-
41 their
[ðeə(r)]determinante loro••Note:Although in Italian possessives, like most other adjectives, agree in gender and number with the noun they qualify, not as in English with the possessor they refer to, their is always translated by loro; however, since Italian possessives, unlike English ones, are normally preceded by an article, the article - if not the possessive loro - will have to agree with the noun: loro + masculine singular noun ( their neighbour, their dog = il loro vicino, il loro cane), loro + feminine singular noun ( their teacher, their house = la loro maestra, la loro casa), loro + masculine plural noun ( their children, their books = i loro figli, i loro libri), and loro + feminine plural noun ( their friends, their shoes = le loro amiche, le loro scarpe). - When own is used after their to intensify the meaning of the possessive, it is not usually translated in Italian: they are getting to London in their own car = stanno andando a Londra con la loro macchina. - When their (or their own) is used to avoid saying his or her after words like everyone, no-one, anyone etc., it is usually translated by the adjective proprio in Italian: everyone is responsible for their own actions = ognuno è responsabile delle proprie azioni. - When their is used before nouns indicating parts of the body (for which), garments, relatives, food and drink etc., Italian has an article instead: they had their hair cut = si sono fatti tagliare i capelli; they kept their hat on = hanno tenuto il cappello; they came with their sister = sono venuti con la sorella, con la loro sorella; they have eaten up their soup = hanno finito la minestra; they are in their forties = hanno passato i quaranta* * *[ðeə]1) (belonging to them: This is their car; Take a note of their names and addresses.) loro2) (used instead of his, his or her etc where a person of unknown sex or people of both sexes are referred to: Everyone should buy his own ticket.) suo, sua, suoi, sue•- theirs* * *[ðeə(r)]determinante loro••Note:Although in Italian possessives, like most other adjectives, agree in gender and number with the noun they qualify, not as in English with the possessor they refer to, their is always translated by loro; however, since Italian possessives, unlike English ones, are normally preceded by an article, the article - if not the possessive loro - will have to agree with the noun: loro + masculine singular noun ( their neighbour, their dog = il loro vicino, il loro cane), loro + feminine singular noun ( their teacher, their house = la loro maestra, la loro casa), loro + masculine plural noun ( their children, their books = i loro figli, i loro libri), and loro + feminine plural noun ( their friends, their shoes = le loro amiche, le loro scarpe). - When own is used after their to intensify the meaning of the possessive, it is not usually translated in Italian: they are getting to London in their own car = stanno andando a Londra con la loro macchina. - When their (or their own) is used to avoid saying his or her after words like everyone, no-one, anyone etc., it is usually translated by the adjective proprio in Italian: everyone is responsible for their own actions = ognuno è responsabile delle proprie azioni. - When their is used before nouns indicating parts of the body (for which), garments, relatives, food and drink etc., Italian has an article instead: they had their hair cut = si sono fatti tagliare i capelli; they kept their hat on = hanno tenuto il cappello; they came with their sister = sono venuti con la sorella, con la loro sorella; they have eaten up their soup = hanno finito la minestra; they are in their forties = hanno passato i quaranta -
42 different
1. a различный, разный; отличный, несходный2. a иной, другой; особыйshe wears a different dress every day — она ежедневно меняет платье; она каждый день появляется в новом платье
3. a разный, разнообразныйСинонимический ряд:1. disparate (adj.) disparate; dissimilar; distant; divergent; other; otherwise; unalike; unequal; unsimilar; variant2. distinctive (adj.) distinctive; novel; unconventional; unique; unusual3. miscellaneous (adj.) assorted; discrete; divers; diverse; diversified; manifold; miscellaneous; odd; separate; several; sundry; various4. new (adj.) brand-new; fresh; new5. unlike (adj.) altered; changed; contrary; contrasted; deviant; distinct; opposite; special; unlike6. novel (other) novel; startling; strange; unconventionalАнтонимический ряд:alike; conventional; correspondent; harmonious; homogeneous; identical; like; same; similar; uniform -
43 yield
Fina percentage of the amount invested that is the annual income from an investment.Yield is calculated by dividing the annual cash return by the current share price and expressing that as a percentage.Yields can be compared against the market average or against a sector average, which in turn gives an idea of the relative value of the share against its peers. Other things being equal, a higher yield share is preferable to that of an identical company with a lower yield.An additional feature of the yield (unlike many of the other share analysis ratios), is that it enables comparison with cash. Cash placed in an interest-bearing source like a bank account or a government stock, produces a yield—the annual interest payable. This is usually a safe investment. The yield from this cash investment can be compared with the yield on shares, which are far riskier. This produces a valuable basis for share evaluation.Share yield is less reliable than bank interest or government stock interest yield, because unlike banks paying interest, companies are under no obligation at all to pay dividends. Frequently, if they go through a bad patch, even the largest companies will cut dividends or abandon paying them altogether. -
44 public broadcasting service
1) СМИ., гос. упр. общественное вещание (вещание некоммерческих СМИ на средства, собранные со слушателей и телезрителей)2) СМИ, гос. упр. = !"может быть, просто ""public broadcasting"", а не ""public broadcasting service""?"!"The Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS) is a non-profit public broadcasting television service with 354 member TV stations in the United States, with some member stations available over the air and by cable in Canada. While the term ""broadcasting"" encompasses both radio and television, PBS only covers TV; public radio in the United States is served by National Public Radio, as well as content providers American Public Media, and Public Radio International."PBS was founded on November 3, 1969,[1\] at which time it took over many of the functions of its predecessor, National Educational Television (NET) (which merged with station WNDT Newark, New Jersey to form WNET). It commenced broadcasting on Monday, October 5, 1970. In 1973, it merged with Educational Television Stations.PBS is a non-profit, private corporation which is owned collectively by its member stations.[2\] However, its operations are largely funded by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Its headquarters are in Arlington, Virginia.Unlike the commercial television broadcast model of American networks such as ABC, CBS, FOX, NBC, The CW and MyNetworkTV, in which affiliates give up portions of their local advertising airtime in exchange for network programming, PBS member stations pay substantial fees for the shows acquired and distributed by the national organization."This relationship means that PBS member stations have greater latitude in local scheduling than their commercial counterparts. Scheduling of PBS-distributed series may vary greatly from market to market. This can be a source of tension as stations seek to preserve their localism and PBS strives to market a consistent national line-up. However, PBS has a policy of ""common carriage"" requiring most stations to clear the national prime time programs on a common schedule, so that they can be more effectively marketed on a national basis. This setup is in many ways similar to the pre-2002 British ITV system of having some ""networked"" programs shown nationwide on all network contractors, and the remainder of scheduling being up to individual affiliates." "Unlike its radio counterpart, National Public Radio, PBS has no central program production arm or news department. All of the programming carried by PBS, whether news, documentary, or entertainment, is created by (or in most cases produced under contract with) other parties, such as individual member stations. WGBH in Boston is one of the largest producers of educational programming. News programs are produced by WETA-TV in Washington, D.C., WNET in New York and WPBT in Miami. The Charlie Rose interview show, Secrets of the Dead, NOW, Nature, Cyberchase, and The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer come from or through WNET in New York. Once a program is offered to and accepted by PBS for distribution, PBS (and not the member station that supplied the program) retains exclusive rights for rebroadcasts during the period for which such rights were granted; the suppliers do maintain the right to sell the program in non-broadcast media such as DVDs, books, and sometimes PBS licensed merchandise (but sometimes grant such ancillary rights as well to PBS)." "PBS stations are commonly operated by non-profit organizations, state agencies, local authorities (e.g., municipal boards of education), or universities in their community of license. In some states, PBS stations throughout the entire state may be organized into a single regional ""subnetwork"" (e.g., Alabama Public Television). Unlike Canada's CBC/SRC, PBS does not own any of the stations that broadcast its programming. This is partly due to the origins of the PBS stations themselves, and partly due to historical license issues."In the modern broadcast marketplace, this organizational structure is considered outmoded by some media critics. A common restructuring proposal is to reorganize the network so that each state would have one PBS affiliate which would broadcast state-wide. However, this proposal is controversial, as it would reduce local community input into PBS programming, especially considering how PBS stations are significantly more community-oriented, according to the argument, than their commercial counterparts.* * *Англо-русский экономический словарь > public broadcasting service
-
45 diferencia
Del verbo diferenciar: ( conjugate diferenciar) \ \
diferencia es: \ \3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo2ª persona singular (tú) imperativoMultiple Entries: diferencia diferenciar
diferencia sustantivo femenino a diferencia del marido, ella es encantadora unlike her husband, she's really charming resolver sus (or mis etc) diferencias to resolve one's differences
diferenciar ( conjugate diferenciar) verbo transitivo ‹colores/sonidos› to tell the difference between, differentiate between diferenciarse verbo pronominal:◊ ¿en qué se diferencia esta especie? what makes this species different?;no se diferencian en nada there's no difference between them; diferenciase de algo/algn to differ from sth/sb; solo se diferencia del otro en or por el precio the only difference between this one and the other one is the price
diferencia sustantivo femenino difference Locuciones: a diferencia de, unlike
con diferencia, by far: su hermana es la más simpática con diferencia, his sister is the nicer (de dos) o nicest (de más de dos) by far
diferenciar verbo transitivo
1 (saber discernir) to distinguish, tell the difference: no diferencia la seda del algodón, she can't tell the difference between silk and cotton
2 (hacer distinto) to differentiate: eso es lo que nos diferencia, that's what makes us different ' diferencia' also found in these entries: Spanish: abismal - cada - caja - cerrarse - diferenciar - discrepancia - distinguir - economía - error - fundamental - ganarse - haber - hablarse - llevar - llevarse - notable - piso - poder - política - resaltar - salario - salto - sensible - sutil - tarde - variante - acentuado - cambio - desigualdad - desnivel - distinción - mínimo - pequeño - tremendo English: appreciable - art - by - change - difference - discrepancy - distinction - gap - hate - insignificant - material - misunderstanding - now - opposed - out - settle - sharp - study - tell - unlike - up - within - world - yawning - compare - quite -
46 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
-
47 Colours
Not all English colour terms have a single exact equivalent in French: for instance, in some circumstances brown is marron, in others brun. If in doubt, look the word up in the dictionary.Colour termswhat colour is it?= c’est de quelle couleur? or (more formally) de quelle couleur est-il?it’s green= il est vert or elle est verteto paint sth green= peindre qch en vertto dye sth green= teindre qch en vertto wear green= porter du vertdressed in green= habillé de vertColour nouns are all masculine in French:I like green= j’aime le vertI prefer blue= je préfère le bleured suits her= le rouge lui va bienit’s a pretty yellow!= c’est un joli jaune!have you got it in white?= est-ce que vous l’avez en blanc?a pretty shade of blue= un joli ton de bleuit was a dreadful green= c’était un vert affreuxa range of greens= une gamme de vertsMost adjectives of colour agree with the noun they modify:a blue coat= un manteau bleua blue dress= une robe bleueblue clothes= des vêtements bleusSome that don’t agree are explained below.Words that are not true adjectivesSome words that translate English adjectives are really nouns in French, and so don’t show agreement:a brown shoe= une chaussure marronorange tablecloths= des nappes fpl orangehazel eyes= des yeux mpl noisetteOther French words like this include: cerise ( cherry-red), chocolat ( chocolate-brown) and émeraude ( emerald-green).Shades of colourExpressions like pale blue, dark green or light yellow are also invariable in French and show no agreement:a pale blue shirt= une chemise bleu pâledark green blankets= des couvertures fpl vert foncéa light yellow tie= une cravate jaune clairbright yellow socks= des chaussettes fpl jaune vifFrench can also use the colour nouns here: instead of une chemise bleu pâle you could say une chemise d’un bleu pâle ; and similarly des couvertures d’un vert foncé (etc). The nouns in French are normally used to translate English adjectives of this type ending in -er and -est:a darker blue= un bleu plus foncéthe dress was a darker blue= la robe était d’un bleu plus foncéSimilarly:a lighter blue= un bleu plus clair (etc.)In the following examples, blue stands for most basic colour terms:pale blue= bleu pâlelight blue= bleu clairbright blue= bleu vifdark blue= bleu foncédeep blue= bleu profondstrong blue= bleu soutenuOther types of compound in French are also invariable, and do not agree with their nouns:a navy-blue jacket= une veste bleu marineThese compounds include: bleu ciel ( sky-blue), vert pomme ( apple-green), bleu nuit ( midnight-blue), rouge sang ( blood-red) etc. However, all English compounds do not translate directly into French. If in doubt, check in the dictionary.French compounds consisting of two colour terms linked with a hyphen are also invariable:a blue-black material= une étoffe bleu-noira greenish-blue cup= une tasse bleu-verta greeny-yellow dress= une robe vert-jauneEnglish uses the ending -ish, or sometimes -y, to show that something is approximately a certain colour, e.g. a reddish hat or a greenish paint. The French equivalent is -âtre:blue-ish= bleuâtregreenish or greeny= verdâtregreyish= grisâtrereddish= rougeâtreyellowish or yellowy= jaunâtreetc.Other similar French words are rosâtre, noirâtre and blanchâtre. Note however that these words are often rather negative in French. It is better not to use them if you want to be complimentary about something. Use instead tirant sur le rouge/jaune etc.To describe a special colour, English can add -coloured to a noun such as raspberry (framboise) or flesh (chair). Note how this is said in French, where the two-word compound with couleur is invariable, and, unlike English, never has a hyphen:a chocolate-coloured skirt= une jupe couleur chocolatraspberry-coloured fabric= du tissu couleur framboiseflesh-coloured tights= un collant couleur chairColour verbsEnglish makes some colour verbs by adding -en (e.g. blacken). Similarly French has some verbs in -ir made from colour terms:to blacken= noircirto redden= rougirto whiten= blanchirThe other French colour terms that behave like this are: bleu (bleuir), jaune (jaunir), rose (rosir) and vert (verdir). It is always safe, however, to use devenir, thus:to turn purple= devenir violetDescribing peopleNote the use of the definite article in the following:to have black hair= avoir les cheveux noirsto have blue eyes= avoir les yeux bleusNote the use of à in the following:a girl with blue eyes= une jeune fille aux yeux bleusthe man with black hair= l’homme aux cheveux noirsNot all colours have direct equivalents in French. The following words are used for describing the colour of someone’s hair (note that les cheveux is plural in French):fair= blonddark= brunblonde or blond= blondbrown= châtain invred= rouxblack= noirgrey= griswhite= blancCheck other terms such as yellow, ginger, auburn, mousey etc. in the dictionary.Note these nouns in French:a fair-haired man= un blonda fair-haired woman= une blondea dark-haired man= un bruna dark-haired woman= une bruneThe following words are useful for describing the colour of someone’s eyes:blue= bleulight blue= bleu clair invlight brown= marron clair invbrown= marron invhazel= noisette invgreen= vertgrey= grisgreyish-green= gris-vert invdark= noir -
48 every
§ თითოეული, ყოველი§ყოველიevery day / night ყოველ დღე / ყოველ საღამოსevery now and then დროდადრო, შიგადაშიგ, ჟამდაჟამ●●every so often ხშირ-ხშირადevery day / month დღეგამოშვებით (ორ დღეში ერთხელ) / თვე გამოშვებით (ორ თვეში ერთხელ)every night ყოველ ღამე / ღამღამობითevery next man knows it ეს ხომ ყველამ იცის // ეს ყველა გამვლელმა იცისhis desire to go abroad strengthened every day საზღვარგარეთ წასვლის სურვილი დღითიდღე უძლიერდებოდაhe strained every nerve to reach the other bank მთელი ძალ-ღონე დაძაბა, რომ ნაპირამდე მიეღწიაevery day he travels into London to work სამსახურში ყოველდღე ლონდონში დადისhe is quite unlike his father in every respect თავის მამას არაფრით დაემსგავსა●●in every way ყოველმხრივwe travelled in every quarter of the globe მთელ მსოფლიოში ვიმოგზაურეთ // მთელი მსოფლიო მოვიარეთevery detail of her dress was perfect მისი კაბის თითოეული ნაწილი სრულყოფილი იყოthe harbor was crowded with ships of every description ნავსადგური ყველა სახის გემით იყო გაჭედილიevery other day ყოველ მეორე დღეს, დღეგამოშვებითevery possible combination ყველა შესაძლებელი ვარიანტი / კომბინაცია -
49 otherwise
1. a противоположный; иной, другойwe hoped his behaviour would be otherwise — мы надеялись, что он будет вести себя иначе
2. adv иначе, иным способом, иным образом; по-другомуnot otherwise indexed by name — «иначе не поименованный»
3. adv в других отношенияхthe rent is high, but otherwise the house is satisfactory — квартирная плата высока, но в остальном дом нас вполне устраивает
4. adv или же, в противном случаеgo at once, otherwise you will miss the train — отправляйтесь немедленно, иначе опоздаете на поезд
Синонимический ряд:1. different (adj.) different; disparate; dissimilar; distant; divergent; diverse; other; unalike; unequal; unlike; unsimilar; various2. differently (adj.) contrarily; differently; diversely; in a different way; in an opposed way; oppositely3. under different conditions (adj.) barring this; else; except that; if not; or else; other than; under different conditions; unless; without this4. differently (other) differently; diversely; variously5. else (other) else; elsewiseАнтонимический ряд: -
50 that
1. ðæt plural - those; adjective(used to indicate a person, thing etc spoken of before, not close to the speaker, already known to the speaker and listener etc: Don't take this book - take that one; At that time, I was living in Italy; When are you going to return those books?) ese, esa, esos, esas; aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas
2. pronoun(used to indicate a thing etc, or (in plural or with the verb be) person or people, spoken of before, not close to the speaker, already known to the speaker and listener etc: What is that you've got in your hand?; Who is that?; That is the Prime Minister; Those present at the concert included the composer and his wife.) ese, esa, esos, esas; aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas
3. ðət, ðæt relative pronoun(used to refer to a person, thing etc mentioned in a preceding clause in order to distinguish it from others: Where is the parcel that arrived this morning?; Who is the man (that) you were talking to?)
4. ðət, ðæt conjunction1) ((often omitted) used to report what has been said etc or to introduce other clauses giving facts, reasons, results etc: I know (that) you didn't do it; I was surprised (that) he had gone.) que2) (used to introduce expressions of sorrow, wishes etc: That I should be accused of murder!; Oh, that I were with her now!) y pensar que; ojalá
5.
adverb(so; to such an extent: I didn't realize she was that ill.) tan- that's that
that1 adj ese / aquelwho lives in that house? ¿quién vive en esa casa?did you bring that book? ¿has traído aquel libro?what are those boys doing? ¿qué están haciendo aquellos chicos?that2 adv tanthat3 conj quethat4 pron1. ése / aquél2. esotr[ðæt ʊnstressed ðət]1 ese, esa (remote) aquel, aquella■ how much is that dress? ¿cuánto vale ese vestido?■ what was that noise? ¿qué ha sido ese ruido?■ have you got that record I lent you? ¿tienes aquel disco que te dejé?■ who's that? ¿quién es ése/ésa?■ this is mine, that is yours éste es mío, aquél es tuyo2 (indefinite) eso; (remote) aquello■ what's that? ¿qué es eso?■ where did you get that? ¿dónde has comprado eso?3 (relative) que4 (with preposition) que, el/la que, el/la cual1 que2 ¡ojalá!1 familiar tan, tanto,-a, tantos,-as\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLand all that y todo esolike that así, de aquella manerathat is to say es decirthat's life así es la vidathat's more like it ¡ahora!, ¡así me gusta!that's right así esthat's that ya está, se acabówho's that? (on 'phone) ¿quién es?, ¿quién eres?it's not that expensive: no es tan caronot that much: no tantodo you see those children?: ¿ves a aquellos niños?that conj & pron: quehe said that he was afraid: dijo que tenía miedothe book that he wrote: el libro que escribió1) : ése, ésa, esothat's my father: ése es mi padrethose are the ones he likes: ésos son los que le gustanwhat's that?: ¿qué es eso?those are maples and these are elms: aquéllos son arces y éstos son olmosthat came to an end: aquello se acabóadj.• esa adj.• ese adj.adj.dem.• aquel adj.dem.adv.• como adv.• tan adv.conj.• ese conj.• para que conj.• que conj.pron.• aquello pron.• aquél pron.• el cual pron.• ese pron.• eso pron.• que pron.• quien pron.• tanto pron.pron.dem.neut.• aquello pron.dem.neut.
I ðæt1) (pl those) ( demonstrative) ése, ésa; (neuter) esothose — ésos, ésas; (to refer to something more distant, to the remote past) aquél, aquélla; (neuter) aquello
those — aquéllos, aquéllas [According to the Real Academia Española the accent can be omitted when there is no ambiguity]
what's that? — ¿qué es eso?
who's that over there? — quién es ése/ésa?
those are $20 and those over there $21.50 — ésos cuestan 20 dólares y aquéllos de allá 21,50
who's that, please? — ( on telephone) ¿con quién hablo, por favor?
that's impossible/wonderful! — es imposible/maravilloso!
is that so? — no me digas!, ¿ah, sí?
don't talk like that! — no hables así!, no digas eso!
eat it up now, that's a good girl! — vamos, cómetelo todo así me gusta!
come on, it's not as bad as all that — vamos, que no es para tanto
2) (in phrases)at that they all burst out laughing — al oír (or ver etc) eso, todos se echaron a reír
he has enormous power and wealth, but is still unhappy for all that — tiene mucho poder y muchas riquezas, pero aún así es infeliz
that is: we're all going, all the adults, that is vamos todos, es decir, todos los adultos; you're welcome to come along, that is, if you'd like to encantados de que vengas, siempre que quieras venir, claro; that's it!: that's it for today eso es todo por hoy; is that it? - no, there's another bag to come ¿ya está? - no, todavía falta otra bolsa; now lift your left arm: that's it! ahora levanta el brazo izquierdo eso es! or ahí está!; that's it: I've had enough! se acabó! ya no aguanto más!; that's that: you're not going and that's that! — no vas y no hay más que hablar or y se acabó
3) ðət, strong form ðæt ( relative) queit wasn't Helen (that) you saw — no fue a Helen a quien viste, no fue a Helen que viste (AmL)
II ðætthose — esos, esas; (to refer to something more distant, to the remote past) aquel, aquella
those — aquellos, aquellas
do you know that boy/girl? — ¿conoces a ese chico/esa chica?
I prefer that one — prefiero ése/ésa
III ðət, strong form ðætconjunction queshe said (that)... — dijo que...
it's not that I mind what he does but... — no es que me importe lo que hace, pero...
they died that others might live — (liter) murieron para que otros pudieran vivir
IV ðætadverb tanten thirty? that late already? — ¿las diez y media? ¿ya es tan tarde?
(strong form) [ðæt] (weak form) [ˌdǝt] (pl those) Those is treated as a separate entry.I'm not that interested, really — la verdad es que no me interesa tanto
1. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE1) [+ objects/people]You can generally use ese etc when pointing to something near the person you are speaking to. Use aquel etc for something which is distant from both of you: (nearer) ese m, esa f ; (more remote) aquel m, aquella fthat car is much better value than that sports model at the end — ese coche está mejor de precio que aquel modelo deportivo que hay al final
that wretched dog! — ¡ese maldito perro!
In the past the standard spelling for [ese/esa] and [aquel/aquella] used as pronouns (as when they are used to translate [that one]) was with an accent ([ése/ésa] and [aquél/aquélla]). Nowadays the [Real Academia Española] advises that the accented forms are only required where there might otherwise be confusion with the adjectives [este/esta] and [aquel/aquella].what about that cheque? — ¿y el cheque ese?
there's little to choose between this model and that one — no hay mucho que elegir entre este modelo y aquel
2) [+ event, year, month]
Aquel is used to refer to a time in the distant past. Use if you mention a concrete date, month, year {etc">ese:do you remember that holiday we had in Holland? — ¿te acuerdas de aquellas vacaciones que pasamos en Holanda?
1992? I can't remember where we holidayed that year — ¿1992? no recuerdo dónde pasamos las vacaciones ese año
May? we can't come that month because we'll be moving house — ¿en mayo? no podemos venir ese mes porque nos estaremos mudando de casa
2.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNThe pronoun that ( one) is translated by ese and aquel (masc), esa and aquella (fem) and eso and aquello (neuter). You can generally use ese etc when pointing to something near the person you are speaking to. Use aquel etc for something which is distant from both of you. Note that in the past the standard spelling for the masculine and feminine pronouns was with an accent (ése/ésa and aquél/aquélla). Nowadays the Real Academia Española advises that the accented forms are only required where there might otherwise be confusion with the adjectives ese/esa and aquel/aquella. Neuter pronouns never carry an accent. (nearer) ese m, esa f, ése m, ésa f, eso (neuter) ; (more remote) aquel(la) m / f, aquél(la) m / f, aquello (neuter)who's that? — ¿quién es ese?
what is that? — ¿qué es eso?, ¿eso qué es?
is that you, Paul? — ¿eres tú, Paul?
£5? it must have cost more than that — ¿5 libras? debe haber costado más (que eso)
that's true — eso es verdad, es cierto (esp LAm)
that's odd! — ¡qué raro!, ¡qué cosa más rara!
1988? that was the year you graduated, wasn't it? — ¿1988? ese fue el año en que acabaste la carrera, ¿no es así?
"will he come?" - "that he will!" — † -¿vendrá? -¡ya lo creo!
•
after that — después de eso•
bees and wasps and all that — abejas, avispas y cosas asíis that all? — ¿eso es todo?, ¿nada más?
•
and it was broken at that — y además estaba rotoI realized he meant to speak to me and at that I panicked — me di cuenta de que quería hablar conmigo y entonces me entró el pánico
•
what do you mean by that? — ¿qué quieres decir con eso?•
if it comes to that — en tal caso, si llegamos a eso•
it will cost 20 dollars, if that — costará 20 dólares, si es que llega•
that is — (=ie) es decir...•
that's it, we've finished — ya está, hemos terminadothat's it! she can find her own gardener! — ¡se acabó! ¡que se busque un jardinero por su cuenta!
•
that of — el/la de•
that is to say — es decir...•
why worry about that which may never happen? — frm ¿por qué preocuparse por aquello que or por lo que puede que nunca vaya a pasar?•
with that — con eso3. RELATIVE PRONOUNUnlike that, the Spanish relative cannot be omitted.1) quethe girl that he met on holiday and later married — la chica que conoció durante las vacaciones y con la que después se casó
If the that clause ends in a preposition, you can either translate that as que (usually preceded by the definite article) or as article + cual/cuales. Use the second option particularly in formal language or after long prepositions or prepositional phrases:fool that I am! — ¡tonto que soy!
the box that I put it in — la caja donde lo puse, la caja en la que or en la cual lo puse
4. ADVERB1) (=so) tanit's about that big — (with gesture) es más o menos así de grande
•
cheer up! it isn't that bad — ¡ánimo! ¡no es para tanto!•
that many frogs — tantas ranas•
that much money — tanto dinero2) * (=so very) tanit was that cold! — ¡hacía tanto frío!
5. CONJUNCTIONUnlike that, que cannot be omitted.1) after verb quehe said that... — dijo que...
he said that he was going to London and would be back in the evening — dijo que se iba a Londres y (que) volvería por la tarde
2) after nounTranslate as de que in phrases like the idea/belief/hope that:
•
any hope that they might have survived was fading — toda esperanza de que hubiesen sobrevivido se estaba desvaneciendo•
the idea that we can profit from their labour — la idea de que podemos aprovecharnos de su trabajo•
..., not that I want to, of course —..., no es que yo quiera, por supuestoIf the that clause is the subject of another verb it is usual to translate that as el que rather than que especially if it starts the sentence:•
oh that we could! — ¡ojalá pudiéramos!, ¡ojalá!In these cases the verb which follows will be in the subjunctive:that he did not know surprised me — (el) que no lo supiera me extrañó, me extrañó (el) que no lo supiera
wouldthat he should behave like this is incredible — (el) que se comporte así es increíble, es increíble que se comporte así
4) (=in order that) para que + subjunthose who fought and died that we might live — los que lucharon y murieron para que nosotros pudiésemos vivir
5)• in that — en el sentido de que
it's an attractive investment in that it is tax-free — es una inversión atractiva en el sentido de que está exenta de impuestos
* * *
I [ðæt]1) (pl those) ( demonstrative) ése, ésa; (neuter) esothose — ésos, ésas; (to refer to something more distant, to the remote past) aquél, aquélla; (neuter) aquello
those — aquéllos, aquéllas [According to the Real Academia Española the accent can be omitted when there is no ambiguity]
what's that? — ¿qué es eso?
who's that over there? — quién es ése/ésa?
those are $20 and those over there $21.50 — ésos cuestan 20 dólares y aquéllos de allá 21,50
who's that, please? — ( on telephone) ¿con quién hablo, por favor?
that's impossible/wonderful! — es imposible/maravilloso!
is that so? — no me digas!, ¿ah, sí?
don't talk like that! — no hables así!, no digas eso!
eat it up now, that's a good girl! — vamos, cómetelo todo así me gusta!
come on, it's not as bad as all that — vamos, que no es para tanto
2) (in phrases)at that they all burst out laughing — al oír (or ver etc) eso, todos se echaron a reír
he has enormous power and wealth, but is still unhappy for all that — tiene mucho poder y muchas riquezas, pero aún así es infeliz
that is: we're all going, all the adults, that is vamos todos, es decir, todos los adultos; you're welcome to come along, that is, if you'd like to encantados de que vengas, siempre que quieras venir, claro; that's it!: that's it for today eso es todo por hoy; is that it? - no, there's another bag to come ¿ya está? - no, todavía falta otra bolsa; now lift your left arm: that's it! ahora levanta el brazo izquierdo eso es! or ahí está!; that's it: I've had enough! se acabó! ya no aguanto más!; that's that: you're not going and that's that! — no vas y no hay más que hablar or y se acabó
3) [ðət], strong form [ðæt] ( relative) queit wasn't Helen (that) you saw — no fue a Helen a quien viste, no fue a Helen que viste (AmL)
II [ðæt]those — esos, esas; (to refer to something more distant, to the remote past) aquel, aquella
those — aquellos, aquellas
do you know that boy/girl? — ¿conoces a ese chico/esa chica?
I prefer that one — prefiero ése/ésa
III [ðət], strong form [ðæt]conjunction queshe said (that)... — dijo que...
it's not that I mind what he does but... — no es que me importe lo que hace, pero...
they died that others might live — (liter) murieron para que otros pudieran vivir
IV [ðæt]adverb tanten thirty? that late already? — ¿las diez y media? ¿ya es tan tarde?
I'm not that interested, really — la verdad es que no me interesa tanto
-
51 differ
1. v отличаться; различаться2. v редк. отличать; различать3. v расходиться во мнениях, не соглашатьсяthe witnesses differed — свидетели не соглашались друг с другом; показания свидетелей расходились
4. v спорить, ссоритьсяСинонимический ряд:1. be unlike (verb) be unlike; conflict with; contrast; diverge; modify; not conform; not look like; qualify; take exception2. disaccord (verb) disaccord; discord; dissent; divide; vary3. disagree (verb) contradict; digress; disagree; dispute; fight; object; opposeАнтонимический ряд: -
52 divergent
1. a расходящийся2. a отклоняющийся, отступающий, отходящий, уклоняющийся3. a отклоняющийся, отличный4. a спец. вызываемый отклонением; характеризуемый дивергенцией5. a спец. дивергентный6. a опт. рассеивающийСинонимический ряд:1. abnormal (adj.) aberrant; abnormal; anomalistic; anomalous; atypical; deviant; deviating; irregular; off-key; preternatural; unnatural; unregular2. different (adj.) conflicting; different; disparate; dissimilar; distant; diverse; other; otherwise; unalike; unequal; unsimilar; variant; variant divagating; various3. digressing (adj.) digressing; divagating; separate4. unlike (adj.) altered; changed; contrary; distinct; opposite; special; unlikeАнтонимический ряд:combined; similar -
53 equal
1. n равный, ровня2. n подобное3. a одинаковый, равныйwith equal ease — одинаково свободно; с той же лёгкостью
4. a равноправный; равный5. a не уступающий, такой же, равный6. a равняющийся, равный7. a способный, пригодныйhe is not equal to the task — он не может справиться с этим заданием; эта задача ему не по силам
8. a соответствующий, достаточныйup to sample, equal to sample — соответствующий образцу
9. a уравновешенный, спокойный10. a равномерный, единообразный11. v равняться, быть равнымif x equals 5, then 5x equals 25 — если x равен 5, то 5x равны 25
12. v не уступать, равняться, быть таким же, быть равным13. v приравнивать, отождествлять; ставить знак равенства14. v сравняться15. v амер. полностью отплачивать; компенсировать16. v редк. сровнять; уровнятьcities equalled to the ground — города, которые сровняли с землёй
Синонимический ряд:1. adequate (adj.) adequate; fit; sufficient; suitable2. alike (adj.) alike; coequal; coordinate; co-ordinate; correspondent; equated; similar3. equal to (adj.) able; competent; equal to; qualified4. fair (adj.) balanced; candid; dispassionate; equitable; even; even-up; fair; fifty-fifty; impartial; impersonal; indifferent; just; nondiscriminatory; nonpartisan; objective; parallel; unbiased; uncolored; undistinctive; unprejudiced; unprepossessed5. proportional (adj.) commensurable; commensurate; proportional; symmetrical6. same (adj.) duplicate; equivalent; identic; identical; indistinguishable; same; tantamount7. uniform (adj.) invariant; regular; square; uniform; unvarying8. counterpart (noun) coequal; colleague; compeer; complement; counterpart; duplicate; equipollent; equivalent; fellow; like; match; parallel; peer; rival; twin9. amount (verb) amount; constitute; correspond10. be (verb) be; make; mean; signify11. match (verb) approach; balance; compare; coordinate; co-ordinate; correspond to; equalise; equalize; equate; equipoise; even; keep pace with; level; match; measure up; meet; parallel; partake of; rival; square; tie; touchАнтонимический ряд:differ; disparate; disproportionate; dissimilar; inadequate; incompetent; insufficient; irregular; unequal; uneven; unjust; unlike -
54 Mind
It becomes, therefore, no inconsiderable part of science... to know the different operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that seeming disorder in which they lie involved when made the object of reflection and inquiry.... It cannot be doubted that the mind is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these powers are distinct from one another, and that what is really distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished by reflection and, consequently, that there is a truth and falsehood which lie not beyond the compass of human understanding. (Hume, 1955, p. 22)Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white Paper, void of all Characters, without any Ideas: How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store, which the busy and boundless Fancy of Man has painted on it, with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of Reason and Knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from Experience. (Locke, quoted in Herrnstein & Boring, 1965, p. 584)The kind of logic in mythical thought is as rigorous as that of modern science, and... the difference lies, not in the quality of the intellectual process, but in the nature of things to which it is applied.... Man has always been thinking equally well; the improvement lies, not in an alleged progress of man's mind, but in the discovery of new areas to which it may apply its unchanged and unchanging powers. (Leґvi-Strauss, 1963, p. 230)MIND. A mysterious form of matter secreted by the brain. Its chief activity consists in the endeavor to ascertain its own nature, the futility of the attempt being due to the fact that it has nothing but itself to know itself with. (Bierce, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 55)[Philosophy] understands the foundations of knowledge and it finds these foundations in a study of man-as-knower, of the "mental processes" or the "activity of representation" which make knowledge possible. To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind, so to understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in which the mind is able to construct such representation.... We owe the notion of a "theory of knowledge" based on an understanding of "mental processes" to the seventeenth century, and especially to Locke. We owe the notion of "the mind" as a separate entity in which "processes" occur to the same period, and especially to Descartes. We owe the notion of philosophy as a tribunal of pure reason, upholding or denying the claims of the rest of culture, to the eighteenth century and especially to Kant, but this Kantian notion presupposed general assent to Lockean notions of mental processes and Cartesian notions of mental substance. (Rorty, 1979, pp. 3-4)Under pressure from the computer, the question of mind in relation to machine is becoming a central cultural preoccupation. It is becoming for us what sex was to Victorians-threat, obsession, taboo, and fascination. (Turkle, 1984, p. 313)7) Understanding the Mind Remains as Resistant to Neurological as to Cognitive AnalysesRecent years have been exciting for researchers in the brain and cognitive sciences. Both fields have flourished, each spurred on by methodological and conceptual developments, and although understanding the mechanisms of mind is an objective shared by many workers in these areas, their theories and approaches to the problem are vastly different....Early experimental psychologists, such as Wundt and James, were as interested in and knowledgeable about the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system as about the young science of the mind. However, the experimental study of mental processes was short-lived, being eclipsed by the rise of behaviorism early in this century. It was not until the late 1950s that the signs of a new mentalism first appeared in scattered writings of linguists, philosophers, computer enthusiasts, and psychologists.In this new incarnation, the science of mind had a specific mission: to challenge and replace behaviorism. In the meantime, brain science had in many ways become allied with a behaviorist approach.... While behaviorism sought to reduce the mind to statements about bodily action, brain science seeks to explain the mind in terms of physiochemical events occurring in the nervous system. These approaches contrast with contemporary cognitive science, which tries to understand the mind as it is, without any reduction, a view sometimes described as functionalism.The cognitive revolution is now in place. Cognition is the subject of contemporary psychology. This was achieved with little or no talk of neurons, action potentials, and neurotransmitters. Similarly, neuroscience has risen to an esteemed position among the biological sciences without much talk of cognitive processes. Do the fields need each other?... [Y]es because the problem of understanding the mind, unlike the wouldbe problem solvers, respects no disciplinary boundaries. It remains as resistant to neurological as to cognitive analyses. (LeDoux & Hirst, 1986, pp. 1-2)Since the Second World War scientists from different disciplines have turned to the study of the human mind. Computer scientists have tried to emulate its capacity for visual perception. Linguists have struggled with the puzzle of how children acquire language. Ethologists have sought the innate roots of social behaviour. Neurophysiologists have begun to relate the function of nerve cells to complex perceptual and motor processes. Neurologists and neuropsychologists have used the pattern of competence and incompetence of their brain-damaged patients to elucidate the normal workings of the brain. Anthropologists have examined the conceptual structure of cultural practices to advance hypotheses about the basic principles of the mind. These days one meets engineers who work on speech perception, biologists who investigate the mental representation of spatial relations, and physicists who want to understand consciousness. And, of course, psychologists continue to study perception, memory, thought and action.... [W]orkers in many disciplines have converged on a number of central problems and explanatory ideas. They have realized that no single approach is likely to unravel the workings of the mind: it will not give up its secrets to psychology alone; nor is any other isolated discipline-artificial intelligence, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology, philosophy-going to have any greater success. (Johnson-Laird, 1988, p. 7)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Mind
-
55 savings element
страх. накопительный [сберегательный\] элемент (сумма, накапливаемая за время действия некоторых полисов страхования жизни)The Cash Value is an accumulation or savings element of the insurance. — Наличная стоимость — это аккумулирующий или накопительный элемент страхования.
Unlike the savings element of other policies, the value of the investment portion of a variable life policy will increase or decrease like the market value of any other equity (ownership) investment. — В отличие от накопительного элемента других полисов, стоимость инвестиционной части полиса страхования жизни с плавающей суммой будет увеличиваться или уменьшаться подобно рыночной стоимости любого другого акционерного (долевого) инвестиционного инструмента.
Endowment is life insurance with a savings element. — Страхование на дожитие — это страхование жизни с накопительным элементом.
As a rule, term policies offer a death benefit with no savings element or cash value. — Как правило, срочный страховые полисы предлагают выплату по смерти без накопительного элемента или наличной стоимости.
See:
* * *
сберегательный элемент: часть премий по полису страхования жизни, превышающая уровень, необходимый для обеспечения страхового покрытия; эта часть обычно инвестируется в различные активы и приносит доход. -
56 contrario
Del verbo contrariar: ( conjugate contrariar) \ \
contrarío es: \ \1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo
contrarió es: \ \3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativoMultiple Entries: contrariar contrario
contrariar ( conjugate contrariar) verbo transitivo ( disgustar) to upset; ( enojar) to annoy
contrario
◊ - ria adjetivo1 ( opuesto) ‹opiniones/intereses› conflicting; ‹dirección/lado› opposite; ‹ equipo› opposing; ‹ bando› opposite; mientras no se demuestre lo contrario until proven otherwise; sería contrario a mis intereses it would be against o (frml) contrary to my interests; See Also→ sentido 2 4 2 ( en locs) al contrario de su hermano … unlike his brother, …; de lo contrario or else, otherwise; por el contrario on the contrary; en el sur, por el contrario, el clima es seco the south, on the other hand, has a dry climate; todo lo contrario quite the opposite; llevarle la contraria a algn to contradict sb ■ sustantivo masculino, femenino opponent
contrariar verbo transitivo
1 (disgustar) to upset
2 (contradecir) to go against
contrario,-a
I adjetivo
1 opposite: otro coche venía en sentido contrario, another car was coming in the other direction
no me cae mal, más bien todo lo contrario, I don't dislike him, quite the contrary
2 (negativo, nocivo) contrary [a, to]
II sustantivo masculino y femenino rival Locuciones: siempre lleva la contraria, he always argues
al contrario/por el contrario, on the contrary
de lo contrario, otherwise ' contrario' also found in these entries: Spanish: caso - contraria - decir - estar - irse - mientras - nunca - pequeña - pequeño - pulverizar - revés - soler - Tiro - campo - contramano - oponer - sentido English: adverse - against - agree - aloud - anticlimax - anticlockwise - antisocial - camp - contrary - counterclockwise - direction - headwind - lick - opposing - opposite - otherwise - perverse - reverse - unprofessional - wrong - counter - incline - irregular - quite -
57 come (came)
§ მოსვლა, ჩამოსვლა; come accross - შეხვედრა, წაწყდომა; come along! - წავიდეთ! come back - დაბრუნდი; come down -ჩამოსვლა, დაშვება; come in - შემოსვლა; come up to - მისვლა, მიახლოვება§1 (came, come) მოსვლა (მოვა), ჩამოსვლაI’ve come to believe that... იმ რწმენამდე მივედი, რომ…success usually comes from hard work წარმატება, ჩვეულებრივ, ბეჯითი შრომის შედეგია2 წარმოშობა, შთამომავლობა, სადაურობაshe comes from a good family კარგი ოჯახიშვილია / გვარიშვილია3 წვდომა (სწვდება), მიღწევა (აღწევს)his income comes to $60.000 a year მისი წლიური შემოსავალი 60 ათას დოლარს აღწევსhe will never come to much დიდ რამეს / ბევრს ვერასოდეს მიაღწევსthe house came to him on his father's death მამის გარდაცვალების შემდეგ სახლი მემკვიდრეობით მის მფლობელობაში გადავიდაthe car came to a halt / a standstill მანქანა გაჩერდაif it comes to that... საქმე თუ იქამდე მივიდა…4 მოხდენა (მოხდება)how did it come that...? როგორ მოხდა, რომ…?how come it?! ეს რანაირად / როგორ / საიდან?!it came to light that… გამოაშკარავდა, რომ…5 მემკვიდრეობით მიღება (მიიღებს) / გადსვლა (გადავა)it comes easy to him ადვილად გამოსდის // ეადვილებაhe comes of the nobility / the working class კეთილშობილური წარმომავლობისაა // მუშათა კლასიდანააyou’ll come off the loser წაგებული დარჩებიwe’d like you to come კარგი იქნებოდა, რომ მოსულიყავიthe time has come for her to lie in დროა, მოილოგინოს●●it is very kind of you to have come ძალიან დამავალეთ, რომ მობრძანდითhe promised to come დამპირდა, მოვალოI pleaded with her to come შევეხვეწე, რომ მოსულიყოI’ll gladly come, only later სიხარულით გეწვევით, მაგრამ უფრო მოგვიანებითI’ll come round at six ექვსზე შემოგივლი●●to come to rest გაჩერება (გაჩერდება)oh, come now! კარგი ერთი!we’ll come, if only he comes with us მხოლოდ მაშინ მოვალთ, თუ ის წამოგვყვაif it comes to a showdown I… ყველაფრის თქმამდე თუ მივიდა საქმე, მე...●●to come to one’s mind თავში აზრის მოსვლაI can’t make her come მოსვლას ვერ დავაძალებdon’t trouble to come მოსვლაზე ნუ შეწუხდები!he didn’t expect her to come მის მოსვლას არ მოელოდა // არ ეგონა, რომ მოვიდოდაhe always says the first thing that comes into his head რაც თავში მოუვა, იმას ამბობსif it comes to that, I’ll… საქმე საქმეზე თუ მიდგა, მე...thoughts of her coming wedding were uppermost in her mind უმთავრესად თავის მომავალ ქორწინზე ფიქრობდაshe is unlike to come არა მგონია, რომ მოვიდესhow come you’re here? როგორ მოხდა, რომ აქა ხარ? // აქ როგორ მოხვდი?I’ll have him come ვაიძულებ, რომ მოვიდეს / მოვიყვანhe will hardly come საეჭვოა, რომ მოვიდესtake the rifle, it may come in handy თოფი წაიღე, შეიძლება დაგჭირდესif the worst comes to the worst… საქმე თუ მთლად ცუდად წავიდა...there’s worse to come ეს კიდევ არაფერი, მთლად უარესი იქნებაwe wired him to come დეპეშა გავუგზავნეთ, რომ ჩამოსულიყოI said I would come and I will ვთქვი, რომ მოვალ და მოვალ კიდეც;come when you will; როცა გინდა, მოდიhe will come მოვა;come whenever you wish როდესაც გინდა, მოდიand what if he doesn’t come? და რომ არ მოვიდეს?Will he come? - ‘I expect so’ "მოვა?" - "ასე მგონია."the coming of the boss quickened the work უფროსის მოსვლამ მუშაობა გამოაცოცხლაI figured on your coming შენი მოსვლის იმედი მქონდა // შენს მოსვლას ვვარაუდობდიcome in directly! დაუყოვნებლივ / მყისვე შემოდი!you needn’t ask him to come, he’ll come as a matter of course მისი დაძახება არ არის საჭირო, ისედაც მოვაit was gracious of you to come! რა პატივი დაგვდე, რომ მოხვედი!I’ve come a good way კარგა დიდი გზა გამოვიარეI’ll come without fail უსათუოდ მოვალcome to think of it, it’s possible კარგად რომ დავფიქრდეთ, ეს შესაძლებელიაoh come, he is not that stupid! კაი, კაი! არც ისეთი უჭკუოა!come! let’s begin! აბა, დავიწყოთ!I’ll come and collect the book წიგნის წამოსაღებად შემოვივლიwe’ll come and fetch you შემოგივლით და წაგიყვანთI could not come მოსვლა ვერ შევძელი // ვერ მოვედიto come into / go out of fashion მოდაში შემოსვლა / მოდიდან გადავარდნაI’ll come by five ხუთი საათისთვის მოვალhe wanted to come but he couldn’t მოსვლა უნდოდა, მაგრამ ვერ შეძლოto come into bloom აყვავება // ყვავილის გაშლა / გამოღებაI’ll come between 1 and 2 o’clock პირველიდან ორ საათამდე მოვალ‘Will they come?’ – ‘I believe so’/’I believe not’ "მოვლენ?" - "ასე მგონია" / "არა მგონია"to come into being აღმოცენება (აღმოცენდება), წარმოშობა, შექმნაI`ll come right away ახლავე მოვალask him to come სთხოვე, მოვიდესif anybody comes, don`t open the door ვინმე თუ მოვიდა, კარს ნუ გაუღებa glass of wine wouldn`t come amiss ერთი ჭიქა ღვინო არ გვაწყენდაI`ll come along with you თან წამოგყვებიif it`s all right with you, I’ll come early თუ წინააღმდეგი არა ხარ, ადრე მოვალto come to smb's aid ვინმესთვის დახმარების აღმოჩენა / გაწევაhe came in advance of the others სხვებზე წინ / ადრე მოვიდაthey came at my call ჩემს დაძახებაზე / გამოძახებაზე მოვიდნენat last they came to a closure როგორც იქნა დაასრულეს კამათი და შეთანხმდნენthe plane came in sight / view თვითმფრინავი გამოჩნდაI came to realize, that... თანდათანობით მივხვდი, რომ…his resignation came as a surprise მისი გადადგომა ყველასათვის მოულოდნელი იყოhe came to the conclusion that... იმ დასკვნამდე მივიდა, რომ…he came before / after dark შეღამებისას / დაბინდებისას მოვიდა // დაბნელების შემდეგ მოვიდაthe fire brigade came in full force სახანძრო რაზმი სრული შემადგენლობით მოვიდაhe came in quietly უხმაუროდ / ჩუმად შემოვიდაit's just as well I came with you კარგია, რომ შენ გამოგყევიwhen woman came in, he got up როდესაც ქალი შემოვიდა, ფეხზე ადგა;he came while I was out მოვიდა, როდესაც გასული ვიყავი.it would be about five when she came როცა მოვიდა, ხუთი საათი იქნებოდაshe came to herself გონს მოეგო / მოვიდაmany came to the funeral service to do the dead man homage გარდაცვლილის პატივსაცემად პანაშვიდზე ბევრნი მოვიდნენ●●the rain came down with a vengeance წვიმამ კოკისპირულად დასცხო●●they came to terms შეთანხმებას მიაღწიესhe came sooner than we expected უფრო ადრე მოვიდა, ვიდრე მოველოდითhe came on / lost the tracks of his enemy თავისი მტრის კვალს მიაგნო / კვალი დაჰკარგაpeople came trooping out of the theater ხალხი თეატრიდან გამოვიდა / გამოეფინა●●his dreams came true ოცნება აუსრულდაwhat a mercy he came! მადლობა ღმერთს, რომ მოვიდა!I came the moment I knew როგორც კი გავიგე, მაშინვე მოვედიhe came by sea ზღვით / გემით ჩამოვიდაI came to that conclusion independently ამ დასკვნამდე დამოუკიდებლად მივედიthe news came that… ცნობა მოვიდა, რომ...his plan came to nothing გეგმა ჩაუვარდა / ჩაეფუშაthe news came that… ცნობა მოვიდა, რომ...his plan came to nothing გეგმა ჩაუვარდა / ჩაეფუშაthe answer came pat პასუხი სწრაფად / დროულად მოვიდაshe came out in pimples სახეზე მუწუკები გაუჩნდა / გამოაყარაwhen it came to the point, he couldn't face it საქმე საქმეზე რომ მიდგა, უკან დაიხიაit came to my knowledge that… ჩემ ყურამდე მოვიდა, რომ... -
58 humble
•• humility, humble
•• * Humility и humble – неудобные слова и для лексикографа, и в переводе реальных текстов. Но прежде чем говорить о переводе, отметим, что некоторые лингвисты, как ни странно, считают эти слова разноплановыми. Характерно такое замечание А. Вежбицкой (о ее трактовке humility – дальше):
•• I presume that the Latin adjective humilis, unlike the English adjective humble, corresponds in meaning to the noun humilitas ‘humility.’
•• И это несмотря на то, что этимологические словари ясно указывают на происхождение этого слова: humble – from Latin humilis “lowly, humble.” Да и толковые словари определяют humility как the quality or condition of being humble.
•• Правда, в выражении to eat humble pie (American Heritage Dictionary: to be forced to apologize abjectly or admit one’s faults in humiliating circumstances – быть посрамленным, вынужденно извиниться, признать свою ошибку) у этого слова другая этимология: pie made from umbles “ edible inner parts of an animal” ( especially deer), considered a low-class food. Так или иначе, следует признать, что при общей этимологии значения слов humility и humble они иногда действительно расходятся довольно существенно.
•• По мнению Вежбицкой, When one tries to explicate humility in non-metaphorical terms, the task proves unexpectedly hard – despite the extensive Christian literature devoted to the problem.
•• Правда, ее собственная попытка («фирменная» экспликация через X often thinks something like this, etc.) вряд ли может быть признана удачной, да и вообще определение, претендующее на точность, и something like this, по-моему, несовместимы. Спорны и ее рассуждения о несоответствии английского humility и русского смирение:
•• If we compare the concept of ‘humility’ with the concept of ‘smirenie’ we see that the differences between them are quite considerable <...> ‘smirenie’ implies a serene acceptance of everything that happens <...> in ‘humility’ the stress is <...> on a desire not to be treated as someone who is better than other people, on a deep dislike of vana gloria, ‘empty glory.’
•• Интересно, что Новый БАРС под редакцией Ю.Д. Апресяна – вслед за старым, гальперинским, – не дает среди соответствий humility слово смирение (первое соответствие – смиренность). Не так давно вышедший «Словарь религиозной и возвышенной лексики» Д.И. Ермоловича, который я рекомендую всем интересующимся этой тематикой, дает смирение в качестве единственного соответствия. Думаю, тот факт, что разные культуры по-разному интерпретируют некоторые общехристианские или общечеловеческие понятия, не отменяет межъязыковых соответствий.
•• В современном английском языке слово humility часто употребляется без христианских ассоциаций, просто в смысле lack of vanity or self-importance: humbleness, lowliness, meekness, modesty (Roget Thesaurus). Особенно характерен последний синоним. Иногда в подтексте этого слова что-то вроде «скромного, спокойного достоинства и сдержанности в поведении». В еще большей степени это относится к слову humble.
•• У всех на памяти высказывание тогда еще кандидата в президенты Дж. Буша в ходе дискуссии с А. Гором, которое часто цитируют неточно или неполно (humble/humbler foreign policy, a humble nation). Вот это высказывание полностью:
•• I’m not sure the role of the United States is to go around the world and say this is the way it’s got to be. I want to empower people. I want to help people help themselves, not have government tell people what to do. I just don’t think it’s the role of the United States to walk into a country and say, we do it this way, so should you. We went into Russia, we said here’s some IMF money. It ended up in Chernomyrdin’s pocket. And yet we played like there was reform. The only people who are going to reform Russia are Russians. I’m not sure where the vice president’s coming from, but I think one way for us to end up being viewed as the ugly American is for us to go around the world saying, we do it this way, so should you. I think the United States must be humble and must be proud and confident of our values, but humble in how we treat nations that are figuring out how to chart their own course.
•• Видимо, правильный перевод в данном случае что-нибудь вроде:
•• ...США следует вести себя скромно – с гордостью и уверенностью в наших ценностях, но не навязываясь странам, которые выбирают свой путь.
•• Но как быть с humble foreign policy? Humble nation? Ведь именно так часто говорят, особенно в полемическом контексте, например:
•• As a presidential candidate, George W. Bush stressed the need for America to act like a “ humble nation” in foreign policy.
•• Может быть, сдержанная внешняя политика, сдержанная нация? Может быть, что-нибудь со словом самоограничение (это не противоречит христианскому пониманию humility)? Или все-таки скромная? Для меня вопрос ясен не до конца.
•• Наконец, глагол to humble, перевод которого бывает особенно трудным. Словарное определение to make lower in condition or status (AHD) во многих случаях как-то не очень помогает. А первое значение – to humiliate – может и вовсе сбить с толку. Так, в отличном англо-французском словаре Larousse Chambers выражение It was a humbling experience переводится С’était une expérience humiliante. И по-русски Это было унизительно – неверно. Скорее Это стало для меня уроком или Это отрезвило меня.
•• Пример из журнала Time:
•• The Normandy invaders’ day in hell humbles me (реакция читателя на номер, посвященный 60-летию высадки союзников в Нормандии).
•• Здесь можно предложить:
•• Солдаты нормандского десанта прошли через ад. Я склоняю голову перед их памятью (патетика в русском переводе часто оказывается многословнее).
•• Стандартный ораторский прием – выражение I am humbled:
•• I am humbled and honored to have been nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate as the first federal cochairman of the Delta Regional Authority.
•• Можно усмотреть следующий подтекст: это большая честь, которую еще предстоит заслужить. Но английский оборот воспринимается многими как штамп, можно не особенно церемониться: Для меня это большая, особая честь...
•• Или, может быть: Я с волнением воспринимаю оказанную мне президентом и подтвержденную сенатом честь – стать первым сопредседателем–представителем федеральных властей в региональной администрации.
•• Тоже риторический прием: I am humbled to be here in the company of... Может быть, опять-таки Я испытываю волнение, будучи здесь в компании/вместе с...
•• Еще один пример (здесь, на мой взгляд, выражение употребляется более содержательно и требует не чисто риторического перевода):
•• All of us in the Congress Party are humbled by the enormous trust reposed in us. (Из письма Сони Ганди) - Все мы в ИНК понимаем, как нелегко будет оправдать огромное доверие, оказанное нам.
•• Humble и to humble в отличие от русских словарных соответствий относятся к слою активной, а в последнее время даже модной лексики. А это, как правило, источник трудностей в переводе, так как модное слово употребляется расширительно и не совсем точно и к тому же часто обыгрывается. Все это – в примере из «антибушевской» статьи Ричарда Ривза в International Herald Tribune:
•• We were united and humbled on September 12, 2001. We are divided and humiliated now, telling lies about each other.
•• Возможно, в переводе здесь важнее не точный смысл, а экспрессия:
•• 12 сентября 2001 года мы были едины, у нас была общая беда. Сегодня мы разъединены и унижены ложью, которую говорим друг о друге.
•• Кажется, смиренные общей бедой тоже можно было бы сказать, но, по-моему, русского читателя это может увести несколько не в ту сторону.
•• Наконец, общеизвестное «в продвинутых кругах» imho ( in my humble opinion): встречающиеся варианты по моему скромному мнению или на мой скромный взгляд выглядят как слегка ироничная, но все же несколько неуклюжая калька. Лучше, наверное, позволю себе высказать мнение, смею думать или по моему скромному разумению.
-
59 humility
•• humility, humble
•• * Humility и humble – неудобные слова и для лексикографа, и в переводе реальных текстов. Но прежде чем говорить о переводе, отметим, что некоторые лингвисты, как ни странно, считают эти слова разноплановыми. Характерно такое замечание А. Вежбицкой (о ее трактовке humility – дальше):
•• I presume that the Latin adjective humilis, unlike the English adjective humble, corresponds in meaning to the noun humilitas ‘humility.’
•• И это несмотря на то, что этимологические словари ясно указывают на происхождение этого слова: humble – from Latin humilis “lowly, humble.” Да и толковые словари определяют humility как the quality or condition of being humble.
•• Правда, в выражении to eat humble pie (American Heritage Dictionary: to be forced to apologize abjectly or admit one’s faults in humiliating circumstances – быть посрамленным, вынужденно извиниться, признать свою ошибку) у этого слова другая этимология: pie made from umbles “ edible inner parts of an animal” ( especially deer), considered a low-class food. Так или иначе, следует признать, что при общей этимологии значения слов humility и humble они иногда действительно расходятся довольно существенно.
•• По мнению Вежбицкой, When one tries to explicate humility in non-metaphorical terms, the task proves unexpectedly hard – despite the extensive Christian literature devoted to the problem.
•• Правда, ее собственная попытка («фирменная» экспликация через X often thinks something like this, etc.) вряд ли может быть признана удачной, да и вообще определение, претендующее на точность, и something like this, по-моему, несовместимы. Спорны и ее рассуждения о несоответствии английского humility и русского смирение:
•• If we compare the concept of ‘humility’ with the concept of ‘smirenie’ we see that the differences between them are quite considerable <...> ‘smirenie’ implies a serene acceptance of everything that happens <...> in ‘humility’ the stress is <...> on a desire not to be treated as someone who is better than other people, on a deep dislike of vana gloria, ‘empty glory.’
•• Интересно, что Новый БАРС под редакцией Ю.Д. Апресяна – вслед за старым, гальперинским, – не дает среди соответствий humility слово смирение (первое соответствие – смиренность). Не так давно вышедший «Словарь религиозной и возвышенной лексики» Д.И. Ермоловича, который я рекомендую всем интересующимся этой тематикой, дает смирение в качестве единственного соответствия. Думаю, тот факт, что разные культуры по-разному интерпретируют некоторые общехристианские или общечеловеческие понятия, не отменяет межъязыковых соответствий.
•• В современном английском языке слово humility часто употребляется без христианских ассоциаций, просто в смысле lack of vanity or self-importance: humbleness, lowliness, meekness, modesty (Roget Thesaurus). Особенно характерен последний синоним. Иногда в подтексте этого слова что-то вроде «скромного, спокойного достоинства и сдержанности в поведении». В еще большей степени это относится к слову humble.
•• У всех на памяти высказывание тогда еще кандидата в президенты Дж. Буша в ходе дискуссии с А. Гором, которое часто цитируют неточно или неполно (humble/humbler foreign policy, a humble nation). Вот это высказывание полностью:
•• I’m not sure the role of the United States is to go around the world and say this is the way it’s got to be. I want to empower people. I want to help people help themselves, not have government tell people what to do. I just don’t think it’s the role of the United States to walk into a country and say, we do it this way, so should you. We went into Russia, we said here’s some IMF money. It ended up in Chernomyrdin’s pocket. And yet we played like there was reform. The only people who are going to reform Russia are Russians. I’m not sure where the vice president’s coming from, but I think one way for us to end up being viewed as the ugly American is for us to go around the world saying, we do it this way, so should you. I think the United States must be humble and must be proud and confident of our values, but humble in how we treat nations that are figuring out how to chart their own course.
•• Видимо, правильный перевод в данном случае что-нибудь вроде:
•• ...США следует вести себя скромно – с гордостью и уверенностью в наших ценностях, но не навязываясь странам, которые выбирают свой путь.
•• Но как быть с humble foreign policy? Humble nation? Ведь именно так часто говорят, особенно в полемическом контексте, например:
•• As a presidential candidate, George W. Bush stressed the need for America to act like a “ humble nation” in foreign policy.
•• Может быть, сдержанная внешняя политика, сдержанная нация? Может быть, что-нибудь со словом самоограничение (это не противоречит христианскому пониманию humility)? Или все-таки скромная? Для меня вопрос ясен не до конца.
•• Наконец, глагол to humble, перевод которого бывает особенно трудным. Словарное определение to make lower in condition or status (AHD) во многих случаях как-то не очень помогает. А первое значение – to humiliate – может и вовсе сбить с толку. Так, в отличном англо-французском словаре Larousse Chambers выражение It was a humbling experience переводится С’était une expérience humiliante. И по-русски Это было унизительно – неверно. Скорее Это стало для меня уроком или Это отрезвило меня.
•• Пример из журнала Time:
•• The Normandy invaders’ day in hell humbles me (реакция читателя на номер, посвященный 60-летию высадки союзников в Нормандии).
•• Здесь можно предложить:
•• Солдаты нормандского десанта прошли через ад. Я склоняю голову перед их памятью (патетика в русском переводе часто оказывается многословнее).
•• Стандартный ораторский прием – выражение I am humbled:
•• I am humbled and honored to have been nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate as the first federal cochairman of the Delta Regional Authority.
•• Можно усмотреть следующий подтекст: это большая честь, которую еще предстоит заслужить. Но английский оборот воспринимается многими как штамп, можно не особенно церемониться: Для меня это большая, особая честь...
•• Или, может быть: Я с волнением воспринимаю оказанную мне президентом и подтвержденную сенатом честь – стать первым сопредседателем–представителем федеральных властей в региональной администрации.
•• Тоже риторический прием: I am humbled to be here in the company of... Может быть, опять-таки Я испытываю волнение, будучи здесь в компании/вместе с...
•• Еще один пример (здесь, на мой взгляд, выражение употребляется более содержательно и требует не чисто риторического перевода):
•• All of us in the Congress Party are humbled by the enormous trust reposed in us. (Из письма Сони Ганди) - Все мы в ИНК понимаем, как нелегко будет оправдать огромное доверие, оказанное нам.
•• Humble и to humble в отличие от русских словарных соответствий относятся к слою активной, а в последнее время даже модной лексики. А это, как правило, источник трудностей в переводе, так как модное слово употребляется расширительно и не совсем точно и к тому же часто обыгрывается. Все это – в примере из «антибушевской» статьи Ричарда Ривза в International Herald Tribune:
•• We were united and humbled on September 12, 2001. We are divided and humiliated now, telling lies about each other.
•• Возможно, в переводе здесь важнее не точный смысл, а экспрессия:
•• 12 сентября 2001 года мы были едины, у нас была общая беда. Сегодня мы разъединены и унижены ложью, которую говорим друг о друге.
•• Кажется, смиренные общей бедой тоже можно было бы сказать, но, по-моему, русского читателя это может увести несколько не в ту сторону.
•• Наконец, общеизвестное «в продвинутых кругах» imho ( in my humble opinion): встречающиеся варианты по моему скромному мнению или на мой скромный взгляд выглядят как слегка ироничная, но все же несколько неуклюжая калька. Лучше, наверное, позволю себе высказать мнение, смею думать или по моему скромному разумению.
-
60 simile
an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some qualityThe one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: "like", "as", "as though", "as if", "as like", "such as", "as... as", etc.She is like a rose.
He stood immovable like a rock in a torrent. (J.Reed)
His muscles are hard as rock. (T.Capote)
The conversation she began behaved like green logs: they fumed but would not fire. (T.Capote)
Source: V.A.K.••characterisation of one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things- excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them;- forcibly set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other;Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare. (Byron)
Other words live but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water - they disappear leaving no trace of their existence. (I.R.G)
His mind was restless, but it worked perversely and thoughts jerked through his brain like the misfirings of a defective carburettor. (S.Maugham)
It was that moment of the year when the countryside seems to faint from its own loveliness, from the intoxication of tis scents and sounds. (J.Galsworthy)
Source: I.R.G.Compare: logical comparisonEnglish-Russian dictionary of stylistics (terminology and examples) > simile
См. также в других словарях:
Other Oni Kamen Rider — In the Japanese tokusatsu program, Kamen Rider Hibiki, there were many Kamen Riders. Currently 113 Oni Kamen Riders are active, with only 8 having been shown in episode format. This article covers many of the other known Oni Kamen Riders.… … Wikipedia
unlike — is an adjective (animals as unlike as the bear and the lion), and a preposition meaning ‘dissimilar to’ (a journey unlike any other). Informally it is used as a quasi adverb in constructions involving a following preposition: • Unlike with fax… … Modern English usage
unlike — [unlīk′] adj. [ME unliche: see UN & LIKE1] 1. having little or no resemblance; not alike; different; dissimilar 2. Now Chiefly Dial. unlikely prep. 1. not like; different from [a case unlike any other] … English World dictionary
unlike — ► PREPOSITION 1) different from; not like. 2) in contrast to. 3) uncharacteristic of. ► ADJECTIVE ▪ dissimilar or different from each other. DERIVATIVES unlikeness noun … English terms dictionary
other — [adj1] additional, added alternative, another, auxiliary, else, extra, farther, fresh, further, more, new, spare, supplementary; concept 771 Ant. included, related other [adj2] different contrasting, disparate, dissimilar, distant, distinct,… … New thesaurus
unlike — I. adjective Date: 13th century not like: as a. marked by lack of resemblance ; different < the two books are quite unlike > b. marked by inequality ; unequal < contributed unlike amounts > • unlikeness noun … New Collegiate Dictionary
unlike — [[t]ʌ̱nla͟ɪk[/t]] ♦♦♦ 1) PREP If one thing is unlike another thing, the two things have different qualities or characteristics from each other. This was a foreign country, so unlike San Jose... She was unlike him in every way except for her coal… … English dictionary
unlike — un|like1 W3 [ʌnˈlaık] prep 1.) completely different from a particular person or thing ▪ Tammy was unlike any other woman I have ever known. 2.) not typical of someone at all ▪ It s unlike Greg to be late. 3.) used when saying how one person or… … Dictionary of contemporary English
unlike — preposition different from; not like. ↘in contrast to. ↘uncharacteristic of. adjective dissimilar or different from each other. ↘(unlike to/from) archaic different from. Derivatives unlikeness noun Origin ME: perh. orig. an alt. of ON úlíkr; cf.… … English new terms dictionary
other — /ˈʌðə / (say udhuh) adjective 1. additional or further: he and one other person. 2. different or distinct from the one or ones mentioned or implied: in some other city. 3. being the remaining one of two or more: the other hand. 4. (with plural… …
unlike — 1. preposition a) Differently from. b) In contrast with. 2. adjective a) Not like; dissimilar; diverse; having no resemblance. The brothers are quite unlike each other. b) Unequal … Wiktionary