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  • 81 Davis, Robert Henry

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 6 June 1870 London, England
    d. 29 March 1965 Epsom, Surrey, England
    [br]
    English inventor of breathing, diving and escape apparatus.
    [br]
    Davis was the son of a detective with the City of London police. At the age of 11 he entered the employment of Siebe, Gorman \& Co., manufacturers of diving and other safety equipment since 1819, at their Lambeth works. By good fortune, his neat handwriting attracted the notice of Mr Gorman and he was transferred to work in the office. He studied hard after working hours and rose steadily in the firm. In his twenties he was promoted to Assistant Manager, then General Manager, Managing Director and finally Governing Director. He retired in 1960, having been made Life President the previous year, and continued to attend the office regularly until May 1964.
    Davis's entire career was devoted to research and development in the firm's special field. In 1906 he perfected the first practicable oxygen-breathing apparatus for use in mine rescue; it was widely adopted and with modifications was still in use in the 1990s. With Professor Leonard Hill he designed a deep-sea diving-bell incorporating a decompression chamber. He also invented an oxygen-breathing apparatus and heated apparel for airmen flying at high altitudes.
    Immediately after the first German gas attacks on the Western Front in April 1915, Davis devised a respirator, known as the stocking skene or veil mask. He quickly organized the mass manufacture of this device, roping in members of his family and placing the work in the homes of Lambeth: within 48 hours the first consignment was being sent off to France.
    He was a member of the Admiralty Deep Sea Diving Committee, which in 1933 completed tables for the safe ascent of divers with oxygen from a depth of 300 ft (91 m). They were compiled by Davis in conjunction with Professors J.B.S.Haldane and Leonard Hill and Captain G.C.Damant, the Royal Navy's leading diving expert. With revisions these tables have been used by the Navy ever since. Davis's best-known invention was first used in 1929: the Davis Submarine Escape Apparatus. It became standard equipment on submarines until it was replaced by the Built-in Breathing System, which the firm began manufacturing in 1951.
    The firm's works were bombed during the Second World War and were re-established at Chessington, Surrey. The extensive research facilities there were placed at the disposal of the Royal Navy and the Admiralty Experimental Diving Unit. Davis worked with Haldane and Hill on problems of the underwater physiology of working divers. A number of inventions issued from Chessington, such as the human torpedo, midget submarine and human minesweeper. In the early 1950s the firm helped to pioneer the use of underwater television to investigate the sinking of the submarine Affray and the crashed Comet jet airliners.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1932.
    Bibliography
    Davis was the author of several manuals on diving including Deep Sea Diving and Submarine Operations and Breathing in Irrespirable Atmospheres. He also wrote Resuscitation: A Brief Personal History of Siebe, Gorman \& Co. 1819–1957.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1965, The Times, 31 March, p. 16.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Davis, Robert Henry

  • 82 solid

    'solid
    1. adjective
    1) (not easily changing shape; not in the form of liquid or gas: Water becomes solid when it freezes; solid substances.) sólido
    2) (not hollow: The tyres of the earliest cars were solid.) macizo
    3) (firm and strongly made (and therefore sound and reliable): That's a solid piece of furniture; His argument is based on good solid facts/reasoning.) sólido
    4) (completely made of one substance: This bracelet is made of solid gold; We dug till we reached solid rock.) macizo
    5) (without breaks, gaps or flaws: The policemen formed themselves into a solid line; They are solid in their determination to strike.) de una sola pieza
    6) (having height, breadth and width: A cube is a solid figure.) sólido
    7) (consecutive; without a pause: I've been working for six solid hours.) seguido, ininterrumpido

    2. adverb
    (without interruption; continuously: She was working for six hours solid.) ininterrumpidamente

    3. noun
    1) (a substance that is solid: Butter is a solid but milk is a liquid.) sólido
    2) (a shape that has length, breadth and height.) sólido
    •
    - solidify
    - solidification
    - solidity
    - solidness
    - solidly
    - solid fuel
    solid adj
    1. sólido
    2. macizo
    tr['sɒlɪd]
    1 (not liquid or gas) sólido,-a
    2 (not hollow) macizo,-a
    3 (dense, compact) compacto,-a
    4 (unmixed) puro,-a, macizo,-a
    5 (strong) sólido,-a, fuerte
    6 (reliable) sólido,-a, de confianza, de fiar
    7 (unanimous) unánime
    8 (continuous) seguido,-a, entero,-a; (unbroken) continuo,-a
    9 SMALLTECHNICAL/SMALL (three-dimensional) tridimensional
    1 (substance) sólido
    ■ solids, liquids and gasses sólidos, líquidos y gases
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as solid as a rock firme como una roca
    to become solid solidificarse
    solid figure cuerpo sólido
    solid geometry geometría del espacio
    solid ['sɑləd] adj
    1) : macizo
    a solid rubber ball: una bola maciza de caucho
    2) cubic: tridimensional
    3) compact: compacto, denso
    4) sturdy: sólido
    5) continuous: seguido, continuo
    two solid hours: dos horas seguidas
    a solid line: una línea continua
    6) unanimous: unánime
    7) dependable: serio, fiable
    8) pure: macizo, puro
    solid gold: oro macizo
    : sólido m
    adj.
    • compacto, -a adj.
    • consistente adj.
    • denso, -a adj.
    • duro, -a adj.
    • enterizo, -a adj.
    • fijo, -a adj.
    • firme adj.
    • macizo, -a adj.
    • sólido, -a adj.
    • unánime adj.
    n.
    • macizo s.m.
    • sólido s.m.

    I 'sɑːləd, 'sɒlɪd
    adjective -er, - est
    1)
    a) ( not liquid or gaseous) sólido

    solid food — alimentos mpl sólidos

    to become solid — solidificarse*

    b) ( not hollow) <rubber ball/tire> macizo
    c) ( Math) tridimensional
    2)
    a) ( unbroken) <line/row> continuo, ininterrumpido
    b) ( continuous) (colloq) <month/year> seguido
    3)
    a) ( physically sturdy) <furniture/house> sólido; < meal> consistente
    b) (substantial, valuable) <knowledge/reason> sólido
    c) (firm, definite) < offer> en firme
    4)
    a) ( pure) <metal/wood> macizo, puro; < rock> vivo
    b) ( unanimous) <support/agreement> unánime

    II
    1)
    a) (Chem, Phys) sólido m
    b) ( Math) sólido m
    2) solids pl
    a) (in, from liquid) sólidos mpl, sustancias fpl sólidas
    b) ( food) alimentos mpl sólidos

    III
    adverb (colloq)

    to be packed/jammed solid — estar* lleno hasta el tope or hasta los topes

    ['sɒlɪd]
    1. ADJ
    1) (=not liquid) sólido

    • to become solid — solidificarse

    • solid food — alimentos mpl sólidos

    • to freeze solid — congelarse por completo

    • to be frozen solid — estar completamente congelado

    • to go solid — solidificarse

    2) (=firm) [masonry, building, understanding, basis] sólido; [argument] sólido, bien fundamentado; [relationship] sólido, firme

    • get a good solid grip on the handle — agarra bien el mango

    • solid ground — tierra f firme

    to have solid grounds for thinking that... — tener bases sólidas para creer que...

    3) (=not hollow) [rock] sólido; [wood, steel] macizo, puro; [tyre, ball, block] macizo

    • solid gold — oro m puro

    4) (=compact, dense) [layer, crowd] compacto

    • flights to Israel are booked solid — los vuelos a Israel están completamente llenos

    • a man of solid build — un hombre fornido or de constitución robusta

    • a solid mass of colour — una masa sólida de color

    • he's six feet of solid muscle — mide uno ochenta y es todo músculo

    • the streets were packed solid with people — las calles estaban abarrotadas de gente

    • the bolts have rusted solid — los tornillos están tan oxidados que es imposible girarlos

    • the traffic was solid going into town — había una caravana tremenda en dirección a la ciudad *

    5) (=continuous) [line, rain] ininterrumpido

    • we waited two solid hours — esperamos dos horas enteras

    I've been working on this for eight hours solid — he estado trabajando sobre esto durante ocho horas ininterrumpidas, llevo trabajando sobre esto ocho horas sin parar

    6) (=reliable) [person, relationship] serio; [evidence, reason, values] sólido; [information] fiable; [work] concienzudo; [citizen] responsable; [advice] útil

    • he's a good solid worker — es un trabajador responsable

    7) (=substantial)
    8) (=unanimous)
    9) (Geom) [figure] tridimensional
    2. N
    1) (Phys, Chem) sólido m
    2) (Geom) sólido m
    3) solids (=solid food) (alimentos mpl) sólidos mpl

    is he on solids yet? — ¿come ya alimentos sólidos?

    3.
    CPD

    solid angle N — (Geom) ángulo m sólido

    solid compound N — (Ling) compuesto que se escribe como una sola palabra

    solid fuel N — combustible m sólido

    solid geometry N — geometría f de los cuerpos sólidos

    * * *

    I ['sɑːləd, 'sɒlɪd]
    adjective -er, - est
    1)
    a) ( not liquid or gaseous) sólido

    solid food — alimentos mpl sólidos

    to become solid — solidificarse*

    b) ( not hollow) <rubber ball/tire> macizo
    c) ( Math) tridimensional
    2)
    a) ( unbroken) <line/row> continuo, ininterrumpido
    b) ( continuous) (colloq) <month/year> seguido
    3)
    a) ( physically sturdy) <furniture/house> sólido; < meal> consistente
    b) (substantial, valuable) <knowledge/reason> sólido
    c) (firm, definite) < offer> en firme
    4)
    a) ( pure) <metal/wood> macizo, puro; < rock> vivo
    b) ( unanimous) <support/agreement> unánime

    II
    1)
    a) (Chem, Phys) sólido m
    b) ( Math) sólido m
    2) solids pl
    a) (in, from liquid) sólidos mpl, sustancias fpl sólidas
    b) ( food) alimentos mpl sólidos

    III
    adverb (colloq)

    to be packed/jammed solid — estar* lleno hasta el tope or hasta los topes

    English-spanish dictionary > solid

  • 83 Day

    [deɪ] 1.
    1) (24-hour period) giorno m.

    every other day — un giorno sì e uno no, a giorni alterni

    from day to day from one day to the next di giorno in giorno; from that day to this da quel giorno; any day now da un giorno all'altro; on a day to day basis alla giornata; one day some day un giorno (o l'altro); within days a giorni, nel giro di qualche giorno; the day when o that il giorno in cui; it's days since I've seen him sono giorni che non lo vedo; it's 15 years to the day since... sono 15 anni oggi che...; to come on the wrong day sbagliare giorno; it had to happen today of all days! proprio oggi doveva succedere! to this day ancora oggi; the day after l'indomani, il giorno dopo; the day before il giorno prima; the day before yesterday l'altro ieri; the day after tomorrow dopodomani; from that day onwards — da quel giorno

    2) (until evening) giornata f., giorno m.

    during, for the day — durante, per la giornata

    to be paid by the day — essere pagato a, alla giornata

    4) (specific) giorno m.

    to her dying day — fino all'ultimo giorno, fino al giorno della sua morte

    it's not your day is it? — non è giornata per te, vero?

    I never thought I'd see the day when... — non avrei mai pensato che un giorno avrei visto

    5) gener. pl. (as historical period) tempo m., epoca f.

    in those days — a quel tempo, a quell'epoca

    2.
    modificatore [job, nurse] di giorno
    ••

    not to give sb. the time of day — = non salutare qcn.

    to pass the time of day with sb. — = salutare e fare quattro chiacchiere con qcn.

    to call it a day — = smettere (di lavorare, giocare ecc.)

    to win, lose the day — avere la meglio, la peggio

    to make a day of it — = approfittare di un'occasione per passare una giornata piacevole

    to see the light of day — vedere la luce, nascere

    * * *
    [dei] 1. noun
    1) (the period from sunrise to sunset: She worked all day; The days are warm but the nights are cold.) giorno
    2) (a part of this period eg that part spent at work: How long is your working day?; The school day ends at 3 o'clock; I see him every day.) giornata
    3) (the period of twenty-four hours from one midnight to the next: How many days are in the month of September?) giorno
    4) ((often in plural) the period of, or of the greatest activity, influence, strength etc of (something or someone): in my grandfather's day; in the days of steam-power.) tempi
    •
    - day-dream 2. verb
    She often day-dreams.) sognare a occhi aperti
    - day school
    - daytime
    - call it a day
    - day by day
    - day in
    - day out
    - make someone's day
    - one day
    - some day
    - the other day
    * * *
    (Surnames) Day /deɪ/
    * * *
    [deɪ] 1.
    1) (24-hour period) giorno m.

    every other day — un giorno sì e uno no, a giorni alterni

    from day to day from one day to the next di giorno in giorno; from that day to this da quel giorno; any day now da un giorno all'altro; on a day to day basis alla giornata; one day some day un giorno (o l'altro); within days a giorni, nel giro di qualche giorno; the day when o that il giorno in cui; it's days since I've seen him sono giorni che non lo vedo; it's 15 years to the day since... sono 15 anni oggi che...; to come on the wrong day sbagliare giorno; it had to happen today of all days! proprio oggi doveva succedere! to this day ancora oggi; the day after l'indomani, il giorno dopo; the day before il giorno prima; the day before yesterday l'altro ieri; the day after tomorrow dopodomani; from that day onwards — da quel giorno

    2) (until evening) giornata f., giorno m.

    during, for the day — durante, per la giornata

    to be paid by the day — essere pagato a, alla giornata

    4) (specific) giorno m.

    to her dying day — fino all'ultimo giorno, fino al giorno della sua morte

    it's not your day is it? — non è giornata per te, vero?

    I never thought I'd see the day when... — non avrei mai pensato che un giorno avrei visto

    5) gener. pl. (as historical period) tempo m., epoca f.

    in those days — a quel tempo, a quell'epoca

    2.
    modificatore [job, nurse] di giorno
    ••

    not to give sb. the time of day — = non salutare qcn.

    to pass the time of day with sb. — = salutare e fare quattro chiacchiere con qcn.

    to call it a day — = smettere (di lavorare, giocare ecc.)

    to win, lose the day — avere la meglio, la peggio

    to make a day of it — = approfittare di un'occasione per passare una giornata piacevole

    to see the light of day — vedere la luce, nascere

    English-Italian dictionary > Day

  • 84 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 85 Godowsky, Leopold Jr

    [br]
    b. 27 May 1900 Chicago, Illinois, USA d. 1983
    [br]
    American musician and photographic experimenter whose researches, with those of his colleague Mannes, led to the introduction of the first commercial tripack colour film, Kodachrome.
    [br]
    Both from distinguished musical families, Godowsky and Leopold Damrosch Mannes met at Riverdale School in New York in 1916, and shared an interest in photography. They began experiments in methods of additive colour photography, gaining a patent for a three-colour projector. Godowsky went to the University of California to study chemistry, physics and mathematics, while working as a professional violinist; Mannes, a pianist, went to Harvard to study music and physics. They kept in touch, and after graduating they joined up in New York, working as musicians and experimenting in colour photography in their spare time.
    Initially working in kitchens and bathrooms, they succeeded in creating a two-layer colour photographic plate, with emulsions separately sensitized to parts of the spectrum, and patented the process. This achievement was all the greater since they were unable to make the emulsions themselves and had to resort to buying commercial photographic plates so that they could scrape off the emulsions, remelt them and coat their experimental materials. In 1922 their work came to the attention of C.E.K. Mees, the leading photographic scientist and Director of the Eastman Kodak Research Laboratory in Rochester, New York. Mees arranged for plates to be coated to their specifications. With a grant from Kuhn, Loeb \& Co. they were able to rent laboratory space. Learning of Rudolf Fischer's early work on dye couplers, they worked to develop a new process incorporating them. Mees saw that their work, however promising, would not develop in an amateur laboratory, and in 1930 he invited them to join the Kodak Research Laboratory, where they arrived on 15 June 1931. Their new colleagues worked on ways of coating multi-layer film, while Mannes and Godowsky worked out a method of separately processing the individual layers in the exposed film. The result was Kodachrome film, the first of the modern integral tripack films, launched on 15 April 1935.
    They remained with Eastman Kodak until December 1939; their work contributed to the later appearance of Ektachrome colour-reversal film and the Kodacolor and Eastman Color negative-positive colour processes. Mannes became the Director of his father's Music Academy in New York, remaining as such until his death in 1964. Godowsky returned to Westport, Connecticut, and continued to study mathematics at Columbia University. He carried out photographic research un his private laboratory up until the time of his death in 1983.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    C.E.K.Mees, 1961, From Dry Plates to Ektachrome Film, New York.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Godowsky, Leopold Jr

  • 86 go

    ɡəu 1. 3rd person singular present tense - goes; verb
    1) (to walk, travel, move etc: He is going across the field; Go straight ahead; When did he go out?) gå, dra, reise
    2) (to be sent, passed on etc: Complaints have to go through the proper channels.) bli sendt, skulle sendes
    3) (to be given, sold etc: The prize goes to John Smith; The table went for $100.) gå (til); bli solgt
    4) (to lead to: Where does this road go?) gå, føre
    5) (to visit, to attend: He goes to school every day; I decided not to go to the movie.) gå på
    6) (to be destroyed etc: This wall will have to go.) bli fjernet
    7) (to proceed, be done: The meeting went very well.) gå, forløpe, utvikle seg
    8) (to move away: I think it is time you were going.) dra, gå
    9) (to disappear: My purse has gone!) forsvinne
    10) (to do (some action or activity): I'm going for a walk; I'm going hiking next week-end.) skal gjøre (noe)
    11) (to fail etc: I think the clutch on this car has gone.) ryke, gå
    12) (to be working etc: I don't think that clock is going.) virke
    13) (to become: These apples have gone bad.) bli (fordervet, osv.)
    14) (to be: Many people in the world regularly go hungry.) være, gå
    15) (to be put: Spoons go in that drawer.) høre hjemme, ha sin plass
    16) (to pass: Time goes quickly when you are enjoying yourself.) gå
    17) (to be used: All her pocket-money goes on sweets.) bli brukt på/til
    18) (to be acceptable etc: Anything goes in this office.) være lov
    19) (to make a particular noise: Dogs go woof, not miaow.) lage en lyd, si
    20) (to have a particular tune etc: How does that song go?) lyde
    21) (to become successful etc: She always makes a party go.) gå bra, være en suksess
    2. noun
    1) (an attempt: I'm not sure how to do it, but I'll have a go.) forsøk
    2) (energy: She's full of go.) futt, fart, pågangsmot
    •
    3. adjective
    1) (successful: That shop is still a going concern.) vellykket
    2) (in existence at present: the going rate for typing manuscripts.) eksisterende, nåværende, vanlig
    •
    4. noun
    (permission: We'll start as soon as we get the go-ahead.) klarsignal, grønt lys
    - going-over
    - goings-on
    - no-go
    - all go
    - be going on for
    - be going on
    - be going strong
    - from the word go
    - get going
    - give the go-by
    - go about
    - go after
    - go against
    - go along
    - go along with
    - go around
    - go around with
    - go at
    - go back
    - go back on
    - go by
    - go down
    - go far
    - go for
    - go in
    - go in for
    - go into
    - go off
    - go on
    - go on at
    - go out
    - go over
    - go round
    - go slow
    - go steady
    - go through
    - go through with
    - go too far
    - go towards
    - go up
    - go up in smoke/flames
    - go with
    - go without
    - keep going
    - make a go of something
    - make a go
    - on the go
    gå
    --------
    kjøre
    --------
    reise
    I
    subst. \/ɡəʊ\/
    1) ( hverdagslig) hendelse, sak, historie
    2) omgang, runde, kule
    3) futt, tæl, pågangsmot, krutt, smell, sving, klem
    4) ( hverdagslig) forsøk
    5) ( hverdagslig) glass, runde
    to glass rom, takk
    6) ( hverdagslig) suksess
    7) porsjon, dose
    all the go eller quite the go eller the go siste skrik, trendy, på moten
    at one go på første forsøk, på én gang, i strekk
    be on the go ( hverdagslig) være på farten, være i gang, være i bevegelse
    be (all) the go være motebevisst, følge siste mote
    from go to whoa fra begynnelse til slutt
    full of go eller have plenty of go full av fart
    have a go at something forsøke seg på noe, gjøre et forsøk på noe
    make a go of something lykkes med noe, ha fremgang med noe
    a near go nære på, på håret
    no go ( sport) tjuvstart ( overført) ingen vits i, nytteløst, feilslått, mislykket
    a rum go tøff behandling, hard medfart ( foreldet) en overraskende begivenhet, et merkelig utfall, en snodig affære
    that's a go eller here's a go litt av en røre, litt av en suppe
    II
    verb ( went - gone) \/ɡəʊ\/
    1) dra, reise, gå, kjøre, ferdes
    2) gå på, delta i, være medlem av
    3) gå omkring (og være), forbli
    4) begi seg, dra av gårde, gå
    jeg skal hjem \/ jeg går hjem
    5) ( særlig om noe negativt) bli, endre tilstand
    6) strekke seg, lede, føre til, gå til
    • is this the road that goes into town?
    7) ( om tid) gå, passere, forløpe
    8) ( om utfallet av noe) gå, lykkes
    • how did your application go?
    9) være på farten, jobbe, stå på
    10) gjøre
    • when you draw a bow you go like this...
    når du skal spenne buen gjør du slik...
    11) sette i gang, begynne
    • go when you hear the bell!
    12) harmonere, passe til, passe sammen
    13) ( om maskiner e.l.) funksjonere, gå, være i gang
    14) ( om gjenstander) høre til, høre hjemme, ha sin plass, være, stå, ligge, henge
    • where do you want your piano to go?
    15) ( hverdagslig) gå på do
    • please, Sir! I have to go!
    16) bli solgt for
    17) gå tom for, slippe opp for, ta slutt, gå unna, bruke opp
    • we'll have to stop at the next service station, the petrol's nearly gone
    vi må stoppe på neste bensinstasjon, det er nesten tomt for bensin
    18) forsvinne, gå tapt, ryke, gå i vasken
    19) avskaffes, oppheves, oppgis, ofres
    20) opphøre, ta slutt, gå over, gi seg
    21) avskjediges, slutte, måtte gå
    22) gå konkurs, gå over ende
    23) avta, svikte, gi etter
    24) dø, gå bort
    • the old man went peacefully at 3 a.m.
    25) få plass, romme, gå ned, gå inn i
    26) ( matematikk) gå opp i
    27) ( om lyd) gå, lyde, kime, si, smelle
    • the gun went bang!
    28) (om tekster, dikt, sanger e.l.) lyde, sies, gå
    • the story goes that...
    det sies at...
    • can you remember how that song goes?
    29) ( om valuta) være gangbar, være gyldig, gå
    amerikanske dollar går\/er gyldige nesten overalt
    30) være akseptabelt, være tillatt, være lov
    31) ha det siste ordet
    når jeg sier det, blir det slik
    32) gjøre, foreta, gjennomføre
    33) (amer., hverdagslig) strekke seg til
    • I'll go $500 for a suit but no more
    jeg kan strekke meg til 500 dollar for en dress, men ikke mer
    34) (amer., hverdagslig) vedde, sette, melde
    • I'll go $5 on the queen of hearts
    35) (amer., hverdagslig) holde ut
    36) (amer., hverdagslig) smake, ha lyst på
    37) (hverdagslig, ofte i indirekte tale) si
    • so I go, what'd you do that for?
    og så sier jeg bare, hvorfor gjorde du det, 'a?
    as something goes hva angår
    • she is not very old, as grandmothers go
    as things go som vanlig
    come and go se ➢ come, 2
    go about ( om rykter e.l.) gå, være i omløp, sirkulere, ryktes
    • a rumour is going about...
    det ryktes at...
    ta en omvei
    ( sjøfart) gå baut, stagvende gå i gang med, sette i gang, gripe noe an
    utføre, skjøtte, passe
    go about with gå sammen med, henge sammen med, være sammen med
    go after gå etter, løpe etter
    forsøke å få tak i, forsøke å skaffe seg, være ute etter
    go against gå imot, motstå
    (om følelser, prinsipper) gå på tvers av ( om avgjørelser e.l.) gå imot, være i disfavør
    go ahead fortsette, gå på sette i gang, starte
    • go ahead!
    sett i gang! \/ kjør i vei!
    gå (fort) fremover, rykke frem, vinne frem, gjøre fremskritt
    gå i forveien, dra i forveien
    ta ledelsen, gå forbi, passere
    (også overført)
    go along with være enig med, si seg enig i
    go all out ( hverdagslig) ta seg helt ut
    go all the way with være helt enig med ( sport) være på høyde med
    go around eller go round (spesielt amer., om fly) avbryte et landingsforsøk og prøve på nytt
    go around with gå sammen med, henge sammen med
    go at gyve løs på
    go back ( om klokken) bli stilt tilbake ha kjent hverandre lenge
    go back on svikte, gå tilbake på (hva en har sagt)
    go bad bli dårlig, bli bedervet
    go from bad to worse gå fra asken til ilden
    go down (om skip, fly) gå ned, synke, krasje tape, bli slått
    bli husket, bli skrevet ned
    ( overført) bli mottatt (av publikum)
    bli slukt, bli svelget, gli ned
    (amer., hverdagslig) skje
    (britisk, hverdagslig) fullføre studier (særlig ved Oxford eller Cambridge) (britisk, hverdagslig) bli satt i fengsel
    go down on somebody (vulgært, slang, om oralsex) sokke noen, suge noen, slikke noen
    go down with ( britisk) begynne å bli syk (av en spesifisert sykdom)
    go for bestemme seg for, velge
    • how I wish he had gone for the other candidate!
    angripe, gå løs på
    bli solgt for, gå for
    gjelde, angå everyone
    • everyone listen - that goes for you too, young man!
    go for it! ikke gi deg!
    go forward ( om klokken) bli stilt frem
    go in for delta, melde seg på
    like, gå på, delta i (regelmessig)
    go into kjøre inn i, kollidere gå inn på, undersøke
    ( matematikk) gå (opp) i
    • how many times does 3 go into 18?
    go off (om våpen, bomber e.l.) eksplodere, antenne ( om alarm) gå
    ( hverdagslig) miste selvbeherskelsen, «gå i lufta» (spesielt britisk, om mat) bli dårlig, bli bedervet, bli sur (spesielt britisk, hverdagslig) miste lysten på, begynne å mislike
    ( om følelse) avta gradvis, gå over
    hun kunne ikke fortsette å arbeide der snakke ustoppelig, mase
    ( i gjengitt direkte tale) fortsette (å snakke) etter et kort opphold
    • 'I don't think so', she went on
    ( hverdagslig) kom igjen
    • go on, tell him!
    hende, finne sted, skje, foregå
    ( ofte med infinitiv) gå videre, fortsette
    (hverdagslig, ofte negativt) like, ha noe til overs for, synes om
    go out ( om lys e.l.) slukne ( om tidevann) ebbe, avta, bli lavvann gå ut (av huset)
    være sammen med, ha følge med
    ( golf) spille de første ni hullene i en omgang på atten ( i kortspill) kaste kortene, kvitte seg med kortene en har på hånden
    go over gjennomgå
    • can we go over the procedure once more, please
    gå over til, endre standpunkt, konvertere
    ( spesielt om en handling eller opptreden) bli godt mottatt, gå hjem hos (publikum)
    go round eller go around ( om hjul e.l.) gå rundt, dreie rundt ( om mat) rekke rundt, være tilstrekkelig
    ( overført) fungere, gå
    go through gjennomgå, lide
    gå igjennom, lete igjennom
    jeg måtte lete igjennom hele beholdningen for å finne boken du spurte etter
    gjennomføre, fullføre, ferdigstille, avslutte
    ( hverdagslig) bruke (opp)
    ( om bøker) bli utgitt (i flere opplag)
    (austr., hverdagslig) stikke av (fra en forpliktelse)
    go to! ( gammeldags) gi deg!
    go under ( om forretning e.l.) gå konkurs ( om person) gå dukken, dø, bryte sammen
    go up ( om et byggverk) bli reist eksplodere, antenne (plutselig)
    (britisk, hverdagslig) begynne ved et universitet (spesielt Oxford eller Cambridge)
    go with si seg enig med, gi tillatelse til ha et (seksuelt) forhold til
    go without være foruten, klare seg uten, forsake
    • he gave his children what they wanted, even if he had to go without
    III
    adj. \/ɡəʊ\/
    (romteknologi, hverdagslig) (start)klar

    English-Norwegian dictionary > go

  • 87 line

    I 1.
    [laɪn]noun
    1) (string, cord, rope, etc.) Leine, die

    [fishing-]line — [Angel]schnur, die

    2) (telephone or telegraph cable) Leitung, die

    bad line — schlechte Verbindung; see also academic.ru/35190/hold">hold II 1. k

    3) (long mark; also Math., Phys.) Linie, die; (less precise or shorter) Strich, der; (Telev.) Zeile, die
    4) in pl. (outline of car, ship, etc.) Linien Pl.
    5) (boundary) Linie, die

    lay something on the line [for somebody] — [jemandem] etwas rundheraus sagen

    6) (row) Reihe, die; (Amer.): (queue) Schlange, die

    line of trees — Baumreihe, die

    bring somebody into line — dafür sorgen, dass jmd. nicht aus der Reihe tanzt (ugs.)

    come or fall into line — sich in die Reihe stellen; [Gruppe:] sich in einer Reihe aufstellen; (fig.) nicht mehr aus der Reihe tanzen (ugs.)

    be in line [with something] — [mit etwas] in einer Linie liegen

    be in/out of line with something — (fig.) mit etwas in/nicht in Einklang stehen

    7) (row of words on a page) Zeile, die

    lines — (actor's part) Text, der

    he gave the boy 100 lines — (Sch.) er ließ den Jungen 100 Zeilen abschreiben

    8) (system of transport) Linie, die

    [shipping] line — Schifffahrtslinie, die

    9) (series of persons or things) Reihe, die; (generations of family) Linie, die
    10) (direction, course) Richtung, die

    on the lines of — nach Art (+ Gen.)

    be on the right/wrong lines — in die richtige/falsche Richtung gehen

    along or on the same lines — in der gleichen Richtung

    line of thought — Gedankengang, der

    line of action — Vorgehensweise, die

    11) (Railw.) Bahnlinie, die; (track) Gleis, das

    the Waterloo line, the line to Waterloo — die Linie nach Waterloo

    this is the end of the line [for you] — (fig.) dies ist das Aus [für dich]

    12) (wrinkle) Falte, die
    13) (field of activity) Branche, die; (academic) Fachrichtung, die

    what's your line? — in welcher Branche sind Sie?/was ist Ihre Fachrichtung?

    be in the line of duty/business — zu den Pflichten/zum Geschäft gehören

    14) (Commerc.): (product) Artikel, der; Linie, die (fachspr.)
    15) (Fashion) Linie, die
    16) (Mil.): (series of defences) Linie, die
    2. transitive verb
    1) (mark with lines) linieren [Papier]
    2) (stand at intervals along) säumen (geh.) [Straße, Strecke]
    Phrasal Verbs:
    II transitive verb
    füttern [Kleidungsstück]; auskleiden [Magen, Nest]; ausschlagen [Schublade usw.]

    line one's pockets — (fig.) sich (Dat.) die Taschen füllen

    * * *
    I 1. noun
    1) ((a piece of) thread, cord, rope etc: She hung the washing on the line; a fishing-rod and line.) die Leine
    2) (a long, narrow mark, streak or stripe: She drew straight lines across the page; a dotted/wavy line.) die Linie
    3) (outline or shape especially relating to length or direction: The ship had very graceful lines; A dancer uses a mirror to improve his line.) die Konturen (pl.)
    4) (a groove on the skin; a wrinkle.) die Falte
    5) (a row or group of objects or persons arranged side by side or one behind the other: The children stood in a line; a line of trees.) die Reihe
    6) (a short letter: I'll drop him a line.) einige Zeilen
    7) (a series or group of persons which come one after the other especially in the same family: a line of kings.) die Abstammungslinie
    8) (a track or direction: He pointed out the line of the new road; a new line of research.) die Richtung
    9) (the railway or a single track of the railway: Passengers must cross the line by the bridge only.) die Eisenbahnlinie, das Gleis
    10) (a continuous system (especially of pipes, electrical or telephone cables etc) connecting one place with another: a pipeline; a line of communication; All( telephone) lines are engaged.) die Leitung
    11) (a row of written or printed words: The letter contained only three lines; a poem of sixteen lines.) die Zeile
    12) (a regular service of ships, aircraft etc: a shipping line.) die Linie
    13) (a group or class (of goods for sale) or a field of activity, interest etc: This has been a very popular new line; Computers are not really my line.) das Tätigkeitsfeld
    14) (an arrangement of troops, especially when ready to fight: fighting in the front line.) die Linie
    2. verb
    1) (to form lines along: Crowds lined the pavement to see the Queen.) säumen
    2) (to mark with lines.) linieren
    •
    - lineage
    - linear
    - lines
    - linesman
    - hard lines! - in line for
    - in
    - out of line with
    - line up
    - read between the lines     II verb
    1) (to cover on the inside: She lined the box with newspaper.) auskleiden
    2) (to put a lining in: She lined the dress with silk.) füttern
    •
    * * *
    line1
    [laɪn]
    I. NOUN
    1. (mark) Linie f
    dividing \line Trennungslinie f
    straight \line gerade Linie
    to draw a \line eine Linie ziehen
    2. SPORT Linie f
    3. MATH
    straight \line Gerade f
    4. (wrinkle) Falte f
    5. (contour) Linie f
    6. MUS Tonfolge f
    7. (equator)
    ▪ the L\line die Linie, der Äquator
    8. (boundary) Grenze f, Grenzlinie f
    \line of credit FIN Kreditrahmen m, Kreditlinie f
    tree [or timber] \line Baumgrenze f
    the thin \line between love and hate der schmale Grat zwischen Liebe und Hass
    to cross the \line die Grenze überschreiten fig, zu weit gehen
    9. (cord) Leine f; (string) Schnur f
    [clothes] \line Wäscheleine f
    [fishing] \line Angelschnur f
    10. TELEC [Telefon]leitung f; (connection to network) Anschluss m
    \lines will be open from eight o'clock die Leitungen werden ab acht Uhr frei[geschaltet] sein
    can you get me a \line to New York? können Sie mir bitte eine Verbindung nach New York geben?
    the \line is engaged/busy die Leitung ist besetzt
    please hold the \line! bitte bleiben Sie am Apparat!
    get off the \line! geh aus der Leitung!
    bad \line schlechte Verbindung
    to be/stay on the \line am Apparat sein/bleiben
    11. (set of tracks) Gleis nt; (specific train route) Strecke f
    the end of the \line die Endstation
    to be at [or reach] the end of the \line ( fig) am Ende sein fam
    rail \line Eisenbahnlinie f
    shipping \line Schifffahrtslinie f; (company) Reederei f
    13. (row of words, also in poem) Zeile f
    to drop sb a \line jdm ein paar Zeilen schreiben
    to read between the \lines ( fig) zwischen den Zeilen lesen
    14. (for actor)
    ▪ \lines pl Text m
    to forget/learn one's \lines seinen Text lernen/vergessen
    15. (information) Hinweis m
    to get a \line on sb/sth etwas über jdn/etw herausfinden
    to give sb a \line about sth jdm einen Hinweis auf etw akk geben
    to give sb a \line on sb jdm Informationen über jdn besorgen
    16. (false account, talk)
    he keeps giving me that \line about his computer not working properly er kommt mir immer wieder mit dem Spruch, dass sein Computer nicht richtig funktioniere
    I've heard that \line before die Platte kenne ich schon in- und auswendig! fam
    ▪ \lines pl Strafarbeit f
    she got 100 \lines for swearing at her teacher da sie ihren Lehrer beschimpft hatte, musste sie zur Strafe 100 mal... schreiben
    18. (row) Reihe f
    to be first in \line an erster Stelle stehen; ( fig) ganz vorne dabei sein
    to be next in \line als Nächster/Nächste dran sein
    to be in a \line in einer Reihe stehen
    the cans on the shelf were in a \line die Büchsen waren im Regal aufgereiht
    to be in \line for sth mit etw dat an der Reihe sein
    to come [or fall] into \line sich akk in einer Reihe aufstellen; single person sich akk einreihen
    to form a \line sich akk in einer Reihe aufstellen
    to get into \line sich akk hintereinander aufstellen; (next to each other) sich akk in einer Reihe aufstellen
    to move into \line sich akk einreihen
    in \line with (level with) auf der gleichen Höhe wie
    in \line with demand bedarfsgerecht, bedarfsadäquat
    in \line with maturity FIN laufzeitbezogen, laufzeitabhängig
    in \line with requirements bedürfnisorientiert
    in \line with the market marktnah, marktgerecht, marktkonform
    to be in \line with sth (similar to) mit etw dat übereinstimmen
    the salaries of temporary employees were brought into \line with those of permanent staff die Gehälter Teilzeitbeschäftigter wurden an die der Vollzeitbeschäftigten angeglichen
    19. (succession) Linie f
    I want to have children to prevent the family \line dying out ich möchte Kinder, damit die Familie nicht ausstirbt
    this institute has had a long \line of prestigious physicists working here dieses Institut kann auf eine lange Tradition angesehener Physiker zurückblicken
    he is the latest in a long \line of Nobel Prize winners to come from that country er ist der jüngste einer ganzen Reihe von Nobelpreisträgern aus diesem Land
    20. esp AM (queue) Schlange f
    to get in \line sich akk anstellen
    to stand in \line anstehen
    21. (product type) Sortiment nt; FASHION Kollektion f
    they are thinking about a new \line of vehicles sie denken über eine neue Kraftfahrzeugserie nach; BRIT, AUS
    they do an excellent \line in TVs and videos sie stellen erstklassige Fernseher und Videogeräte her
    spring/summer/fall/winter \line Frühjahrs-/Sommer-/Herbst-/Winterkollektion f
    to have a good \line in [or AM of] sth ( fig) einen großen Vorrat an etw dat haben
    22. (area of activity) Gebiet nt
    football's never really been my \line mit Fußball konnte ich noch nie besonders viel anfangen
    what's your \line? was machen Sie beruflich?
    \line of business Branche f
    \line of research Forschungsgebiet nt
    \line of work Arbeitsgebiet nt
    to be in sb's \line jdm liegen
    \line of argument Argumentation f
    to be in the \line of duty zu jds Pflichten gehören
    \line of reasoning Gedankengang m
    to take a strong \line with sb jdm gegenüber sehr bestimmt auftreten
    to take a strong \line with sth gegen etw akk energisch vorgehen
    they did not reveal their \line of inquiry sie teilten nicht mit, in welcher Richtung sie ermittelten
    what \line shall we take? wie sollen wir vorgehen?
    ▪ along the \lines of...:
    she said something along the \lines that he would lose his job if he didn't work harder sie sagte irgendetwas in der Richtung davon, dass er seine Stelle verlieren würde, wenn er nicht härter arbeiten würde
    my sister works in publishing and I'm hoping to do something along the same \lines meine Schwester arbeitet im Verlagswesen und ich würde gerne etwas Ähnliches tun
    to try a new \line of approach to sth versuchen, etw anders anzugehen
    the \line of least resistence der Weg des geringsten Widerstandes
    \line of vision Blickrichtung f
    to be on the right \lines auf dem richtigen Weg sein
    do you think his approach to the problem is on the right \lines? glauben Sie, dass er das Problem richtig angeht?
    25. (policy) Linie f
    party \line Parteilinie f
    to bring sb/sth into \line [with sth] jdn/etw auf gleiche Linie [wie etw akk] bringen
    to fall into \line with sth mit etw dat konform gehen
    to keep sb in \line dafür sorgen, dass jd nicht aus der Reihe tanzt
    to move into \line sich akk anpassen
    to step out of \line aus der Reihe tanzen
    26. MIL (of defence) Linie f
    \line of battle Kampflinie f
    behind enemy \lines hinter den feindlichen Stellungen
    front \line Front f
    27. (quantity of cocaine) Linie f fam
    to do a \line of coke, to do \lines koksen fam
    28. STOCKEX Aktienpaket nt
    29.
    ▶ all along the \line auf der ganzen Linie
    ▶ to bring sb into \line jdn in seine Schranken weisen
    ▶ in/out of \line with sb/sth mit jdm/etw im/nicht im Einklang
    ▶ to lay it on the \line die Karten offen auf den Tisch legen
    ▶ to be on the \line auf dem Spiel stehen
    ▶ to put sth on the \line etw aufs Spiel setzen
    ▶ right down the \line esp AM voll und ganz
    ▶ it was stepping out of \line to tell him that es stand dir nicht zu, ihm das zu sagen
    ▪ to \line sth paper etw linieren
    her face was \lined with agony ihr Gesicht war von tiefem Schmerz gezeichnet
    2. (stand at intervals)
    to \line the streets die Straßen säumen geh
    the streets were \lined with cheering people jubelnde Menschenmengen säumten die Straßen
    line2
    [laɪn]
    vt
    ▪ to \line sth clothing etw füttern; drawers etw von innen auslegen; pipes etw auskleiden
    2. ( fam: fill)
    to \line one's pockets [or purse] [with sth] sich dat die Taschen [mit etw dat] füllen
    to \line shelves Regale füllen
    to \line one's stomach sich dat den Magen vollschlagen fam
    * * *
    line1 [laın]
    A s
    1. Linie f ( auch SPORT), Strich m:
    down the line (Tennis) die Linie entlang, longline;
    come off ( oder leave) one’s line sich von der Linie lösen (Tormann);
    2. a) (Hand- etc) Linie f:
    line of fate Schicksalslinie
    b) Falte f, Runzel f:
    lines of worry Sorgenfalten
    c) Zug m (im Gesicht)
    3. Zeile f:
    read between the lines fig zwischen den Zeilen lesen; → drop C 9
    4. TV (Bild) Zeile f
    5. a) Vers m
    b) pl THEAT etc Rolle f, Text m: → fluff B 3
    c) pl SCHULE Br Strafarbeit f, -aufgabe f
    6. pl (meist als sg konstruiert) besonders Br umg Trauschein m
    7. umg (on) Information f (über akk), Hinweis m (auf akk)
    8. US umg
    a) Platte f (Geschwätz)
    b) Tour f, Masche f (Trick)
    9. Linie f, Richtung f:
    a) MIL Angriffsrichtung,
    b) fig Taktik f;
    line of fire MIL etc Schusslinie f;
    get into sb’s line of fire jemandem in die Schusslinie geraten;
    a) Blickrichtung,
    b) auch line of vision Gesichtslinie, -achse f;
    hung on the line in Augenhöhe aufgehängt (Bild);
    he said sth along these lines er sagte etwas in dieser Richtung; → resistance 1
    10. pl Grundsätze pl, Richtlinie(n) f(pl):
    the lines of his policy die Grundlinien seiner Politik;
    on ( oder along) the lines of nach dem Prinzip (gen);
    I would like to have sth on ( oder along) the lines of what you have ich möchte etwas von der Art wie Sie haben;
    a) nach diesen Grundsätzen,
    b) folgendermaßen;
    along general lines ganz allgemein, in großen Zügen;
    it is out of line for sb to do sth es entspricht nicht jemandes Art, etwas zu tun
    11. Art f und Weise f, Methode f, Verfahren n:
    line of approach (to) Art und Weise (etwas) anzupacken, Methode;
    line of argument (Art der) Beweisführung f;
    line of reasoning Denkweise;
    a) Auffassung f,
    b) Gedankengang m;
    take a strong line energisch auftreten oder werden ( with sb gegenüber jemandem);
    take a tougher line toward(s) härter vorgehen gegen, eine härtere Gangart einschlagen gegenüber;
    take the line that … den Standpunkt vertreten, dass …;
    don’t take that line with me! komm mir ja nicht so!;
    in the line of nach Art von (od gen);
    on strictly commercial lines auf streng geschäftlicher Grundlage, auf rein kommerzieller Basis; → hard line 1
    12. Grenze f (auch fig), Grenzlinie f:
    overstep the line of good taste über die Grenzen des guten Geschmacks hinausgehen;
    there’s a very fine line between winning and losing Sieg und Niederlage liegen ganz dicht beieinander;
    be on the line auf dem Spiel stehen;
    your job is on the line auch es geht um deinen Job;
    draw the line die Grenze ziehen, haltmachen ( beide:
    at bei);
    I draw the line at that da hört es bei mir auf;
    go on the line US auf den Strich gehen umg;
    lay ( oder put) on the line sein Leben, seinen Ruf etc aufs Spiel setzen;
    lay it on the line that … in aller Deutlichkeit sagen, dass …;
    I’ll lay it on the line for you! umg das kann ich Ihnen genau sagen!;
    lines of responsibility Zuständigkeiten; → demarcation
    13. pl
    a) Linien(führung) pl(f), Konturen pl, Form f
    b) Entwurf m
    c) TECH Riss m
    14. a) Reihe f, Kette f:
    a line of poplars eine Pappelreihe
    b) besonders US (Menschen-, auch Auto) Schlange f:
    stand in line anstehen, Schlange stehen ( beide:
    for um, nach);
    drive in line AUTO Kolonne fahren;
    be in line for fig Aussichten haben auf (akk);
    be second in line for the throne an zweiter Stelle der Thronfolge stehen
    15. Reihe f, Linie f:
    in line with fig in Übereinstimmung oder im Einklang mit;
    be in line fig übereinstimmen ( with mit);
    out of line aus der Flucht, nicht in einer Linie;
    be out of line fig nicht übereinstimmen ( with mit);
    a) in Einklang bringen ( with mit),
    b) auf Vordermann bringen umg;
    a) sich einordnen,
    b) MIL (in Reih und Glied) antreten,
    c) fig sich anschließen ( with dat);
    keep sb in line fig jemanden bei der Stange halten;
    step ( oder get) out of line fig aus der Reihe tanzen umg;
    in line of duty in Ausübung seines Dienstes oder seiner Pflicht; → toe B 2
    16. a) (Abstammungs) Linie f
    b) (Ahnen- etc) Reihe f
    c) ZOOL (Zucht) Stamm m
    d) Familie f, Stamm m, Geschlecht n:
    the male line die männliche Linie;
    in the direct line in direkter Linie;
    line of succession Erbfolge f
    17. pl besonders Br Los n, Geschick n: → hard line 2
    18. Fach n, Gebiet n, Sparte f:
    line (of business) Branche f, Geschäftszweig m;
    in the banking line im Bankfach oder -wesen;
    that’s not in my line
    a) das schlägt nicht in mein Fach,
    b) das liegt mir nicht;
    that’s more in my line das liegt mir schon eher
    19. (Verkehrs-, Eisenbahn- etc) Linie f, Strecke f, Route f, engS. BAHN Gleis n:
    the end of the line fig das (bittere) Ende;
    that’s the end of the line! fig Endstation!;
    he was at the end of the line fig er war am Ende
    20. (Flug- etc) Gesellschaft f
    21. a) besonders TEL Leitung f:
    get off the line aus der Leitung gehen;
    hold the line bleiben Sie am Apparat!; → busy A 6, engaged 5, hot line
    b) besonders TEL Anschluss m
    c) TEL Amt n:
    can I have a line, please?
    22. TECH (Rohr) Leitung f:
    oil line Ölleitung
    23. TECH (Fertigungs) Straße f: → packaging B
    24. WIRTSCH
    a) Sorte f, Warengattung f
    b) Posten m, Partie f
    c) Sortiment n
    d) Artikel m oder pl, Artikelserie f
    25. MIL
    a) Linie f:
    behind the enemy lines hinter den feindlichen Linien;
    line of battle Schlacht-, Gefechtslinie;
    line of communications rückwärtige Verbindungen pl;
    line of defence (US defense) (departure, retreat) Verteidigungs-(Ausgangs-, Rückzugs)linie
    b) Front f:
    go up the line nach vorn oder an die Front gehen;
    all along the line, down the line fig auf der ganzen Linie, auch voll und ganz;
    go down the line for US umg sich voll einsetzen für
    c) Fronttruppe(n) f(pl)
    26. GEOG Längen- oder Breitenkreis m:
    the Line der Äquator;
    cross the Line den Äquator überqueren
    27. SCHIFF Linie f:
    line abreast Dwarslinie;
    line ahead Kiellinie
    28. a) Leine f:
    hang the washing up on the line die Wäsche auf die Leine hängen
    b) Schnur f
    c) Seil n
    29. TEL etc
    a) Draht m
    b) Kabel n
    B v/i → line up A 1, A 2
    C v/t
    1. Papier linieren, liniieren
    2. → line up B 1
    3. zeichnen
    4. skizzieren
    5. das Gesicht (zer)furchen
    6. (ein)säumen:
    lined with trees von Bäumen (ein)gesäumt;
    thousands of people lined the streets Tausende von Menschen säumten die Straßen;
    soldiers lined the street Soldaten bildeten an der Straße Spalier
    line2 [laın] v/t
    1. ein Kleid etc füttern
    2. besonders TECH (auf der Innenseite) überziehen oder belegen, ausfüttern, -gießen, -kleiden, -schlagen ( alle:
    with mit), Bremsen, eine Kupplung belegen
    3. als Futter oder Überzug dienen für
    4. (an)füllen:
    line one’s pocket(s) ( oder purse) in die eigene Tasche arbeiten, sich bereichern, sich die Taschen füllen;
    line one’s stomach sich den Bauch vollschlagen umg
    L., l. abk
    1. lake
    2. law
    4. left li.
    5. line
    * * *
    I 1.
    [laɪn]noun
    1) (string, cord, rope, etc.) Leine, die

    [fishing-]line — [Angel]schnur, die

    bad line — schlechte Verbindung; see also hold II 1. k

    3) (long mark; also Math., Phys.) Linie, die; (less precise or shorter) Strich, der; (Telev.) Zeile, die
    4) in pl. (outline of car, ship, etc.) Linien Pl.
    5) (boundary) Linie, die

    lay something on the line [for somebody] — [jemandem] etwas rundheraus sagen

    6) (row) Reihe, die; (Amer.): (queue) Schlange, die

    line of trees — Baumreihe, die

    bring somebody into line — dafür sorgen, dass jmd. nicht aus der Reihe tanzt (ugs.)

    come or fall into line — sich in die Reihe stellen; [Gruppe:] sich in einer Reihe aufstellen; (fig.) nicht mehr aus der Reihe tanzen (ugs.)

    be in line [with something] — [mit etwas] in einer Linie liegen

    be in/out of line with something — (fig.) mit etwas in/nicht in Einklang stehen

    lines — (actor's part) Text, der

    he gave the boy 100 lines — (Sch.) er ließ den Jungen 100 Zeilen abschreiben

    8) (system of transport) Linie, die

    [shipping] line — Schifffahrtslinie, die

    10) (direction, course) Richtung, die

    on the lines of — nach Art (+ Gen.)

    be on the right/wrong lines — in die richtige/falsche Richtung gehen

    along or on the same lines — in der gleichen Richtung

    line of thought — Gedankengang, der

    line of action — Vorgehensweise, die

    11) (Railw.) Bahnlinie, die; (track) Gleis, das

    the Waterloo line, the line to Waterloo — die Linie nach Waterloo

    this is the end of the line [for you] — (fig.) dies ist das Aus [für dich]

    12) (wrinkle) Falte, die
    13) (field of activity) Branche, die; (academic) Fachrichtung, die

    what's your line? — in welcher Branche sind Sie?/was ist Ihre Fachrichtung?

    be in the line of duty/business — zu den Pflichten/zum Geschäft gehören

    14) (Commerc.): (product) Artikel, der; Linie, die (fachspr.)
    15) (Fashion) Linie, die
    16) (Mil.): (series of defences) Linie, die
    2. transitive verb
    1) (mark with lines) linieren [Papier]
    2) (stand at intervals along) säumen (geh.) [Straße, Strecke]
    Phrasal Verbs:
    II transitive verb
    füttern [Kleidungsstück]; auskleiden [Magen, Nest]; ausschlagen [Schublade usw.]

    line one's pockets — (fig.) sich (Dat.) die Taschen füllen

    * * *
    (US) n.
    Schlange -n f.
    Schlange -n f.
    (Menschen-, Auto (<-s>)-)
    Warteschlange f. (railway) n.
    Gleis -e n. n.
    Branche -n f.
    Furche -n f.
    Kurs -e (Verkehr) m.
    Leine -n f.
    Linie -n f.
    Reihe -n f.
    Richtung -en f.
    Runzel -n f.
    Strecke -n f.
    Strich -e m.
    Vers -e m.
    Zeile -n f. v.
    Spalier bilden ausdr.
    auskleiden v.

    English-german dictionary > line

  • 88 day

    day [deɪ]
    1. noun
       a. ( = unit of time: 24 hours) jour m
    • what day is it today? quel jour sommes-nous aujourd'hui ?
    • what day of the month is it? le combien sommes-nous ?
    • the day before/two days before her birthday la veille/l'avant-veille de son anniversaire
    • that'll be the day! j'aimerais voir ça !
    • let's make a day of it and... profitons de la journée pour...
       b. ( = daylight hours) jour m, journée f
       c. ( = working hours) journée f
    • it's all in a day's work! ça fait partie de la routine !
    • to take/get a day off prendre/avoir un jour de congé
    • those were the days! c'était le bon vieux temps !
    • that has had its day ( = old-fashioned) c'est passé de mode ; ( = worn out) ça a fait son temps
    • it's early days ( = too early to say) c'est un peu tôt pour le dire ; ( = there's still time) on n'en est encore qu'au début
    ► day-old adjective [bread] de la veille ; ( = yesterday's) d'hier
    ► day-pass noun (for museum, train) carte f d'abonnement valable pour une journée ; (at ski resort) forfait m d'une journée
    ► day shift noun ( = workers) équipe f de jour
    * * *
    [deɪ] 1.
    1) ( 24-hour period) jour m

    day after day —

    one day —

    the day when ou that — le jour où

    it's days since I've seen him — ça fait des jours que je ne l'ai pas vu, je ne l'ai pas vu depuis des jours

    it's 15 years to the day since... — ça fait 15 ans jour pour jour que...

    it had to happen today of all days! — il fallait que cela arrive or que ça tombe (colloq) aujourd'hui

    two days after/two days before the wedding — le surlendemain/l'avant-veille du mariage

    2) ( until evening) journée f

    during/for the day — pendant/pour la journée

    3) ( as opposed to night) jour m

    to be on days — être or travailler de jour

    4) ( specific) jour m
    5) ( as historical period) (gén pl) époque f

    in his/my day — ( at that time) de son/mon temps; (at height of success, vitality) dans le temps

    2.
    noun modifier [ job, nurse] de jour
    ••

    English-French dictionary > day

  • 89 order

    order [ˈɔ:dər]
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. noun
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. noun
       a. ( = sequence) ordre m
       b. ( = proper state)
    ► in order [room] en ordre ; [passport, documents] en règle
    • would it be in order for me to speak to her? pourrais-je lui parler ?
    • it seems a celebration is in order! il va falloir fêter ça !► out of order [machine] en panne ; [remark] (inf) déplacé
    • "out of order" « hors service »
    • you're way out of order! (inf) ça se fait pas ! (inf)► adjective + order
    • in good order ( = in good condition) en bon état
       d. ( = proper behaviour) ordre m
    • to keep order [police] faire régner l'ordre ; [teacher] faire régner la discipline
    • order, order! silence !
       e. ( = category) (biological) ordre m ; (social) classe f ; ( = kind) ordre m
    • something in the order of €3,000 de l'ordre de 3 000 €
       f. ( = the way things are) ordre m
       g. ( = command) ordre m
    • that's an order! c'est un ordre !
    • by order of sb/sth par ordre de qn/qch
    • I don't take orders from you! je n'ai pas d'ordres à recevoir de vous !
       i. ( = portion of food) portion f
       k. (religious) ordre m
       b. ( = ask for) [+ goods, meal, taxi] commander
       c. ( = put in sequence) classer
       d. [+ one's affairs] régler
    • are you ready to order? vous avez choisi ?
    * * *
    ['ɔːdə(r)] 1.
    1) ( logical arrangement) ordre m

    to set ou put one's life in order — remettre de l'ordre dans sa vie

    2) ( sequence) ordre m

    in the right/wrong order — dans le bon/mauvais ordre

    to be out of order — [files, records] être déclassé

    3) (discipline, control) ordre m

    to keep order — [teacher] maintenir la discipline

    4) ( established state) ordre m
    5) ( command) ordre m ( to do de faire) also Law

    to have ou to be under orders to do — avoir (l')ordre de faire

    6) (in shop, restaurant) commande f

    a rush/repeat order — une commande urgente/renouvelée

    to be out of order — [phone line] être en dérangement; [lift, machine] être en panne

    order! order! — un peu de silence, s'il vous plaît!

    9) ( all right)

    in order — [documents] en règle

    10) Religion ordre m
    11) (rank, scale)

    of the order of 15% — GB

    in the order of 15% — US de l'ordre de 15%

    pay to the order of — (on cheque, draft) payer à l'ordre de

    13) GB (honorary association, title) ordre m
    2.
    orders plural noun Religion ordres mpl
    3.
    in order that conjunctional phrase ( with the same subject) afin de (+ infinitive), pour (+ infinitive); ( with different subjects) afin que (+ subj), pour que (+ subj)
    4.
    in order to prepositional phrase pour (+ infinitive), afin de (+ infinitive)
    5.
    1) ( command) ordonner [inquiry, retrial]
    2) commander [goods, meal]; réserver [taxi] ( for pour)
    3) ( put in order) classer [files, cards]; mettre [quelque chose] dans l'ordre [names, dates]
    6.
    intransitive verb [diner, customer] commander
    7.
    ordered past participle adjective [series] ordonné
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-French dictionary > order

  • 90 time

    time [taɪm]
    temps ⇒ 1 (a)-(e), 1 (m), 1 (o) durée ⇒ 1 (e) heure ⇒ 1 (f), 1 (g), 1 (m) moment ⇒ 1 (i), 1 (j) fois ⇒ 1 (k) époque ⇒ 1 (o) fin ⇒ 1 (r) mesure ⇒ 1 (u) chronométrer ⇒ 2 (a) fixer l'heure de ⇒ 2 (b) choisir le moment de ⇒ 2 (c) régler ⇒ 2 (d)
    1 noun
    ∎ as time goes by avec le temps;
    ∎ the price has gone up over time le prix a augmenté avec le temps;
    ∎ it's only a matter or a question of time ce n'est qu'une question de temps;
    ∎ these things take time cela ne se fait pas du jour au lendemain;
    ∎ to have time on one's hands or time to spare avoir du temps;
    ∎ time hangs heavy on his hands le temps lui pèse, il trouve le temps long;
    ∎ since the dawn of time depuis la nuit des temps;
    ∎ time flies le temps passe vite;
    ∎ doesn't time fly! comme le temps passe vite!;
    ∎ time heals all wounds le temps guérit tout;
    ∎ only time will tell seul l'avenir nous le dira;
    ∎ time will prove me right l'avenir me donnera raison;
    ∎ it's a race against time c'est une course contre la montre;
    ∎ they're working against time to save her ils ne disposent que de très peu de temps pour la sauver;
    ∎ time is on our side le temps joue en notre faveur;
    ∎ time out of mind de temps immémorial, de toute éternité;
    ∎ time is money le temps, c'est de l'argent;
    ∎ proverb time and tide wait for no man les événements n'attendent personne
    ∎ there's no time to lose il n'y a pas de temps à perdre;
    ∎ he lost no time in telling me il s'est empressé de me le dire;
    ∎ to make up for lost time rattraper le temps perdu;
    ∎ to make good/poor time doing sth mettre peu de temps/longtemps à faire qch;
    ∎ I passed the time reading j'ai passé mon temps à lire;
    ∎ take your time prenez votre temps;
    ∎ take your time over it prenez le temps qu'il faudra;
    ∎ it took me all my time just to get here! avec le temps que j'ai mis pour arriver ici!;
    ∎ you took your time about it! tu en as mis du temps!;
    ∎ she took the time to explain it to us elle a pris le temps de nous l'expliquer;
    ∎ she made the time to read the report elle a pris le temps de lire le rapport;
    ∎ I can always make time for you pour vous, je suis toujours là;
    ∎ I spend half/all my time cleaning up je passe la moitié de/tout mon temps à faire le ménage;
    ∎ half the time he doesn't know what he's doing la moitié du temps il ne sait pas ce qu'il fait;
    ∎ most of the time la plupart du temps;
    ∎ he was ill part or some of the time il a été malade une partie du temps;
    ∎ it rained part or some of the time il a plu par moments;
    ∎ we spend the better part of our time working nous passons le plus clair de notre temps à travailler;
    ∎ I start in three weeks' time je commence dans trois semaines;
    ∎ they'll have finished the project in three weeks' time ils auront terminé le projet dans trois semaines;
    ∎ all in good time! chaque chose en son temps!;
    ∎ I'll finish it in my own good time je le finirai quand bon me semblera;
    ∎ in no time (at all), in next to no time en un rien de temps, en moins de rien
    ∎ I haven't (the) time to do the shopping je n'ai pas le temps de faire les courses;
    ∎ I've no time for gossip je n'ai pas de temps à perdre en bavardages;
    ∎ I've no time for that sort of attitude je ne supporte pas ce genre de mentalité;
    ∎ he has no time for sycophants/for laziness il n'a pas de temps à perdre avec les flatteurs/les paresseux;
    ∎ my time is my own mon temps m'appartient;
    ∎ my time is not my own je ne suis pas libre de mon temps;
    ∎ we've just got time to catch the train on a juste le temps d'attraper le train;
    ∎ that doesn't leave them much time to get ready cela ne leur laisse guère de temps pour se préparer;
    ∎ you'll have to find the time to see her il faut que tu trouves le temps de la voir;
    ∎ you have plenty of time to finish it vous avez largement le temps de le finir;
    ∎ we've got plenty of time or all the time in the world nous avons tout le temps
    (d) (while) temps m;
    ∎ after a time après un (certain) temps;
    ∎ a long time longtemps;
    ∎ a long time ago il y a longtemps;
    ∎ it's a long time since we've been out for a meal together ça fait longtemps que nous ne sommes pas sortis dîner ensemble;
    ∎ she's been dreaming of this for a long time now voilà longtemps qu'elle en rêve;
    ∎ he waited for a long time il a attendu longtemps;
    ∎ I worked for a long time as a translator j'ai travaillé (pendant) longtemps comme traducteur;
    ∎ for a long time he refused to eat meat il a (pendant) longtemps refusé de manger de la viande;
    ∎ it'll be a long time before I do that again je ne suis pas près de recommencer, je ne recommencerai pas de si tôt ou de sitôt;
    ∎ the car takes a long time to warm up la voiture met longtemps à chauffer;
    ∎ you took a long time! tu en as mis du temps!, il t'en a fallu du temps!;
    ∎ familiar long time no see! ça faisait longtemps!;
    ∎ a short time peu de temps;
    ∎ after a short time peu (de temps) après;
    ∎ a short time before their wedding peu avant leur mariage;
    ∎ she's going to stay with us for a short time elle va rester avec nous pendant quelque temps;
    ∎ in the shortest possible time dans les plus brefs délais, le plus vite ou tôt possible;
    ∎ after some time au bout de quelque temps, après un certain temps;
    ∎ some time after their trip quelque temps après leur voyage;
    ∎ some time ago il y a quelque temps;
    ∎ for some time past depuis quelque temps;
    ∎ for some time (to come) pendant quelque temps;
    ∎ it's the best film I've seen for some time c'est le meilleur film que j'aie vu depuis un moment;
    ∎ it will take (quite) some time to repair il va falloir pas mal de temps pour le réparer;
    ∎ all this time pendant tout ce temps
    ∎ the flying time to Madrid is two hours la durée du vol pour Madrid est de deux heures;
    ∎ the cooking time is two hours le temps de cuisson est de deux heures;
    ∎ the winner's time was under four minutes le gagnant a fait un temps de moins de quatre minutes;
    ∎ 1 minute 34 seconds is her best/a good time 1 minute 34 secondes, c'est son meilleur temps/un bon temps;
    ∎ it takes time cela prend du temps;
    ∎ how much time will it take? combien de temps cela prendra-t-il?;
    ∎ she finished in half the time it took me to finish elle a mis deux fois moins de temps que moi pour finir
    (f) (by clock) heure f;
    ∎ what time is it?, what's the time? quelle heure est-il?;
    ∎ what time do you make it? quelle heure avez-vous?;
    ∎ do you have the time? vous avez l'heure?;
    ∎ have you got the right time on you? avez-vous l'heure juste?;
    ∎ the time is twenty past three il est trois heures vingt;
    ∎ what time are we leaving? à quelle heure partons-nous?;
    ∎ do you know how to tell the time? est-ce que tu sais lire l'heure?;
    ∎ could you tell me the time? pourriez-vous me dire l'heure (qu'il est)?;
    ∎ have you seen the time? avez-vous vu l'heure?;
    ∎ I looked at the time j'ai regardé l'heure;
    ∎ this old watch still keeps good time cette vieille montre est toujours à l'heure ou exacte;
    ∎ at this time of day à cette heure de la journée;
    ∎ we'll have to keep an eye on the time il faudra surveiller l'heure;
    ∎ it is almost time to leave/for my bus il est presque l'heure de partir/de mon bus;
    ∎ it's time I was going il est temps que je parte;
    ∎ it's dinner time, it's time for dinner c'est l'heure de dîner;
    ∎ there you are, it's about time! te voilà, ce n'est pas trop tôt!;
    ∎ I wouldn't give him the time of day je ne lui dirais même pas bonjour;
    ∎ to pass the time of day with sb échanger quelques mots avec qn
    ∎ local time heure f locale;
    ∎ it's 5 o'clock Tokyo time il est 5 heures, heure de Tokyo
    ∎ is the bus running to time? est-ce que le bus est à l'heure?;
    ∎ within the required time dans les délais requis
    ∎ at that time I was in Madrid à ce moment-là, j'étais à Madrid ou j'étais alors à Madrid;
    ∎ I worked for her at one time à un moment donné j'ai travaillé pour elle;
    ∎ at the present time en ce moment, à présent;
    ∎ he is president at the present time il est actuellement président;
    ∎ at the time of delivery au moment de la livraison;
    ∎ at a later time plus tard;
    ∎ at a given time à un moment donné;
    ∎ at any one time à la fois;
    ∎ there's room for 15 people at any one time il y a de la place pour 15 personnes à la fois;
    ∎ an inconvenient time un moment inopportun;
    ∎ you called at a most inconvenient time vous avez appelé à un très mauvais moment;
    ∎ there are times when I could scream il y a des moments où j'ai envie de hurler;
    ∎ at the best of times même quand tout va bien;
    ∎ even at the best of times he is not that patient même dans ses bons moments il n'est pas particulièrement patient;
    ∎ at no time did I agree to that je n'ai jamais donné mon accord pour cela;
    ∎ by the time you get this… le temps que tu reçoives ceci…, quand tu auras reçu ceci…;
    ∎ by that time it will be too late à ce moment-là il sera trop tard;
    ∎ by that time we'll all be dead d'ici là nous serons tous morts;
    ∎ by this time next week d'ici une semaine, dans une semaine;
    ∎ this time next week la semaine prochaine à cette heure-ci;
    ∎ this time last week il y a exactement une semaine;
    ∎ from that time on we had nothing to do with them à partir de ce moment-là, nous avons refusé d'avoir affaire à eux;
    ∎ in between times entre-temps;
    ∎ some time or other un jour ou l'autre;
    ∎ some time next month dans le courant du mois prochain;
    ∎ until such time as I hear from them jusqu'à ce que ou en attendant que j'aie de leurs nouvelles
    ∎ she chose her time badly elle a mal choisi son moment;
    ∎ this is no time for you to leave ce n'est pas le moment de partir;
    ∎ now's our time to tell her c'est maintenant que nous devrions ou voici venu le moment de le lui dire;
    ∎ now is the time to invest c'est maintenant qu'il faut investir;
    ∎ when the time comes le moment venu, quand le moment sera venu;
    ∎ we'll talk about that when the time comes nous en parlerons en temps utile;
    ∎ the time has come to make a stand c'est le moment d'avoir le courage de ses opinions;
    ∎ the time for talking is past ce n'est plus le moment de parler;
    ∎ it's about time we taught her a lesson il est grand temps que nous lui donnions une bonne leçon;
    ∎ there's a time and a place for everything il y a un temps et un lieu pour ou à tout
    (k) (occasion, instance) fois f;
    ∎ I'll forgive you this time je vous pardonne cette fois-ci ou pour cette fois;
    ∎ each or every time chaque fois;
    ∎ she succeeds every time elle réussit à chaque fois;
    ∎ the last time he came la dernière fois qu'il est venu;
    ∎ the time before la fois précédente ou d'avant;
    ∎ another or some other time une autre fois;
    ∎ I called her three times je l'ai appelée trois fois;
    ∎ many times bien des fois, très souvent;
    ∎ many a time I've wondered… je me suis demandé plus d'une ou bien des fois…;
    ∎ several times plusieurs fois;
    ∎ several times in the past plusieurs fois déjà;
    ∎ he asked me several times if… il m'a demandé plusieurs fois si…;
    ∎ it costs 15 cents a time ça coûte 15 cents à chaque fois;
    ∎ the one time I'm winning, he wants to stop playing pour une fois que je gagne, il veut arrêter de jouer;
    ∎ nine times out of ten the machine doesn't work neuf fois sur dix la machine ne marche pas;
    ∎ we'll have to decide some time or other tôt ou tard ou un jour ou l'autre il va falloir nous décider;
    ∎ do you remember that time we went to Germany? tu te rappelles la fois où nous sommes allés en Allemagne?;
    ∎ there's always a first time il y a un début à tout;
    ∎ I've told you a hundred times! je te l'ai dit vingt ou cent fois!;
    ∎ give me a good detective story every time! rien ne vaut un bon roman policier!
    ∎ to have a good time bien s'amuser;
    ∎ she's had a terrible time of it elle a beaucoup souffert;
    ∎ I had the time of my life jamais je ne me suis si bien ou autant amusé;
    ∎ we had an awful time at the picnic nous nous sommes ennuyés à mourir au pique-nique;
    ∎ it was a difficult time for all of us c'était une période difficile pour nous tous;
    ∎ she had a hard time bringing up five children alone ça a été difficile pour elle d'élever cinq enfants seule;
    ∎ to give sb a hard or rough or tough time en faire voir de dures à qn, en faire voir de toutes les couleurs à qn;
    ∎ what a time I had with him! (fun) qu'est-ce que j'ai pu m'amuser avec lui!; (trouble) qu'est-ce qu'il m'en a fait voir!
    ∎ to put in time faire des heures (de travail);
    ∎ to work part/full time travailler à temps partiel/à plein temps;
    ∎ British in company time, American on company time pendant les heures de travail;
    ∎ British in your own time, American on your own time pendant votre temps libre, en dehors des heures de travail
    ∎ we pay time and a half on weekends nous payons les heures du week-end une fois et demie le tarif normal;
    ∎ overtime is paid at double time les heures supplémentaires sont payées ou comptées double
    (o) (usu plural) (era) époque f, temps m;
    ∎ in Victorian times à l'époque victorienne;
    ∎ in the time of Henry IV à l'époque d'Henri IV, du temps d'Henri IV;
    ∎ in times past, in former times autrefois, jadis;
    ∎ in times to come à l'avenir;
    ∎ at one time, things were different autrefois ou dans le temps les choses étaient différentes;
    ∎ the house has seen better times la maison a connu des jours meilleurs;
    ∎ in happier times en un ou des temps plus heureux;
    ∎ in time or times of need/war en temps de pénurie/de guerre;
    ∎ time was when doctors made house calls il fut un temps où les médecins faisaient des visites à domicile;
    ∎ those were happy times! c'était le bon (vieux) temps!;
    ∎ times are hard les temps sont durs;
    ∎ in our time de nos jours;
    ∎ the times we live in l'époque f où nous vivons;
    ∎ in my time children didn't talk back de mon temps, les enfants ne répondaient pas;
    ∎ she was probably a good singer in her time en son temps, c'était sûrement une bonne chanteuse;
    ∎ it was a very popular car in its time c'était une voiture très populaire à l'époque (où elle est sortie);
    ∎ very advanced for its time très en avance sur son temps ou sur l'époque;
    ∎ to be ahead of or before one's time être en avance sur son époque ou sur son temps;
    ∎ to be behind the times être en retard sur son époque ou sur son temps;
    ∎ to keep up with the times vivre avec son temps;
    ∎ to move with the times évoluer avec son temps;
    ∎ times have changed autres temps, autres mœurs
    ∎ I've heard some odd things in my time! j'en ai entendu, des choses, dans ma vie!;
    ∎ it won't happen in our time nous ne serons pas là pour voir ça;
    ∎ if I had my time over again si j'avais à recommencer (ma vie);
    ∎ at my time of life à mon âge;
    ∎ that was before your time (birth) vous n'étiez pas encore né; (arrival) vous n'étiez pas encore là;
    ∎ her time has come (childbirth) elle arrive à son terme; (death) son heure est venue ou a sonné; (success) son heure est venue;
    ∎ he died before his time il est mort avant l'âge
    ∎ it's hot for the time of year il fait chaud pour la saison
    ∎ time's up (on exam, visit) c'est l'heure; (on meter, telephone) le temps est écoulé;
    ∎ British time (gentlemen), please! (in pub) on ferme!;
    ∎ Sport the referee called time l'arbitre a sifflé la fin du match
    ∎ to buy sth on time acheter qch à tempérament ou à terme ou à crédit
    ∎ to do time faire de la taule;
    ∎ he's serving time for murder il est en taule pour meurtre
    (u) Music (tempo) mesure f; (note value) valeur f (d'une note);
    ∎ to keep time, to be in time être en mesure;
    ∎ he beat time with his foot il battait ou marquait la mesure du pied;
    ∎ in triple or three-part time à trois temps
    (v) Radio & Television espace m;
    ∎ to buy/to sell time on television acheter/vendre de l'espace publicitaire à la télévision
    ∎ to make time with sb (pursue) draguer qn; (be with) être avec qn□ (en couple) ; (have sex with) s'envoyer en l'air avec qn
    (a) (on clock → runner, worker, race) chronométrer;
    ∎ they timed her at four minutes a mile ils l'ont chronométrée ou ils ont chronométré son temps à quatre minutes au mille;
    ∎ time how long she takes to finish regardez combien de temps elle met pour finir;
    ∎ he timed his speech to last twenty minutes il a fait en sorte que son discours dure vingt minutes;
    ∎ to time an egg minuter le temps de cuisson d'un œuf
    (b) (schedule) fixer ou prévoir (l'heure de); Photography (exposure) calculer;
    ∎ they timed the attack for 6 o'clock l'attaque était prévue pour 6 heures
    (c) (choose right moment for) choisir ou calculer le moment de;
    ∎ she timed her entrance well elle a bien choisi le moment pour faire son entrée;
    ∎ he timed the blow perfectly il a frappé au bon moment;
    ∎ your remark was perfectly/badly timed votre observation est venue au bon/au mauvais moment
    (d) (synchronize) régler, ajuster;
    ∎ she tried to time her steps to the music elle essayait de régler ses pas sur la musique
    ∎ she's ten times cleverer than or as clever as he is elle est dix fois plus intelligente que lui;
    ∎ he ate four times as much cake as I did il a mangé quatre fois plus de gâteau que moi
    ∎ Mathematics 3 times 2 is 6 3 fois 2 font ou égalent 6;
    ∎ 1 times 6 is 6 une fois six fait ou égale six
    en avance;
    ∎ I'm ten minutes ahead of time j'ai dix minutes d'avance
    ∎ he talked all the time we were at lunch il a parlé pendant tout le déjeuner;
    ∎ he's been watching us all the time il n'a pas cessé de nous regarder;
    ∎ I knew it all the time je le savais depuis le début
    n'importe quand;
    ∎ come over any time venez quand vous voulez;
    ∎ you're welcome any time vous serez toujours le bienvenu;
    ∎ thanks for all your help - any time merci de votre aide - de rien
    ∎ for days at a time pendant des journées entières, des journées durant;
    ∎ to do two things at a time faire deux choses à la fois;
    ∎ take one book at a time prenez les livres un par un ou un (seul) livre à la fois;
    ∎ she ran up the stairs two at a time elle a monté les marches quatre à quatre
    à tous moments
    à toute heure;
    ∎ hot meals at any time repas chauds à toute heure;
    ∎ at any time of day or night à n'importe quelle heure du jour ou de la nuit;
    ∎ at any time during office hours n'importe quand pendant les heures de bureau;
    ∎ he could die at any time il peut mourir d'un moment à l'autre;
    ∎ if at any time… si à l'occasion…
    (a) (simultaneously) en même temps;
    ∎ they all spoke at the same time ils se sont mis à parler tous en même temps;
    ∎ they arrived at the same time (as) he did ils sont arrivés en même temps que lui
    (b) (yet) en même temps;
    ∎ she was pleased but at the same time a bit concerned elle était contente mais en même temps un peu inquiète
    (c) (nevertheless) pourtant, cependant;
    ∎ at the same time, we must not forget… pourtant ou cependant, il ne faut pas oublier…
    ∎ at the time of their wedding au moment de leur mariage;
    ∎ I didn't pay much attention at the time sur le moment, je n'ai pas fait vraiment attention
    parfois, par moments
    en retard;
    ∎ we're a bit behind time nous sommes légèrement en retard;
    ∎ the project was running behind time le projet avait du retard
    pendant un (certain) temps;
    ∎ for a time, he was unable to walk pendant un certain temps, il n'a pas pu marcher
    pour toujours
    pour le moment
    de temps en temps, de temps à autre
    ∎ she'll come to her senses in time elle finira par revenir à la raison;
    ∎ he'll forget about it in (the course of) time il finira par l'oublier (avec le temps)
    ∎ let me know in (good) time prévenez-moi (bien) à l'avance;
    ∎ she arrived in time for the play elle est arrivée à l'heure pour la pièce;
    ∎ you're just in time to greet our guests tu arrives juste à temps pour accueillir nos invités;
    ∎ I'll be back in time for the film je serai de retour à temps pour le film
    (c) Music en mesure;
    ∎ to be or keep in time (with the music) être en mesure (avec la musique)
    en un rien de temps
    de tous les temps
    ∎ why now of all times? pourquoi faut-il que ce soit juste maintenant?
    à l'heure;
    ∎ to run on time (trains etc) être à l'heure;
    ∎ she arrived right on time elle est arrivée juste à l'heure;
    ∎ is the bus on time? est-ce que le bus est à l'heure?
    ∎ Music he got out of time il a perdu la mesure
    maintes et maintes fois
    temps m libre;
    ∎ what do you do in your time off? qu'est-ce que vous faites de votre temps libre?
    (a) Sport temps m mort; (in chess match) temps m de repos;
    ∎ Sport to take time out faire un temps mort
    ∎ I took time out to travel (from work) je me suis mis en congé pour voyager; (from studies) j'ai interrompu mes études pour voyager;
    ∎ she took time out to read the report elle a pris le temps de lire le rapport
    ►► time of arrival heure f d'arrivée;
    Stock Exchange time bargain marché m à terme;
    Finance time bill traite f à terme; also figurative time bomb bombe f à retardement;
    ∎ figurative a demographic time bomb une situation démographique qui menace d'exploser;
    ∎ the situation is like a time bomb ticking away la situation est explosive;
    ∎ figurative they're sitting on a time bomb ils sont assis sur un volcan;
    time capsule capsule f témoin (qui doit servir de témoignage historique aux générations futures);
    Industry time card carte f ou fiche f de pointage;
    time chart (showing time zones) carte f des fuseaux horaires; (showing events) table f d'événements historiques; (showing planning) calendrier m, planning m;
    time check (on radio) rappel m de l'heure; (in cycling, skiing, motor racing) contrôle m du temps intermédiaire;
    Grammar time clause proposition f temporelle;
    Industry time clock pointeuse f;
    time code code m temporel;
    time of departure heure f de départ;
    American Finance time deposit dépôt m à terme;
    time difference décalage m horaire;
    Finance time draft traite f à terme;
    time exposure (of film) (temps m de) pose f; (photograph) photo f prise en pose;
    time frame délai m;
    ∎ what's our time frame? de combien de temps disposons-nous?;
    time fuse détonateur m ou fusée f à retardement;
    time lag (delay) décalage m dans le temps; (in time zones) décalage m horaire;
    time lapse intervalle m, laps m de temps;
    time limit (gen) délai m, date f limite; Law délai m de forclusion;
    ∎ there is a strict time limit for applications il y a un délai impératif ou de rigueur pour la remise des dossiers de candidature;
    ∎ we'll have to set ourselves a time limit for the work il va falloir nous imposer un délai pour finir ce travail;
    ∎ the work must be completed within the time limit le travail doit être terminé avant la date limite;
    Finance time loan emprunt m à terme;
    time machine machine f à voyager dans le temps;
    time management gestion f du temps de travail;
    Marketing time pricing fixation f des prix en fonction du moment;
    time sheet feuille f de présence;
    Radio time signal signal m ou top m horaire;
    Music time signature indication f de la mesure;
    Computing time slice tranche f de temps;
    Computing time slicing temps m partagé;
    time slot créneau m ou tranche f horaire;
    time switch (for oven, heating) minuteur m; (for lighting) minuterie f;
    time travel voyage m dans le temps;
    time traveller personne f qui voyage dans le temps;
    Sport time trial course f contre la montre, contre-la-montre m inv;
    Telecommunications time unit unité f;
    time value Music valeur f (d'une note); Finance valeur f temporelle;
    time warp (in science fiction) faille f spatio-temporelle;
    ∎ it's like living in a time warp c'est comme si on vivait hors du temps;
    ∎ the country seems to have entered a time warp le temps semble s'être arrêté dans le pays;
    ∎ the house/company seems to be caught in a 19th century time warp la maison/la société semble ne pas avoir changé depuis le XIXème siècle;
    time zone fuseau m horaire
    ✾ Book 'The Time Machine' Wells 'La Machine à explorer le temps'
    ⓘ I may be some time Ce sont les mots ("je risque d'en avoir pour un certain temps") qu'aurait prononcés le capitaine Oates lorsqu'il sortit de la tente qu'il occupait avec le capitaine Scott au cours de leur expédition de 1912 au pôle sud. Oates souffrait de gelures multiples et afin de ne pas ralentir la progression de ses camarades, il décida de se sacrifier en disparaissant dans la tourmente. Cet épisode est censé symboliser les qualités d'héroïsme et d'abnégation associées au caractère britannique. Aujourd'hui, on emploie cette formule par allusion à Oates sur le mode humoristique lorsque l'on sort d'une pièce ou bien lorsqu'on va aux toilettes.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > time

  • 91 Johnson, Samuel Waite

    [br]
    b. 14 October 1831 Bramley, Leeds, England
    d. 14 January 1912 Nottingham, England
    [br]
    English locomotive engineer, designer of Midland Railway's successful compound locomotives.
    [br]
    After an apprenticeship with E.B.Wilson, Leeds, Johnson worked successively for the Great Northern, Manchester Sheffield \& Lincolnshire, Edinburgh \& Glasgow and Great Eastern Railways before being appointed Locomotive Superintendent of the Midland Railway in 1873. There he remained for the rest of his working life, becoming notable for well-designed, well-finished locomotives. Of these, the most famous were his 4–2–2 express locomotives, introduced in 1887. The use of a single pair of driving-wheels was made possible at this late date by application of steam sanding gear (invented in 1886 by F. Holt) to enable them to haul heavy trains without slipping. In 1901, almost at the end of his career, he produced the first Midland compound 4–4–0, with a single internal high-pressure cylinder and two external low-pressure ones. The system had been devised by W.M.Smith, working on the North Eastern Railway under Wilson Worsdell. These locomotives were successful enough to be developed and built in quantity by Johnson's successors and were adopted as a standard locomotive by the London Midland \& Scottish Railway after the grouping of 1923.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1898.
    Further Reading
    C.Hamilton Ellis, 1958, Twenty Locomotive Men, Ian Allan, Ch. 11 (describes Johnson's career).
    E.L.Ahrons, 1927, The British Steam Railway Locomotive 1825–1925, The Locomotive Publishing Co. (describes Johnson's locomotives).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Johnson, Samuel Waite

  • 92 Maudslay, Henry

    [br]
    b. 22 August 1771 Woolwich, Kent, England
    d. 15 February 1831 Lambeth, London, England
    [br]
    English precision toolmaker and engineer.
    [br]
    Henry Maudslay was the third son of an ex-soldier and storekeeper at Woolwich Arsenal. At the age of 12 he was employed at the Arsenal filling cartridges; two years later he was transferred to the woodworking department, adjacent to the smithy, to which he moved when 15 years old. He was a rapid learner, and three years later Joseph Bramah took him on for the construction of special tools required for the mass-production of his locks. Maudslay was thus employed for the next eight years. He became Bramah's foreman, married his housekeeper, Sarah Tindale, and, unable to better himself, decided to leave and set up on his own. He soon outgrew his first premises in Wells Street and moved to Margaret Street, off Oxford Street, where some examples of his workmanship were displayed in the window. These caught the attention of a visiting Frenchman, de Bacquancourt; he was a friend of Marc Isambard Brunel, who was then in the early stages of designing the block-making machinery later installed at Portsmouth dockyard.
    Brunel wanted first a set of working models, as he did not think that the Lords of the Admiralty would be capable of understanding engineering drawings; Maudslay made these for him within the next two years. Sir Samuel Bentham, Inspector-General of Naval Works, agreed that Brunel's system was superior to the one that he had gone some way in developing; the Admiralty approved, and an order was placed for the complete plant. The manufacture of the machinery occupied Maudslay for the next six years; he was assisted by a draughtsman whom he took on from Portsmouth dockyard, Joshua Field (1786–1863), who became his partner in Maudslay, Son and Field. There were as many as eighty employees at Margaret Street until, in 1810, larger premises became necessary and a new works was built at Lambeth Marsh where, eventually, there were up to two hundred workers. The new factory was flanked by two houses, one of which was occupied by Maudslay, the other by Field. The firm became noted for its production of marine steam-engines, notably Maudslay's table engine which was first introduced in 1807.
    Maudslay was a consummate craftsman who was never happier than when working at his bench or at a machine tool; he was also one of the first engineers to appreciate the virtues of standardization. Evidence of this appreciation is to be found in his work in the development of the Bramah lock and then on the machine tools for the manufacture of ship's blocks to Marc Brunel's designs; possibly his most important contribution was the invention in 1797 of the metal lathe. He made a number of surface plates of the finest quality. The most celebrated of his numerous measuring devices was a micrometer-based machine which he termed his "Lord Chancellor" because, in the machine shop, it represented the "final court of appeal", measuring to one-thousandth of an inch.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    1934–5, "Maudslay, Sons \& Field as general engineers", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 15, London.
    1963, Engineering Heritage, Vol. 1, London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers. L.T.C.Rolt, 1965, Tools for the Job, London: Batsford.
    W.Steeds, 1969, A History of Machine Tools 1700–1910, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Maudslay, Henry

  • 93 Owen, Robert

    SUBJECT AREA: Textiles
    [br]
    b. 14 May 1771 Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales
    d. 17 November 1858 Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales
    [br]
    Welsh cotton spinner and social reformer.
    [br]
    Robert Owen's father was also called Robert and was a saddler, ironmonger and postmaster of Newtown in Montgomeryshire. Robert, the younger, injured his digestion as a child by drinking some scalding hot "flummery", which affected him for the rest of his life. He developed a passion for reading and through this visited London when he was 10 years old. He started work as a pedlar for someone in Stamford and then went to a haberdasher's shop on old London Bridge in London. Although he found the work there too hard, he stayed in the same type of employment when he moved to Manchester.
    In Manchester Owen soon set up a partnership for making bonnet frames, employing forty workers, but he sold the business and bought a spinning machine. This led him in 1790 into another partnership, with James M'Connel and John Kennedy in a spinning mill, but he moved once again to become Manager of Peter Drink-water's mill. These were all involved in fine spinning, and Drinkwater employed 500 people in one of the best mills in the city. In spite of his youth, Owen claims in his autobiography (1857) that he mastered the job within six weeks and soon improved the spinning. This mill was one of the first to use Sea Island cotton from the West Indies. To have managed such an enterprise so well Owen must have had both managerial and technical ability. Through his spinning connections Owen visited Glasgow, where he met both David Dale and his daughter Anne Caroline, whom he married in 1799. It was this connection which brought him to Dale's New Lanark mills, which he persuaded Dale to sell to a Manchester consortium for £60,000. Owen took over the management of the mills on 1 January 1800. Although he had tried to carry out social reforms in the manner of working at Manchester, it was at New Lanark that Owen acquired fame for the way in which he improved both working and living conditions for the 1,500-strong workforce. He started by seeing that adequate food and groceries were available in that remote site and then built both the school and the New Institution for the Formation of Character, which opened in January 1816. To the pauper children from the Glasgow and Edinburgh slums he gave a good education, while he tried to help the rest of the workforce through activities at the Institution. The "silent monitors" hanging on the textile machines, showing the performance of their operatives, are famous, and many came to see his social experiments. Owen was soon to buy out his original partners for £84,000.
    Among his social reforms were his efforts to limit child labour in mills, resulting in the Factory Act of 1819. He attempted to establish an ideal community in the USA, to which he sailed in 1824. He was to return to his village of "Harmony" twice more, but broke his connection in 1828. The following year he finally withdrew from New Lanark, where some of his social reforms had been abandoned.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1857, The Life of Robert Owen, Written by Himself, London.
    Further Reading
    G.D.H.Cole, 1965, Life of Robert Owen (biography).
    J.Butt (ed.), 1971, Robert Owen, Prince of Cotton Spinners, Newton Abbot; S.Pollard and J.Salt (eds), 1971, Robert Owen, Prophet of the Poor. Essays in Honour of the
    Two-Hundredth Anniversary of His Birth, London (both describe Owen's work at New Lanark).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Owen, Robert

  • 94 Preece, Sir William Henry

    [br]
    b. 15 February 1834 Bryn Helen, Gwynedd, Wales
    d. 6 November 1913 Penrhos, Gwynedd, Wales
    [br]
    Welsh electrical engineer who greatly furthered the development and use of wireless telegraphy and the telephone in Britain, dominating British Post Office engineering during the last two decades of the nineteenth century.
    [br]
    After education at King's College, London, in 1852 Preece entered the office of Edwin Clark with the intention of becoming a civil engineer, but graduate studies at the Royal Institution under Faraday fired his enthusiasm for things electrical. His earliest work, as connected with telegraphy and in particular its application for securing the safe working of railways; in 1853 he obtained an appointment with the Electric and National Telegraph Company. In 1856 he became Superintendent of that company's southern district, but four years later he moved to telegraph work with the London and South West Railway. From 1858 to 1862 he was also Engineer to the Channel Islands Telegraph Company. When the various telegraph companies in Britain were transferred to the State in 1870, Preece became a Divisional Engineer in the General Post Office (GPO). Promotion followed in 1877, when he was appointed Chief Electrician to the Post Office. One of the first specimens of Bell's telephone was brought to England by Preece and exhibited at the British Association meeting in 1877. From 1892 to 1899 he served as Engineer-in-Chief to the Post Office. During this time he made a number of important contributions to telegraphy, including the use of water as part of telegraph circuits across the Solent (1882) and the Bristol Channel (1888). He also discovered the existence of inductive effects between parallel wires, and with Fleming showed that a current (thermionic) flowed between the hot filament and a cold conductor in an incandescent lamp.
    Preece was distinguished by his administrative ability, some scientific insight, considerable engineering intuition and immense energy. He held erroneous views about telephone transmission and, not accepting the work of Oliver Heaviside, made many errors when planning trunk circuits. Prior to the successful use of Hertzian waves for wireless communication Preece carried out experiments, often on a large scale, in attempts at wireless communication by inductive methods. These became of historic interest only when the work of Maxwell and Hertz was developed by Guglielmo Marconi. It is to Preece that credit should be given for encouraging Marconi in 1896 and collaborating with him in his early experimental work on radio telegraphy.
    While still employed by the Post Office, Preece contributed to the development of numerous early public electricity schemes, acting as Consultant and often supervising their construction. At Worcester he was responsible for Britain's largest nineteenth-century public hydro-electric station. He received a knighthood on his retirement in 1899, after which he continued his consulting practice in association with his two sons and Major Philip Cardew. Preece contributed some 136 papers and printed lectures to scientific journals, ninety-nine during the period 1877 to 1894.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    CB 1894. Knighted (KCB) 1899. FRS 1881. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers, 1880. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1880, 1893. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1898–9. Chairman, Royal Society of Arts 1901–2.
    Bibliography
    Preece produced numerous papers on telegraphy and telephony that were presented as Royal Institution Lectures (see Royal Institution Library of Science, 1974) or as British Association reports.
    1862–3, "Railway telegraphs and the application of electricity to the signaling and working of trains", Proceedings of the ICE 22:167–93.
    Eleven editions of Telegraphy (with J.Sivewright), London, 1870, were published by 1895.
    1883, "Molecular radiation in incandescent lamps", Proceedings of the Physical Society 5: 283.
    1885. "Molecular shadows in incandescent lamps". Proceedings of the Physical Society 7: 178.
    1886. "Electric induction between wires and wires", British Association Report. 1889, with J.Maier, The Telephone.
    1894, "Electric signalling without wires", RSA Journal.
    Further Reading
    J.J.Fahie, 1899, History of Wireless Telegraphy 1838–1899, Edinburgh: Blackwood. E.Hawkes, 1927, Pioneers of Wireless, London: Methuen.
    E.C.Baker, 1976, Sir William Preece, F.R.S. Victorian Engineer Extraordinary, London (a detailed biography with an appended list of his patents, principal lectures and publications).
    D.G.Tucker, 1981–2, "Sir William Preece (1834–1913)", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 53:119–36 (a critical review with a summary of his consultancies).
    GW / KF

    Biographical history of technology > Preece, Sir William Henry

  • 95 Thompson, Benjamin

    [br]
    b. 11 April 1779 Eccleshall, Yorkshire, England
    d. 19 April 1867 Gateshead, England
    [br]
    English coal owner and railway engineer, inventor of reciprocal cable haulage.
    [br]
    After being educated at Sheffield Grammar School, Thompson and his elder brother established Aberdare Iron Works, South Wales, where he gained experience in mine engineering from the coal-and ironstone-mines with which the works were connected. In 1811 he moved to the North of England as Managing Partner in Bewicke's Main Colliery, County Durham, which was replaced in 1814 by a new colliery at nearby Ouston. Coal from this was carried to the Tyne over the Pelew Main Wagonway, which included a 1,992 yd (1,821 m) section where horses had to haul loaded wagons between the top of one cable-worked incline and the foot of the next. Both inclines were worked by stationary steam engines, and by installing a rope with a record length of nearly 1 1/2 miles (2.4 km), in 1821 Thompson arranged for the engine of the upper incline to haul the loaded wagons along the intervening section also. To their rear was attached the rope from the engine of the lower incline, to be used in due course to haul the empties back again.
    He subsequently installed this system of "reciprocal working" elsewhere, in particular in 1826 over five miles (8 km) of the Brunton \& Shields Railroad, a colliery line north of the Tyne, where trains were hauled at an average speed of 6 mph (10 km/h) including rope changes. This performance was better than that of contemporary locomotives. The directors of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway, which was then being built, considered installing reciprocal cable haulage on their line, and then decided to stage a competition to establish whether an improved steam locomotive could do better still. This competition became the Rainhill Trials of 1829 and was decisively won by Rocket, which had been built for the purpose.
    Thompson meanwhile had become prominent in the promotion of the Newcastle \& Carlisle Railway, which, when it received its Act in 1829, was the longest railway so far authorized in Britain.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1821, British patent no. 4602 (reciprocal working).
    1847, Inventions, Improvements and Practice of Benjamin Thompson, Newcastle upon Tyne: Lambert.
    Further Reading
    W.W.Tomlinson, 1914, The North Eastern Railway, Newcastle upon Tyne: Andrew Reid (includes a description of Thompson and his work).
    R.Welford, 1895, Men of Mark twixt Tyne and Tweed, Vol. 3, 506–6.
    C.R.Warn, 1976, Waggonways and Early Railways of Northumberland, Newcastle upon Tyne: Frank Graham.
    ——c. 1981, Rails between Wear \& Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne: Frank Graham.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Thompson, Benjamin

  • 96 Woodbury, Walter Bentley

    [br]
    b. 1834 Manchester, England
    d. 1885 Margate, Kent, England
    [br]
    English photographer, inventor of the Woodburytype process.
    [br]
    Having been apprenticed to be an engineer, Woodbury left England in 1851 to seek his fortune in the Australian gold-fields. Like many others, he failed, and after a series of transient jobs found a post as Draughtsman at the Melbourne Waterworks. He then went on to Java, where he practised wet-collodion photography before returning to England finally in 1863. Woodbury settled in Birmingham, where like most contemporary photographers he was concerned to find a solution to the troublesome problem of fading prints. He began working the carbon process, and in 1866 and 1867 took out a series of patents which were to lead to the development of the process that took his name. Woodburytypes were continuous-tone prints of high quality that could be mass produced more cheaply than the traditional silver print. This was an important innovation and Woodburytypes were extensively used for quality book illustrations until the introduction of more versatile photomechanical processes in the 1890s. In all, Woodbury took out twenty patents between 1864 and 1884, some relating to a wide range of photographic devices. He was still working to simplify the Woodburytype process when he died from an overdose of laudanum.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    Woodbury took out a series of patents on his process, the most significant being: 23 September 1864, British patent no. 2,338; 12 January 1866, British patent no. 105; 11 February 1866, British patent no. 505; 8 May 1866, British patent no. 1,315; 24 July 1866, British patent no. 1,918.
    Further Reading
    G.Tissandier, 1876, A History and Handbook of Photography, trans. J.Thomson.
    B.E.Jones (ed.), 1911, Cassell's Cyclopaedia of Photography, London (a brief biography).
    J.M.Eder, 1945, History of Photography, trans. E. Epstean, New York.
    JW

    Biographical history of technology > Woodbury, Walter Bentley

  • 97 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

  • 98 De Forest, Lee

    [br]
    b. 26 August 1873 Council Bluffs, Iowa, USA
    d. 30 June 1961 Hollywood, California, USA
    [br]
    American electrical engineer and inventor principally known for his invention of the Audion, or triode, vacuum tube; also a pioneer of sound in the cinema.
    [br]
    De Forest was born into the family of a Congregational minister that moved to Alabama in 1879 when the father became President of a college for African-Americans; this was a position that led to the family's social ostracism by the white community. By the time he was 13 years old, De Forest was already a keen mechanical inventor, and in 1893, rejecting his father's plan for him to become a clergyman, he entered the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. Following his first degree, he went on to study the propagation of electromagnetic waves, gaining a PhD in physics in 1899 for his thesis on the "Reflection of Hertzian Waves from the Ends of Parallel Wires", probably the first US thesis in the field of radio.
    He then joined the Western Electric Company in Chicago where he helped develop the infant technology of wireless, working his way up from a modest post in the production area to a position in the experimental laboratory. There, working alone after normal working hours, he developed a detector of electromagnetic waves based on an electrolytic device similar to that already invented by Fleming in England. Recognizing his talents, a number of financial backers enabled him to set up his own business in 1902 under the name of De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Company; he was soon demonstrating wireless telegraphy to interested parties and entering into competition with the American Marconi Company.
    Despite the failure of this company because of fraud by his partners, he continued his experiments; in 1907, by adding a third electrode, a wire mesh, between the anode and cathode of the thermionic diode invented by Fleming in 1904, he was able to produce the amplifying device now known as the triode valve and achieve a sensitivity of radio-signal reception much greater than possible with the passive carborundum and electrolytic detectors hitherto available. Patented under the name Audion, this new vacuum device was soon successfully used for experimental broadcasts of music and speech in New York and Paris. The invention of the Audion has been described as the beginning of the electronic era. Although much development work was required before its full potential was realized, the Audion opened the way to progress in all areas of sound transmission, recording and reproduction. The patent was challenged by Fleming and it was not until 1943 that De Forest's claim was finally recognized.
    Overcoming the near failure of his new company, the De Forest Radio Telephone Company, as well as unsuccessful charges of fraudulent promotion of the Audion, he continued to exploit the potential of his invention. By 1912 he had used transformer-coupling of several Audion stages to achieve high gain at radio frequencies, making long-distance communication a practical proposition, and had applied positive feedback from the Audion output anode to its input grid to realize a stable transmitter oscillator and modulator. These successes led to prolonged patent litigation with Edwin Armstrong and others, and he eventually sold the manufacturing rights, in retrospect often for a pittance.
    During the early 1920s De Forest began a fruitful association with T.W.Case, who for around ten years had been working to perfect a moving-picture sound system. De Forest claimed to have had an interest in sound films as early as 1900, and Case now began to supply him with photoelectric cells and primitive sound cameras. He eventually devised a variable-density sound-on-film system utilizing a glow-discharge modulator, the Photion. By 1926 De Forest's Phonofilm had been successfully demonstrated in over fifty theatres and this system became the basis of Movietone. Though his ideas were on the right lines, the technology was insufficiently developed and it was left to others to produce a system acceptable to the film industry. However, De Forest had played a key role in transforming the nature of the film industry; within a space of five years the production of silent films had all but ceased.
    In the following decade De Forest applied the Audion to the development of medical diathermy. Finally, after spending most of his working life as an independent inventor and entrepreneur, he worked for a time during the Second World War at the Bell Telephone Laboratories on military applications of electronics.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers Medal of Honour 1922. President, Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers 1930. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Edison Medal 1946.
    Bibliography
    1904, "Electrolytic detectors", Electrician 54:94 (describes the electrolytic detector). 1907, US patent no. 841,387 (the Audion).
    1950, Father of Radio, Chicago: WIlcox \& Follett (autobiography).
    De Forest gave his own account of the development of his sound-on-film system in a series of articles: 1923. "The Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16 (May): 61–75; 1924. "Phonofilm progress", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 20:17–19; 1927, "Recent developments in the Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 27:64–76; 1941, "Pioneering in talking pictures", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 36 (January): 41–9.
    Further Reading
    G.Carneal, 1930, A Conqueror of Space (biography).
    I.Levine, 1964, Electronics Pioneer, Lee De Forest (biography).
    E.I.Sponable, 1947, "Historical development of sound films", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 48 (April): 275–303 (an authoritative account of De Forest's sound-film work, by Case's assistant).
    W.R.McLaurin, 1949, Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry.
    C.F.Booth, 1955, "Fleming and De Forest. An appreciation", in Thermionic Valves 1904– 1954, IEE.
    V.J.Phillips, 1980, Early Radio Detectors, London: Peter Peregrinus.
    KF / JW

    Biographical history of technology > De Forest, Lee

  • 99 Brotan, Johann

    [br]
    b. 24 June 1843 Kattau, Bohemia (now in the Czech Republic)
    d. 20 November 1923 Vienna, Austria
    [br]
    Czech engineer, pioneer of the watertube firebox for steam locomotive boilers.
    [br]
    Brotan, who was Chief Engineer of the main workshops of the Royal Austrian State Railways at Gmund, found that locomotive inner fireboxes of the usual type were both expensive, because the copper from which they were made had to be imported, and short-lived, because of corrosion resulting from the use of coal with high sulphur content. He designed a firebox of which the side and rear walls comprised rows of vertical watertubes, expanded at their lower ends into a tubular foundation ring and at the top into a longitudinal water/steam drum. This projected forward above the boiler barrel (which was of the usual firetube type, though of small diameter), to which it was connected. Copper plates were eliminated, as were firebox stays.
    The first boiler to incorporate a Brotan firebox was built at Gmund under the inventor's supervision and replaced the earlier boiler of a 0−6−0 in 1901. The increased radiantly heated surface was found to produce a boiler with very good steaming qualities, while the working pressure too could be increased, with consequent fuel economies. Further locomotives in Austria and, experimentally, elsewhere were equipped with Brotan boilers.
    Disadvantages of the boiler were the necessity of keeping the tubes clear of scale, and a degree of structural weakness. The Swiss engineer E. Deffner improved the latter aspect by eliminating the forward extension of the water/steam drum, replacing it with a large-diameter boiler barrel with the rear section of tapered wagon-top type so that the front of the water/steam drum could be joined directly to the rear tubeplate. The first locomotives to be fitted with this Brotan-Deffner boiler were two 4−6−0s for the Swiss Federal Railways in 1908 and showed very favourable results. However, steam locomotive development ceased in Switzerland a few years later in favour of electrification, but boilers of the Brotan-Deffner type and further developments of it were used in many other European countries, notably Hungary, where more than 1,000 were built. They were also used experimentally in the USA: for instance, Samuel Vauclain, as President of Baldwin Locomotive Works, sent his senior design engineer to study Hungarian experience and then had a high-powered 4−8−0 built with a watertube firebox. On stationary test this produced the very high figure of 4,515 ihp (3,370 kW), but further development work was frustrated by the trade depression commencing in 1929. In France, Gaston du Bousquet had obtained good results from experimental installations of Brotan-Deffner-type boilers, and incorporated one into one of his high-powered 4−6−4s of 1910. Experiments were terminated suddenly by his death, followed by the First World War, but thirty-five years later André Chapelon proposed using a watertube firebox to obtain the high pressure needed for a triple-expansion, high-powered, steam locomotive, development of which was overtaken by electrification.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    G.Szontagh, 1991, "Brotan and Brotan-Deffner type fireboxes and boilers applied to steam locomotives", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 62 (an authoritative account of Brotan boilers).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Brotan, Johann

  • 100 Mallet, Jules Théodore Anatole

    [br]
    b. 1837 Geneva, Switzerland
    d. November 1919 Nice, France
    [br]
    Swiss engineer, inventor of the compound steam locomotive and the Mallet articulated locomotive.
    [br]
    Mallet's family moved to Normandy while he was still a child. After working as a civil engineer, in 1867 he turned to machinery, particularly to compound steam engines. He designed the first true compound steam locomotives, which were built for the Bayonne- Biarritz Railway in 1876. They were 0–4–2 tank locomotives with one high-pressure and one low-pressure cylinder. A starting valve controlled by the driver admitted high-pressure steam to the low-pressure cylinder while the high-pressure cylinder exhausted to the atmosphere. At that time it was thought impracticable in a narrow-gauge locomotive to have more than three coupled axles in rigid frames. Mallet patented his system of articulation in 1884 and the first locomotives were built to that design in 1888: they were 0–4–4–0 tanks with two sets of frames. The two rear pairs of wheels carried the rear set of frames and were driven by two high-pressure cylinders; the two front pairs, which were driven by the high-pressure cylinders, carried a separate set of frames that was allowed sideplay, with a centre of rotation between the low-pressure cylinders. In contrast to the patent locomotive of Robert Fairlie, no flexible connections were required to carry steam at boiler pressure. The first Mallet articulated locomotives were small, built to 60 cm (23.6 in.) gauge: the first standard-gauge Mallets were built in 1890, for the St Gotthard Railway, and it was only after the type was adopted by American railways in 1904 that large Mallet locomotives were built, with sizes increasing rapidly to culminate in some of the largest steam locomotives ever produced. In the late 1880s Mallet also designed monorail locomotives, which were built for the system developed by C.F.M.-T. Lartigue.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1884, French patent no. 162,876 (articulated locomotive).
    Further Reading
    J.T.van Riemsdijk, 1970, "The compound locomotive, Part I", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 43 (describes Mallet's work on compounding).
    L.Wiener, 1930, Articulated Locomotives, London: Constable (describes his articulated locomotives).
    For the Mallet family, see Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Mallet, Jules Théodore Anatole

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