England[br]English iron and steel manufacturer, inventor of the reversing rolling mill.[br]Alleyne was the heir to a baronetcy created in 1769, which he succeeded to on the death of his father in 1870. He was educated at Harrow and at Bonn University, and from 1843 to 1851 he was Warden at Dulwich College, to the founder of which the family claimed to be related.Alleyne's business career began with a short spell in the sugar industry at Barbados, but he returned to England to enter Butterley Iron Works Company, where he remained for many years. He was at first concerned with the production of rolled-iron girders for floors, especially for fireproof flooring, and deck beams for iron ships. The demand for large sections exceeded the capacity of the small mills then in use at Butterley, so Alleyne introduced the welding of T-sections to form the required H-sections.In 1861 Alleyne patented a mechanical traverser for moving ingots in front of and behind a rolling mill, enabling one person to manipulate large pieces. In 1870 he introduced his major innovation, the two-high reversing mill, which enabled the metal to be passed back and forth between the rolls until it assumed the required size and shape. The mill had two steam engines, which supplied the motion in opposite directions. These two inventions produced considerable economies in time and effort in handling the metal and enabled much heavier pieces to be processed.During Alleyne's regime, the Butterley Company secured some notable contracts, such as the roof of St Paneras Station, London, in 1868, with the then-unparalleled span of 240 ft (73 m). The manufacture and erection of this awe-inspiring structure was a tribute to Alleyne's abilities. In 1872 he masterminded the design and construction of the large railway bridge over the Old Maas at Dordrecht, Holland. Alleyne also devised a method of determining small quantities of phosphorus in iron and steel by means of the spectroscope. In his spare time he was a skilled astronomical observer and metalworker in his private workshop.[br]Bibliography1875, "The estimation of small quantities of phosphorus in iron and steel by spectrum analysis", Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute: 62.Further ReadingObituary, 1912, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute: 406–8.LRDBiographical history of technology > Alleyne, Sir John Gay Newton
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10 Lenoir, Jean Joseph Etienne
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines, Telecommunications[br]b. 1822 Mussey-la-Ville, Belgiumd. 1900 Verenna Saint-Hildar, France[br]Belgian (naturalized French in 1870) inventor of internal combustion engines, an electroplating process and railway telegraphy systems.[br]Leaving his native village for Paris at the age of 16, Lenoir became a metal enameller. Experiments with various electroplating processes provided a useful knowledge of electricity that showed in many of his later ideas. Electric ignition, although somewhat unreliable, was a feature of the Lenoir gas engine which appeared in 1860. Resembling the steam engine of the day, Lenoir engines used a non-compression cycle of operations, in which the gas-air mixture of about atmospheric pressure was being ignited at one-third of the induction stroke. The engines were double acting. About five hundred of Lenoir's engines were built, mostly in Paris by M.Hippolyte Marinoni and by Lefébvre; the Reading Ironworks in England built about one hundred. Many useful applications of the engine are recorded, but the explosive shock that occurred on ignition, together with the unreliable ignition systems, prevented large-scale acceptance of the engine in industry. However, Lenoir's effort and achievements stimulated much discussion, and N.A. Otto is reported to have carried out his first experiments on a Lenoir engine.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAcadémie des Sciences Prix Montyon Prize 1870. Société d'Encouragement, Silver Prize of 12,000 francs. Légion d'honneur 1881 (for his work in telegraphy).Bibliography8 February 1860, British patent no. 335 (the first Lenoir engine).1861, British patent no. 107 (the Lenoir engine).Further ReadingDugald Clerk, 1895, The Gas and Oil Engine, 6th edn, London, pp. 13–15, 30, 118, 203.World Who's Who in Science, 1968 (for an account of Lenoir's involvement in technology).KABBiographical history of technology > Lenoir, Jean Joseph Etienne
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11 Beecher, Henry Ward
(1813-1887) Бичер, Генри УордПроповедник-конгрегационалист [ Congregationalists], влиятельный оратор. Получил образование в колледже Амхёрста [ Amherst College] и теологической семинарии Лейн [Lane Theological Seminary] в г. Цинциннати. С 1847 его трибуной стала Плимутская конгрегационалистская церковь [Plymouth Congregational Church] в Бруклине [ Brooklyn], где он выступал против распространения рабства [ slavery], за избирательное право для женщин и даже как сторонник теории эволюции. Редактировал журналы "Индепендент" [Independent] (с 1861) "Крисчиан юнион" [Christian Union] (с 1870). Среди его трудов - "Жизнь Иисуса, Христа" ["The Life of Jesus, the Christ"] (1871) и "Эволюция и религия" ["Evolution and Religion"] (1885). Брат Х. Бичер-Стоу [ Stowe, Harriet Beecher]English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Beecher, Henry Ward
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12 Crocker, Charles
(1822-1888) Крокер, ЧарльзПредприниматель, железнодорожный магнат [ railroad tycoon], банкир, один из основных акционеров и подрядчиков железнодорожной фирмы "Сентрал Пасифик" [ Central Pacific Railroad]. В детстве был вынужден оставить школу, чтобы помогать семье, освоил разные рабочие профессии. В 1850 вместе с братьями переехал в Калифорнию, где без особых успехов пытался разбогатеть на золотых приисках. В 1852 открыл собственный магазин в Сакраменто, после чего ему наконец удалось добиться финансового успеха. В 1855 был избран в городской совет, а в 1860 - в законодательное собрание штата. В 1861 вошел в состав т.н. "Большой четверки" ["Big Four"] калифорнийских бизнесменов (наряду с К. Хантингтоном [ Huntington, Collis Potter], М. Хопкинсом [ Hopkins, Mark] и Л. Стэнфордом [ Stanford, Leland]), положившей начало строительству дороги "Сентрал Пасифик". Отвечал собственно за строительные работы, создание временных лагерей, массовое привлечение рабочей силы - преимущественно китайцев ["coolie system"]. В 1871 возглавил железнодорожную компанию "Сазерн Пасифик кампани ов Калифорния" [Southern Pacific Company of California]. Также занимался недвижимостью, промышленной собственностью, банковским делом. Принадлежавший ему банк "Крокер фёрст нэшнл" [Crocker First National Bank] в Сан-Франциско, основанный в 1870, был предшественником современного "Крокер нэшнл" [Crocker National Bank], в 1986 вошедшего в состав "Уэллс Фарго и Ко." [ Wells Fargo and Co.]. В Сан-Франциско Крокер построил роскошный особняк, сгоревший в 1906. К концу жизни его состояние оценивалось в 40 млн. долларов.English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Crocker, Charles
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13 Dahlgren, John Adolphus Bernard
(1809-1870) Далгрин, Джон Адольфус БернардИзобретатель, военно-морской офицер. Получил прекрасное математическое образование, но с юных лет стремился к службе на флоте. В 1837 получил звание лейтенанта, в 1847 стал офицером службы артиллерийско-технического снабжения в Вашингтонском военно-морском арсенале, где вскоре создал лаборатории, литейную мастерскую и артиллерийский полигон для создания новых видов орудий. Вскоре они появились под названием "пушки Далгрина" [ Dahlgren gun] или "бутылки из-под содовой" ["soda-water bottles"]. В 1851 эти орудия стали устанавливаться на береговых батареях, а с 1857 - на судах. В 1861 Далгрин был назначен начальником Арсенала, а в 1862 начальником Бюро артиллерийско-технического снабжения и получил звание капитана. В 1863 уже в чине контр-адмирала принял участие в ряде сражений Гражданской войны [ Civil War]. После войны служил на прежних должностях в ВашингтонеEnglish-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Dahlgren, John Adolphus Bernard
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14 Howells, William Dean
(1837-1920) Хауэллс, Уильям ДинПисатель, критик, эссеист, основоположник американской социальной прозы. Оказал влияние на творчество таких авторов, как М. Твен [ Mark Twain], Т. Драйзер [ Dreiser, Theodore Herman Albert], С. Крейн [ Crane, Stephen], Ф. Норрис [ Norris, Frank (Benjamin Franklin)] и Х. Гарленд [ Garland, (Hannibal) Hamlin]. С 15 лет работал в газетах. После написанной им предвыборной биографии А. Линкольна [ Lincoln, Abraham] (1860) был награжден постом консула в Венеции (1861-65). Первые романы повествуют о жизни состоятельных американцев в Европе и относятся к т.н. оптимистичной "традиции благопристойности" ["genteel tradition"]: "Их свадебное путешествие" ["Their Wedding Journey"] (1872), "Случайное знакомство" ["A Chance Acquaintance"] (1873), "Предвзятое заключение" ["A Foregone Conclusion"] (1875). Критические элементы усиливаются с конца 1870-х гг. ("Современная история" ["A Modern Instance"] (1872), "Возвышение Сайласа Лафэма" ["The Rise of Silas Lapham"] (1885).) Главный редактор журнала "Атлантик мансли" [ Atlantic Monthly] (в 1871-81), "Харперс мэгэзин" [ Harper's (Magazine)] (в 1886-91), "Космополитен" [ Cosmopolitan] (в 1891-2). На страницах этих и других журналов сформулировал свои принципы реализма, выступал против романтизма. Его эссе изданы в нескольких сборниках. В 80-90 годы пишет целый ряд социальных, т.н. "нью-йоркских" романов, в том числе "Энни Килберн" ["Annie Kilburn"] (1889), "Превратности погони за богатством" ["A Hazard of New Fortunes"] (1890), "В мире случайностей" ["The World of Chance"] (1893), утопическую дилогию "Путешественник из Альтрурии" ["A Traveler from Altruria"] (1894) и "Сквозь игольное ушко" ["Through the Eye of the Needle"] (1907). Написал также множество новелл и пьес, активно участвовал в общественной жизни начала XX века, считал себя социалистомEnglish-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Howells, William Dean
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15 Mississippi
Штат на Юге [ South] в группе штатов Юго-Восточного Центра [ East South Central States]. Площадь 123,5 тыс. кв. км. Население 2,8 млн. человек (2000). Столица и крупнейший город штата Джексон [ Jackson]. Другие крупные города: Билокси [ Biloxi], Гринвилл [ Greenville], Хаттисберг [Hattiesburg], Меридиан [Meridian], Галфпорт [ Gulfport]. На северо-западе граничит со штатом Арканзас [ Arkansas], на юго-западе с Луизианой [ Louisiana], на севере с Теннесси [ Tennessee], на востоке с Алабамой [ Alabama]. На юго-востоке имеет выход к Мексиканскому заливу [ Mexico, Gulf of]. В состав штата входит также цепь небольших островов, отделенных от материка проливом Миссисипи-Саунд [Mississippi Sound]. Почти вся его территория лежит в восточной части Примексиканской низменности [Gulf Coastal Plain]. Побережье залива заболочено. Земли изрезаны густой сетью рек, особенно в районе дельты р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi River]. Восточнее дельты холмы Блафф-Хиллс [Bluff Hills], к востоку от них прерии [Jackson Prairie]. На северо-востоке штата холмы долины р. Теннесси [ Tennessee River; Tennessee River Hills]. Леса занимают около 55 процентов территории, несколько сосновых пород имеют промышленное значение. Субтропический, влажный климат, в летне-осенний сезон случаются ураганы. На территории штата жили племена чикасо [ Chickasaw], чокто [ Choctaw], натчез [ Natchez], билокси [ Biloxi], паскагула [ Pascagoula]. Первым европейцем, посетившим регион в 1540, был испанец Э. Де Сото [ De Soto, Hernando]. В 1682 Ласалль [ La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de] объявил долину р. Миссисипи французской территорией и назвал ее Луизианой. В 1699 П. Ибервилль [ Iberville, Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'] построил первое постоянное поселение на берегу залива Билокси. В 1717 финансист Дж. Ло [Law, John] предложил план заселения и коммерческого освоения долины р. Миссисипи [ Mississippi Scheme], который привлек в регион много английских поселенцев. После Войны с французами и индейцами [ French and Indian War] (1754-63) регион перешел в руки англичан и входил в состав колонии Западная Флорида [West Florida] до 1799. В 1781 испанцы захватили земли в районе г. Натчеза на западе региона и удерживали их до 1795, когда они перешли к США. В 1798 была создана Территория Миссисипи [Territory of Mississippi] с центром в г. Натчезе. В 1817 Миссисипи стал 20-м штатом, вошедшим в Союз. К 1832 большая часть индейцев, живших в штате, была перемещена в Индейскую территорию [ Indian Territory]. К началу Гражданской войны [ Civil War] в штате была создана экономика, основанная на плантационном рабстве и монокультуре хлопка. 9 января 1861 штат вышел из Союза и стал вторым по счету штатом, вступившим в Конфедерацию [ Confederate States of America], президентом которой был избран политик из Миссисипи Дж. Дэвис [ Davis, Jefferson]. В войне участвовало около 80 тыс. жителей штата, на его территории произошло несколько крупных сражений, в том числе осада Виксберга [ Vicksburg]. В период Реконструкции [ Reconstruction] Миссисипи управлялся федеральными властями. В 1870 штат вновь вошел в состав США. В 1890 была принята конституция штата [ state constitution], узаконившая расовую сегрегацию. В конце XIX в. экономика штата по-прежнему зависела от монокультуры хлопка, а негры составляли большинство населения. В 1916-20 губернатор Т. Билбо [Bilbo, Theodore] провел значительные реформы. В 1927 огромный ущерб аграрному штату нанесло наводнение; не успев оправиться от него, Миссисипи вступил в эпоху Великой депрессии [ Great Depression]. Власти штата преодолевали депрессию на основе экономической программы "сбалансирования сельского хозяйства и промышленности" [Balancing Agriculture With Industry (BAWI)]. Открытие месторождений нефти (1939-40) положило начало диверсификации экономики. Темпы индустриализации, начавшейся в период второй мировой войны, возросли в 1950-60-е. Современная экономика штата в целом отражает общенациональные тенденции. Так, 2/3 рабочей силы занято в сфере услуг, государственный сектор дает до 15 процентов валового продукта. Крупнейший работодатель - промышленность (текстильная, мебельная и др.). В сельском хозяйстве наблюдается увеличение размеров и уменьшение числа фермерских хозяйств. Важнейшие культуры: хлопчатник, соя, рис; развито мясное животноводство, птицеводство. Существенна доля добычи рыбы и продуктов моря. В 1960-е штат стал крупнейшим центром движения за гражданские права [ civil rights movement]. В 1962 возникли беспорядки, связанные с попыткой Дж. Мередита [ Meredith, James Howard] поступить в Миссисипский университет [ Mississippi, University of]. В 1969 впервые в истории штата на пост мэра был избран негр Ч. Эверс [Evers, Charles], а уже в 1988 на выборных должностях штата находилось больше афро-американцев, чем где бы то ни было в стране. В течение столетия после Реконструкции в штате по традиции были сильны позиции демократов. Ныне значительно усилилось влияние республиканцев; в 1991 избран губернатор-республиканец.English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Mississippi
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16 Missouri
I 1.1) миссуриИндейское племя, населявшее долину р. Миссури [ Missouri River] близ устья р. Гранд [ Grand River]; в 1780 насчитывало 1 тыс. человек. В 1798 подверглось жестокому нападению племен сок [ Sauk] и фокс [ Fox] и их союзников; оставшиеся в живых бежали к племенам осейдж [ Osage], канза [ Kansa], айова [ Iowa] и ото [ Oto]. В 1805 большинство индейцев племени поселились вдоль р. Платт [ Platte River] в Небраске, где в 1829 они соединились с ото, и ныне эти племена известны под названием ото-миссури [ Otoe-Missouria].2.Относится к ветви шивера [Chiwere] сиуской подгруппы [ Siouan]IIШтат в группе штатов Северо-Западного Центра [ West North Central States]. Площадь 180,5 тыс. кв. км. Население 5,5 млн. человек (2000). Столица Джефферсон-Сити [ Jefferson City]. Крупные города: Канзас-Сити [ Kansas City], Сент-Луис [ St. Louis], Спрингфилд [ Springfield], Индепенденс [ Independence], Сент-Джозеф [ St. Joseph] и др. На севере граничит со штатом Айова [ Iowa], на востоке с Иллинойсом [ Illinois], Кентукки [ Kentucky] и Теннесси [ Tennessee], на юге с Арканзасом [ Arkansas], на западе с Небраской [ Nebraska], Канзасом [ Kansas] и Оклахомой [ Oklahoma]. Штат расположен на Центральных равнинах [Plains region] почти в географическом центре страны, у слияния рек Миссисипи [ Mississippi River] и Миссури [ Missouri River]. Поверхность холмистая, более ровная на западе; в южной части - невысокое известняковое плато Озарк [ Ozarks; Ozark Highland]. Континентальный климат с жарким летом и холодной зимой; нередки засухи, а зимой заморозки. Восточную окраину штата занимает широкая низменная долина р. Миссисипи [Bootheel, Mississippi Alluvial Plain]. Участки территории, прилегающие к долинам рек, подвержены наводнениям. Важнейшие виды полезных ископаемых: свинец (первое место по добыче в США), песок, камень. До появления европейцев в этих местах жили "строители курганов" [ Mound Builders], позднее племена осейдж [ Osage], сок [ Sauk], фокс [ Fox] и миссури [Missouri]. Испанец Де Сото [ De Soto, Hernando] побывал в этих местах в 1541. В 1673 вниз по Миссисипи прошла экспедиция французов Ж. Маркетта [ Marquette, Jacques] и Л. Жолье [ Jolliet, Louis]. В 1682 ее долина была объявлена Ласаллем [ La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de] территорией Франции и включена в состав Территории Луизиана [Louisiana Territory]. Первое поселение Сент-Женевьев [Sainte Genevieve] было основано в 1735. В 1803 район Миссури после покупки Луизианы [ Louisiana Purchase] перешел к США и в 1812 получил статус территории [ Territory]. В 1821 Миссури вступил в состав США как рабовладельческий штат [ slave states] на основе Миссурийского компромисса [ Missouri Compromise] (1820). В 1837 шесть северо-западных округов были куплены у индейцев по сделке Платта [Platte Purchase]. Благодаря своему географическому положению штат служил отправной точкой для дальнейшего освоения Фронтира [ Frontier], отсюда начинались Орегонская тропа [ Oregon Trail] и дорога на Санта-Фе [ Santa Fe Trail], отсюда же уходила экспедиция Льюиса и Кларка [ Lewis and Clark Expedition]. К 20-м гг. XIX в. в освоении и экономическом развитии Миссури важную роль стало играть речное судоходство. Несмотря на значительную поддержку института рабства в штате, конвент штата в 1861 проголосовал против выхода из Союза [ Secession]. На земле штата произошло несколько крупных сражений Гражданской войны [ Civil War] и шла кровопролитная партизанская борьба. После войны в штате орудовало множество банд, в том числе банда Дж. Джеймса [ James, Jesse (Woodson)], но к 1870-м гг. обстановка нормализовалась. Строительство железных дорог и возобновление потока переселенцев на Запад способствовали развитию промышленности и городов - в 1900 Сент-Луис был четвертым городом США по численности населения. В настоящее время Миссури входит в число ведущих сельскохозяйственных штатов, но промышленность и сфера услуг начинают играть все более значительную роль в его экономике. Штат занимает одно из первых мест в животноводстве; в сельском хозяйстве традиционны хлопок [ King Cotton], соя, сеяные травы, кукуруза, пшеница. Крупнейшие отрасли промышленности: автомобильная (3-е место в стране), авиастроение и ракетная техника, пищевая промышленность, полиграфия, производство химикатов, цветных металлов и электротехнического оборудования. В 1930-40 начался интенсивный процесс урбанизации и индустриализации, но уже в 60-е его экономика столкнулась с непредвиденными последствиями этих процессов. Усилилась социальная напряженность в крупных городах. В начале 80-х штат встал перед серьезными экологическими проблемами. Несмотря на трудности, сельское хозяйство продолжает оставаться прочной основой экономики Миссури, начата крупная программа развития дорожной сети, развивается туризм, строительство жилых районов для пенсионеров [retirement community]. Обе основные политические партии имеют значительную поддержку в штате, с 1940-х гг. большинство мест в законодательном собрании штата чаще получают демократы, но на выборах в Конгресс США голоса чаще распределяются поровну.см тж Show-Me State, Bluebird, (white) hawthorn, (flowering) dogwood, Salus populi suprema lex esto, Missouri Waltz -
17 Virginia
IШтат на востоке США, в группе Южно-Атлантических штатов [ South Atlantic States]. Официальное название Содружество Вирджиния [Commonwealth of Virginia]. Площадь 110,7 тыс. кв. км. Население - 7 млн. человек (2000). Столица Ричмонд [ Richmond]. Крупнейшие города - Алегзандрия [ Alexandria], Вирджиния-Бич [ Virginia Beach], Линчберг [ Lynchburg], Норфолк [ Norfolk], Ньюпорт-Ньюс [ Newport News], Портсмут [ Portsmouth], Роанок [ Roanoke], Хэмптон [ Hampton], Чесапик [ Chesapeake]. На востоке штат имеет выход к Атлантическому океану; полуостров Делмарва [ Delmarva Peninsula] отделен от основной территории штата Чесапикским заливом [ Chesapeake Bay]. На юге граничит со штатами Северная Каролина [ North Carolina] и Теннесси [ Tennessee]; на северо-востоке со штатом Мэриленд [ Maryland], на северо-западе с Западной Вирджинией [ West Virginia], на западе с Кентукки [ Kentucky]. Восточная часть штата, включая полуостров Делмарва, представляет собой заболоченную во многих местах низменность. К западу от побережья расположено невысокое холмистое плато Пидмонт [ Piedmont Plateau], расширяющееся к границе с Северной Каролиной, и Линия водопадов [ Fall Line]. Западная часть штата лежит в районе Аппалачских гор [ Appalachian Mountains], в состав которых входят плато Камберленд [ Cumberland Plateau] и Голубой хребет [ Blue Ridge], в том числе высшая точка штата гора Роджерс [ Rogers, Mount]. Наиболее крупные реки - Потомак [ Potomac River], Раппахэннок [ Rappahannock River], Джеймс [ James River], Шенандоа [ Shenandoah River] и Роанок [ Roanoke River]. На юго-востоке штата находится заболоченный район Дисмал [ Dismal Swamp] с оз. Драммонд [Drummond, Lake] в центре. Около 2/3 территории штата покрыто лесами. Климат умеренный, влажный, с жарким летом и мягкой зимой. Важнейшие виды полезных ископаемых - уголь, камень, песок, добыча которых ведется в основном в районе Аппалачей; имеются небольшие запасы нефти и газа. Государственный сектор является ведущим источником доходов для вирджинцев: многие жители штата работают в федеральных учреждениях в Вашингтоне или связаны с вооруженными силами. В штате размещены крупные военные и военно-морские базы. Развитие промышленности, начавшееся в 1840-е, было задержано Гражданской войной [ Civil War], но ускорилось к концу века, особенно вырос объем производства после второй мировой войны. Ныне наибольшую роль играют табачная, химическая, резиновая, пищевая и машиностроительная промышленность, включая производство электрооборудования и транспортное машиностроение. Промышленность сконцентрирована в крупных городах штата. Значительную роль играет деревообработка и связанные с ней отрасли, прежде всего производство мебели. Важное место занимают также туризм и сфера услуг. К основным сельскохозяйственным культурам относятся табак, кукуруза, соя, яблоки (в долине р. Шенандоа). Более половины стоимости товарной продукции сельского хозяйства составляет продукция животноводства, в котором преобладают крупный рогатый скот и овцеводство. Развито птицеводство; округ Рокингем [Rockingham County] - ведущий в США по производству мяса индеек. Вирджиния один из лидеров в рыболовстве и добыче продуктов моря (сельдь, крабы, устрицы). В штате развитой транспорт, в том числе сеть шоссейных и железных дорог. Хэмптон-Роудс [ Hampton Roads] - один из главных портов страны. В штате находятся обслуживающие г. Вашингтон и его пригороды аэропорты: Даллеса и Национальный [ Dulles International Airport, National Airport]. Штат имеет богатую событиями историю колониального периода [ Virginia Colony]; 25 июня 1788 Вирджиния стала десятым по счету и крупнейшим из первых тринадцати штатов США [ Thirteen Colonies]. После Войны за независимость [ Revolutionary War] Вирджиния долгое время играла ведущую роль в общественно-политической жизни молодого государства, внеся свой вклад в создание его конституционных основ и дав ему восемь президентов и плеяду видных политиков (одно из официальных прозвищ [ official nickname] штата - Колыбель президентов [ Mother of Presidents]). Так называемая Вирджинская резолюция [Virginia Resolution], составленная в 1798 Дж. Мэдисоном [ Madison, James], наряду с кентуккийской [ Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions] создала почву для широкого обсуждения в стране вопроса о правах штатов [ states' rights]. Экономика сельскохозяйственного штата с преобладаем монокультуры хлопка упрочила здесь институт рабства, но после восстания под предводительством Н. Тернера [ Nat Turner's Rebellion] (1831) законодательное собрание штата было близко к отмене рабства; на западе штата традиционно были сильны аболиционистские настроения. Перед Гражданской войной одним из знаменательных событий в конфликте Севера и Юга стал поход Дж. Брауна [ Brown, John] на Харперс-Ферри (1859). 25 апреля 1861 штат официально вступил в состав Конфедерации [ Confederate States of America], а Ричмонд стал ее столицей. В 1863 от штата отделилась западная часть, которая стала самостоятельным штатом Западная Вирджиния. Вирджиния фактически стала основной ареной масштабных и кровопролитных сражений войны, в том числе битв при Бул-Ране [ Bull Run, First Battle of, Bull Run, Second Battle of], Питерсберге [Petersburg, Battles of], Фредериксберге [ Fredericksburg, Battle of], на Полуострове [ Peninsular Campaign] и в долине Шенандоа [ Shenandoah Valley Campaigns]. В ней же был положен и конец войне: 9 апреля 1865 в поселке Аппоматокс [ Appomattox Court House] генерал Р. Ли [ Lee, Robert Edward] подписал документ о капитуляции. В период Реконструкции [ Reconstruction] во главе штата стояли радикальные республиканцы [ Radical Republicans]. Вирджиния была вновь принята в состав Союза в 1870. Начиная с 1880-х власть принадлежала преимущественно консервативным демократам, занимавшим высшие посты в период 1885-1969. На протяжении нескольких десятилетий главной политической фигурой штата был его губернатор (1926-33), а затем сенатор (1933-65) от Вирджинии Г. Бирд [Byrd, Harry Flood]. 1950-е ознаменованы конфликтами с федеральными властями, вызванными сопротивлением десегрегации [ integration], которое выражалось главным образом в закрытии десегрегированных "сверху" государственных школ. Провал этого противодействия и признание неконституционным подушного избирательного налога [ poll tax] привели к изменениям результатов выборов. В 1967 впервые с 1891 в законодательное собрание штата был избран негр, а в 1969 впервые со времен Реконструкции штат возглавил губернатор-республиканец. В 1989 впервые в истории США на пост губернатора штата был избран афро-американец Л. Уайлдер [ Wilder, Lawrence Douglas]. В течение трех последних десятилетий вирджинцы преимущественно голосуют за республиканцев. Законодательное собрание корнями связано с созданной в 1619 колониальной Палатой горожан [House of Burgesses].II разгПервые плантации табака появились в колонии Вирджиния [ Virginia Colony] в начале XVII в. по инициативе Дж. Рольфа [ Rolfe, John]. Штат до сих пор лидирует по выращиванию табака и производству табачных изделий -
18 West Virginia
Штат в группе Южно-Атлантических штатов [ South Atlantic States]; единственный штат, не имеющий выхода к Атлантическому океану в этом подрайоне. Площадь 62,7 тыс. кв. км. Население 1,8 млн. человек (2000). Столица и крупнейший город - Чарлстон [ Charleston]. Другие крупные города - Хантингтон [ Huntington], Уилинг [ Wheeling], Моргантаун [Morgantown]. Граничит с штатами Пенсильвания [ Pennsylvania] на севере, Мэриленд [ Maryland] и Вирджиния [ Virginia] на востоке, Кентукки [ Kentucky] и Огайо [ Ohio] на западе. В штате преобладает гористая местность, так как он полностью расположен в системе Аппалачских гор [ Appalachian Mountains] (высшая точка г. Спрус-Ноб [ Spruce Knob]). Аппалачское плато [ Appalachian Plateau], рассеченное глубокими узкими долинами притоков р. Огайо [ Ohio River], занимает около 3/5 территории штата. Наиболее крупные реки: Канова [ Kanawha River], Потомак [ Potomac River], Мононгахила [ Monongahela River]. Около 80 процентов территории штата покрыто лесами, в восточной части значительна доля федеральных лесных угодий. Континентальный, умеренно влажный климат. Часты наводнения, в том числе крупные. В штате имеются значительные запасы угля, природного газа, нефти, соли и других полезных ископаемых, что определяет его развитие. В древности территорию современного штата населяли представители индейской культуры Адена [ Adena Culture]; в северной части штата сохранились их курганы [mounds]. К началу XVII в. здесь жили племена чероки [ Cherokee], делаваров [ Delaware], шауни [ Shawnee] и саскуэханна [ Susquehanna]. Первым европейцем, поселившимся здесь в 1726, был выходец из Уэльса М. Морган [Morgan, Morgan]. Около 1727 группа немецких переселенцев создала на правом берегу р. Потомак поселение Новый Мекленбург [New Mecklenburg] (ныне - г. Шепердстаун [Shepherdstown]). Первоначально регион осваивался иммигрантами шотландско-ирландского происхождения [ Scotch-Irish] и пенсильванскими немцами [ Pennsylvania Dutch], создавшими во второй половине XVIII в. города Уилинг (1769), Пойнт-Плезант [Point Pleasant] (1774), Паркерсберг [Parkersburg] (1785) и Чарлстон (1788). В XIX в. вокруг промышленных центров селились иммигранты из южной и восточной Европы. Хотя история Западной Вирджинии тесно связана с историей соседней Вирджинии, в составе которой она была долгое время, еще в 1776 поселенцы районов, составивших будущий штат, обращались с петицией к делегатам второго Континентального конгресса [ Continental Congresses] с просьбой разрешить им создание собственных органов власти. К началу XIX в. восточные и западные районы Вирджинии уже имели отличные друг от друга социально-экономические и политические интересы, и если жители восточных районов тяготели к Югу, то западных вирджинцев привлекали модели развития северных штатов. Хотя после начала Гражданской войны [ Civil War] большинство делегатов конвента штата проголосовали в Ричмонде за выход из Союза [ Secession], делегаты из северо-западных районов собрались на отдельный съезд в июне 1861 и выбрали своего губернатора, а в октябре 1862 жители западной Вирджинии проголосовали на референдуме за создание своего штата под названием Канова [Kanawha] со столицей в г. Уилинге. В апреле 1862 была принята конституция штата, а 20 июня 1863 он официально вошел в состав США под современным названием. Ныне действующая конституция принята в 1872. Статус столицы в 1862-70 и в 1875-85 имел Уилинг, в 1870 столицей штата стал Чарлстон. Начало интенсивного промышленного развития штата пришлось на последние десятилетия XX в., что было связано с разработкой месторождений полезных ископаемых и строительством железных дорог. Ведущим сектором экономики была и продолжает оставаться горнодобывающая промышленность, сконцентрированная главным образом в долине р. Мононгахила и к югу от долины р. Канова. Наиболее интенсивные периоды развития угольной промышленности пришлись на начало столетия и 1940-е годы; до 1971 Западная Вирджиния занимала первое место в стране по добыче угля. В первые десятилетия XX в. часто проходили забастовки горняков; с момента своего создания в 1890 в штате активно действует Объединенный профсоюз шахтеров Америки [ United Mine Workers of America], но в 1970-е доверие к нему со стороны шахтеров значительно снизилось, что отразилось на росте числа несанкционированных забастовок [ wildcat strike]. В результате экономического спада середины 1980-х штат имел самый высокий по стране уровень безработицы (16 процентов); сохраняются проблемы и в развитии таких регионов, как Аппалачия [ Appalachia]. Тем не менее, в 1990-е, когда возросла роль угля как энергоносителя, произошли положительные сдвиги в экономике штата. Развита химическая промышленность, основанная на переработке полезных ископаемых. Значительную роль в штате, где преобладает сельское население (около 2/3 всех жителей), играет сельское хозяйство (животноводство, птицеводство, выращивание яблок, персиков, кукурузы, табака). При этом численность ферм в последние три десятилетия неуклонно падает. Растущую роль в экономике играет туризм.English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > West Virginia
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19 Western Union
"Вестерн юнион (телеграф)"Крупнейшая и старейшая телеграфная компания страны, принадлежащая одноименной корпорации [Western Union Corp.]. Помимо услуг связи, осуществляет междугородные и международные денежные переводы. Создана в 1851 Х. Сибли [ Sibley, Hiram] и С. Селденом [Selden, Samuel]; современное название с 1856. Компания быстро расширялась, поглощая другие фирмы, и уже в 1870-е не сталкивалась с серьезной конкуренцией. В 1861 компания завершила прокладку первого трансконтинентального кабеля связи. В 1931 ввела телексную связь [Telex]. Среди рекламных лозунгов компании: "Не пишите писем - телеграфируйте" ["Don't write, telegraph"]. Правление в г. Аппер-Сэддл-Ривер, шт. Нью-Джерси. Имеет отделения и филиалы во многих городах США и в других странах, в том числе в Россиитж Western Union Telegraph Co.English-Russian dictionary of regional studies > Western Union
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20 Luís I, King
(1838-89)King Luís I was the second son of Queen Maria II and Dom Fernando. When his older brother, King Pedro V, died suddenly in October 1861, he ascended the throne. Well-educated, with the temperament of a writer and artist, Luís probably preferred the literary life to politics and public affairs. In the history of Portugal's literature, Luís is noted for his translations into Portuguese of several of Shakespeare's plays. During his 28-year reign, Portugal experienced a phase of the Regeneration and, for part of the period after 1870, relatively stable politics and a lack of military intervention in public life. During his reign, too, there was material progress and great literary accomplishment; for example, the famous novels of José Maria Eça de Queirós and the poetry of Antero de Quental. While republicanism became a greater force after 1871, and the first republican deputy was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1878, this party and its ideology were not a threat to the monarchy until after the reign of Dom Luís. When King Luís died in 1889, he was succeeded by his oldest son, Dom Carlos, whose stormy reign witnessed the rise of republicanism and serious degeneration of the monarchy.
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См. также в других словарях:
1861 год в театре — 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Портал:Театр См. также: Другие события в 1861 году События в музыке и События в кино Содержание … Википедия
1861 en litterature — 1861 en littérature Années : 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 Décennies : 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 Siècles : XVIIIe siècle … Wikipédia en Français
1861 au theatre — 1861 au théâtre Années : 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 Décennies : 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 Siècles : XVIIIe siècle &# … Wikipédia en Français
1870 год в истории метрополитена — 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 См. также: Другие события в 1870 году История железнодорожного транспорта в 1870 году История общественного транспорта в 1870 году В этой статье перечисляются основные события из истории метрополитенов … Википедия
1870 год в истории железнодорожного транспорта — 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 Портал:Железнодорожный транспорт См. также: Другие события в 1870 году История метрополитена в 1870 году … Википедия
1861 год в истории железнодорожного транспорта — 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Портал:Железнодорожный транспорт См. также: Другие события в 1861 году … Википедия
1861 год — Годы 1857 · 1858 · 1859 · 1860 1861 1862 · 1863 · 1864 · 1865 Десятилетия 1840 е · 1850 е 1860 е 1870 е · 1880 е … Википедия
1861 aux États-Unis — Éphémérides Chronologie des États Unis : 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 Décennies aux États Unis : 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 … Wikipédia en Français
1861 au Canada — Éphémérides Chronologie du Canada : 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 Décennies au Canada : 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 … Wikipédia en Français
1861 год в литературе — Годы в литературе XIX века. 1861 год в литературе. 1796 • 1797 • 1798 • 1799 • 1800 ← XVIII век 1801 • 1802 • 1803 • 1804 • 1805 • 1806 • 1807 • 1808 • 1809 • 1810 1811 • 1812 • 1813 • 1814 • 1815 • 1816 • 1817 … Википедия
1870 год в литературе — Годы в литературе XIX века. 1870 год в литературе. 1796 • 1797 • 1798 • 1799 • 1800 ← XVIII век 1801 • 1802 • 1803 • 1804 • 1805 • 1806 • 1807 • 1808 • 1809 • 1810 1811 • 1812 • 1813 • 1814 • 1815 • 1816 • 1817 … Википедия
