-
21 sap
1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Sensitive To Antimicrobial Peptides, hum. сокр. Slam Associated Protein, social action program, Site Access Permit (SEIC), старшее ответственное лицо (Senior Authorised Person, напр. http://www.indeed.co.uk/jobs?q=Senior+Authorised+Person&l=London)2) Компьютерная техника: System Application Program, Systems Application Products, Systems, Applications, and Products3) Медицина: statistical analysis plan, план статистического анализа, нарколог (substance abuse professional), substance abuse professional - нарколог (сокр.)4) Американизм: Scientific Advisory Panel, State Assessment Panel, Statements of Administration Policy, Statutory Adoption Pay, Stop All Progress, Substance Abuse Prevention5) Спорт: Slight Atari Player6) Военный термин: System Acquisition Plan, search and attack pattern, security assistance plan, security assistance program, semiarmor-piercing, shipboard antenna pedestal, standing air patrol, strategic advantages profile, structural analysis program, supervisory airplane pilot, system alignment procedure7) Техника: safety assessment principles, severe accident program, sintered aluminum powder, solar array program, startup administrative procedure, statements on auditing procedures, system acquisition process8) Шутливое выражение: Satan's Accounting Program, Slow And Painful, Somewhat Academic Privacy, Son Af a Pitch9) Религия: Share And Prayer10) Юридический термин: Special Assistance Pass, Substance Abuse Panel, Substance Abuse Program11) Бухгалтерия: Service Advertisement Protocol, Standard Accounting Procedures, Statements on Auditing Procedure, Systems Applications Products, Положения по процедурам аудита (Statements on Auditing Procedures), Принципы ведения бухгалтерскогоучёта, предписанные законом (Statutory Accounting Principles)
12) Страхование: Statutory Accounting Principals13) Автомобильный термин: Standard Corporate Protocol14) Грубое выражение: Stupid American Public, Surely A Pedophile15) Оптика: stress-applying part16) Телекоммуникации: протокол предлагаемых услуг, Service Advertising Protocol (NetWare), Service Access Point (generic)17) Сокращение: Seaborne Air Platform, Second Audio Program, Semi-Armour Piercing, Sensing And Processing unit, Shijiazhuang Aircraft Plant (China), Simulated Attack Profile, Soon As Possible, South African Police (South Africa), Special Access Program (USA), Special Access Program18) Университет: Satisfactory Academic Progress, Scientific Agricultural Partnership, Standard Assessment Performance, Student Assistance Program, Students Aid Project, Students Alumni And Professional, Supply Of Academic Publications19) Электроника: Secondary Audio Program20) Вычислительная техника: Service Access Point, Service Advertising Protocol, symbolic address program, symbolic assembly program, system assist processor, Symbolic Assembler Program (IBM, IBM 704), Session Announcement Protocol (Internet, RFC 2974), Service Advertising Protocol (Novell, Netware, IPX), Service Access Point (OSI), Service Access Point (OSI, Networking), Systems, Applications and Products (in data processing, ag, Hersteller), компания SAP, система компании SAP21) Нефть: An enterprise resource system, программы структурной перестройки, бухгалтерская программа SAP22) Иммунология: Serum Amyloid P23) Транспорт: Suitcase And Passport24) Фирменный знак: System Application And Products, System Application Products, Systems Applications And Programming, Systems, Applications and Products in Data Processing26) Деловая лексика: Safety Awareness Program, Systems Applications Production, описание процедуры отчётности, описание процедуры ревизии (Statement on Auditing Procedure)27) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: System, Application and Products for Data Processing28) Образование: Science Activity Planner, Solves All Problems, Standard Assessment Procedure, Standard Assessment Program, State Advisory Panel for Special Education, Student Assistance Plan, Substance Abuse Professional29) Сетевые технологии: Service Announcement Protocol, Start Of Active Profile, System Area Pointer, протокол извещения об услугах, протокол объявления об услугах, протокол представления услуг, протокол рекламного сетевого сервиса, протокол с объявлением о служебных средствах31) Медицинская техника: Super Absorbent Polymer - впитывающий полимер (применяется во впитывающей продукции, напр. в подгузниках)32) Химическое оружие: sampling and analysis plan, strategic action plan33) Трудовое право: Разрешение на доступ на рабочую площадку (Site Access Permit)34) Расширение файла: Session Announcement Protocol, System Assurance Program, Service Access Point (DEC), Systems, Applications and Products (company)35) Майкрософт: протокол SAP36) Общественная организация: Scholarship Assistance Program37) Должность: Substance Abuse Professionals38) Чат: Soft And Pretty39) NYSE. S A P, A. G.40) Аэропорты: San Pedro Sula, Honduras41) Программное обеспечение: System Analysis and Program Development, System Application Product42) Базы данных: Systems Applications Processing -
22 metric
['metrɪk] I 1. прил.1) метрический ( о системе мер)metric system — десятичная / метрическая система мер
The UK is a metric country but still has not gotten completely away from the ''imperial'' system of feet, inches, square feet, etc. — Великобритания перешла на метрическую систему мер, но всё же не смогла полностью избавиться от "имперской" системы футов, дюймов, квадратных дюймов и т. п.
2. сущ.Most medical measurements are metric. For example, blood cholesterol load is given in millimoles per litre. — Медицинские показатели в большинстве случаев выражаются в единицах метрической системы. Например, уровень холестерина в крови даётся в миллимолях на литр.
1) разг. метрическая система мер2) информ. метрика, показательSoftware metrics measure specific attributes of a software product or a software development process. (P. W. Oman, Sh. L. Pfleeger, Applying Software Metrics) — Метрики программ измеряют специфические свойства программного продукта или процесса разработки ПО.
The idea of the Lines of Code (LOS) metric is that program length can be used as a predictor of program characteristics such as effort and ease of maintenance. (J. de Sutter, The Power of IT) — Идея оценки по количеству строк в коде заключается в том, что данные о длине программы можно использовать в качестве показателя, позволяющего прогнозировать такие характеристики как трудозатраты и простота поддержки.
3) мат.; физ. метрика ( пространства-времени)II 1. прил.; = metrical 1) 2. сущ.; лит.2) ( metrics) употр. с гл. в ед. метрика ( учение о стихотворных размерах) -
23 PDS
1) Общая лексика: система сброса/слива продукта, Project Directorate Services (SEIC), Professional Doctoral School2) Компьютерная техника: Portable Data Specification, Premise Distribution System3) Медицина: предварительно заполненный двухкамерный шприц (prefilled dual-chamber syringe), pain-dysfunction syndrome4) Военный термин: Particularly Dangerous Situation, Planetary Defense Systems, Production Deconfliction System, Protected Distribution System, Protected Distribution System PDSC PACOM Data Systems Center, passive defense system, passive detection system, perimeter defense system, permanent duty station, personnel daily summary, personnel data summary, personnel data system, personnel delivery system, planning data sheet, pneumatic distribution system, portable data system, portable dynamic simulator, position determining system, power distribution system, priority distribution system, prisoner detention system, procedures development simulator, procurement data sheet, program data sheet, program development section, programmable data system, propellant dispersion system, proposed delivery schedule, pulse Doppler search, pulse Doppler seeker5) Техника: Pascal development system, pattern design software, photo assisted domain switching, photo discharge spectroscopy, plant damage state, plant data system, preliminary design specifications, project decision schedule, project descriptive summary, pulse-Doppler search mode6) Математика: магазинный автомат с памятью (pushdown storage automaton)7) Экономика: ( personal data sheet) личное дело ("Личный листок по учёту кадров")8) Ветеринария: Prairie Dog Specialists9) Грубое выражение: Principal Dick Sucker10) Оптика: photodischarge spectroscopy11) Сокращение: Planetary Defense System (Air Force 2025 concept), Point Defense System, Portable Data Store, Post Design Support, Premise Distribution Systems (part of BWS/PDS), Processing Display System, Project Definition / Designation Study, Python Document Script, purchasing department specification, Premises Distribution System (AT&T), Product Data Sheet (Техническая Спецификация продукта)12) Университет: Professional Development School13) Физика: Power Density Spectra14) Физиология: Patient Distribution System, paroxysmal depolarization shift15) Электроника: Photo Thermal Deflection Spectroscopy16) Вычислительная техника: PC-CD with sound, Plant Design System, print device subsystem, processor direct slot, program development system, project definition and survey, Professional Development System (MS), Processor Direct Slot / Socket (Motorola, Apple), Public DOMAIN Software (PD), Portable Display Shell (Shell), проектное задание и обзор концепций17) Нефть: SE project services group18) Космонавтика: Planetary Data System (NASA)19) Деловая лексика: Patented Delivery System, President's Day Sale, Products Documents And Service, Professional Development System, Prototype And Design Services20) SAP. product data structure21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Project Services Group, Project Director - Project Services (Project execution sub-team, PDS)22) Менеджмент: programme definition stage23) Сетевые технологии: Parallel Directory Structure, Power And Download Station, Premises Distribution System, Process Distribution System, Profile Directory Structure24) Автоматика: partitioned data set25) Химическое оружие: Personnel Decontamination Station, Punch and drain station26) Авиационная медицина: projection display system27) Макаров: фототермическая спектроскопия преломления28) Расширение файла: Packet Driver Specification, Planetary Data System Format - NASA Space mission data, Portable Document Software, Processor Direct Slot (Macintosh)29) Нефть и газ: process design scheme, process data sheet (технологический опросный лист), ГОП30) Электротехника: primary distribution substation31) Фантастика Planet Defence Systems, Planetary Defence System32) Должность: Product Development Services, Professional Development Scheme33) NYSE. Precision Drilling Corporation34) НАСА: Planetary Data System35) Программное обеспечение: pre-developed software36) Клинические исследования: Pfizer Data Standards -
24 pds
1) Общая лексика: система сброса/слива продукта, Project Directorate Services (SEIC), Professional Doctoral School2) Компьютерная техника: Portable Data Specification, Premise Distribution System3) Медицина: предварительно заполненный двухкамерный шприц (prefilled dual-chamber syringe), pain-dysfunction syndrome4) Военный термин: Particularly Dangerous Situation, Planetary Defense Systems, Production Deconfliction System, Protected Distribution System, Protected Distribution System PDSC PACOM Data Systems Center, passive defense system, passive detection system, perimeter defense system, permanent duty station, personnel daily summary, personnel data summary, personnel data system, personnel delivery system, planning data sheet, pneumatic distribution system, portable data system, portable dynamic simulator, position determining system, power distribution system, priority distribution system, prisoner detention system, procedures development simulator, procurement data sheet, program data sheet, program development section, programmable data system, propellant dispersion system, proposed delivery schedule, pulse Doppler search, pulse Doppler seeker5) Техника: Pascal development system, pattern design software, photo assisted domain switching, photo discharge spectroscopy, plant damage state, plant data system, preliminary design specifications, project decision schedule, project descriptive summary, pulse-Doppler search mode6) Математика: магазинный автомат с памятью (pushdown storage automaton)7) Экономика: ( personal data sheet) личное дело ("Личный листок по учёту кадров")8) Ветеринария: Prairie Dog Specialists9) Грубое выражение: Principal Dick Sucker10) Оптика: photodischarge spectroscopy11) Сокращение: Planetary Defense System (Air Force 2025 concept), Point Defense System, Portable Data Store, Post Design Support, Premise Distribution Systems (part of BWS/PDS), Processing Display System, Project Definition / Designation Study, Python Document Script, purchasing department specification, Premises Distribution System (AT&T), Product Data Sheet (Техническая Спецификация продукта)12) Университет: Professional Development School13) Физика: Power Density Spectra14) Физиология: Patient Distribution System, paroxysmal depolarization shift15) Электроника: Photo Thermal Deflection Spectroscopy16) Вычислительная техника: PC-CD with sound, Plant Design System, print device subsystem, processor direct slot, program development system, project definition and survey, Professional Development System (MS), Processor Direct Slot / Socket (Motorola, Apple), Public DOMAIN Software (PD), Portable Display Shell (Shell), проектное задание и обзор концепций17) Нефть: SE project services group18) Космонавтика: Planetary Data System (NASA)19) Деловая лексика: Patented Delivery System, President's Day Sale, Products Documents And Service, Professional Development System, Prototype And Design Services20) SAP. product data structure21) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: Project Services Group, Project Director - Project Services (Project execution sub-team, PDS)22) Менеджмент: programme definition stage23) Сетевые технологии: Parallel Directory Structure, Power And Download Station, Premises Distribution System, Process Distribution System, Profile Directory Structure24) Автоматика: partitioned data set25) Химическое оружие: Personnel Decontamination Station, Punch and drain station26) Авиационная медицина: projection display system27) Макаров: фототермическая спектроскопия преломления28) Расширение файла: Packet Driver Specification, Planetary Data System Format - NASA Space mission data, Portable Document Software, Processor Direct Slot (Macintosh)29) Нефть и газ: process design scheme, process data sheet (технологический опросный лист), ГОП30) Электротехника: primary distribution substation31) Фантастика Planet Defence Systems, Planetary Defence System32) Должность: Product Development Services, Professional Development Scheme33) NYSE. Precision Drilling Corporation34) НАСА: Planetary Data System35) Программное обеспечение: pre-developed software36) Клинические исследования: Pfizer Data Standards -
25 Bibliography
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
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26 PSD
1) Компьютерная техника: Performance Stretching Device2) Медицина: power spectral density (спектральная плотность мощности)3) Военный термин: Personal Security Detail, Personnel Services Division, Post Security Detachment, Product System Demonstration, Protective Structures Division, parts support digest, personal services department, personnel service division, personnel subsystem development, personnel support detachment, procurement surveys division, product support department, professional service date, program support document, promotion service date, propellant storage depot4) Техника: phase-sensitive demodulator, physical sciences division, position-sensitive detector, power spectral distribution, power spectrum density, preliminary systems design, processing status display, грансостав, гранулометрический состав, классификация по крупности5) Шутливое выражение: Phantom Souls Domain6) Математика: диаграмма вероятностей состояний (probability state diagram), положительно полуопределённый (positive semidefinite)7) Юридический термин: Personal Security Device, Police Search And Destroy, Police Security Dogs8) Фармакология: распределение размера частиц (particle size distribution, распределение размера частиц в твердых формах лекарственных средств)9) Ветеринария: Pesticides Safety Directorate10) Грубое выражение: Printing Something Dumb11) Оптика: position-sensing detector, pseudo-second derivative12) Сокращение: Propulsion System Demonstrator13) Физиология: Post Stroke Depression, postsynaptic density14) Электроника: Pulse Shape Discrimination15) Вычислительная техника: Printer Sharing Device, preliminary system design, расширение файлов в формате Adobe Photoshop, Programmer's Supplementary Documents (BSD, Unix)16) Нефть: permanently shut down, process shutdown system, production shutdown, project specific dictionaries17) Транспорт: Position Sensitive Detector18) Целлюлозно-бумажная промышленность: напорный шнековый разгрузчик19) СМИ: Play Sequence Descriptor20) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: prediction based on seismic data, process shut down, остановка технологического процесса (process shutdown)21) Образование: Personal And Social Development, Practical Self Defense22) Сетевые технологии: Programmable System Device23) Программирование: индивидуальная программная документация (см. personal software documentation)24) Сахалин Р: process shutdown25) Химическое оружие: prevention of significant deterioration26) Молочное производство: Paternal Sister Dam27) Расширение файла: Periscope Debugger Definition file, Periscope Debugger Def file (Periscope)28) Нефть и газ: pore size distribution29) МИД: power spectral density30) Электротехника: phase-sensitive detector31) Фантастика Power Stroke Diesel32) Цемент: particle size distribution, распределение по размерам частиц, распределение частиц, распределение частиц по размерам33) Должность: Performance Standards Development34) NYSE. Puget Sound Energy, Inc.35) Аэропорты: Port Said, Arab Republic of Egypt -
27 psd
1) Компьютерная техника: Performance Stretching Device2) Медицина: power spectral density (спектральная плотность мощности)3) Военный термин: Personal Security Detail, Personnel Services Division, Post Security Detachment, Product System Demonstration, Protective Structures Division, parts support digest, personal services department, personnel service division, personnel subsystem development, personnel support detachment, procurement surveys division, product support department, professional service date, program support document, promotion service date, propellant storage depot4) Техника: phase-sensitive demodulator, physical sciences division, position-sensitive detector, power spectral distribution, power spectrum density, preliminary systems design, processing status display, грансостав, гранулометрический состав, классификация по крупности5) Шутливое выражение: Phantom Souls Domain6) Математика: диаграмма вероятностей состояний (probability state diagram), положительно полуопределённый (positive semidefinite)7) Юридический термин: Personal Security Device, Police Search And Destroy, Police Security Dogs8) Фармакология: распределение размера частиц (particle size distribution, распределение размера частиц в твердых формах лекарственных средств)9) Ветеринария: Pesticides Safety Directorate10) Грубое выражение: Printing Something Dumb11) Оптика: position-sensing detector, pseudo-second derivative12) Сокращение: Propulsion System Demonstrator13) Физиология: Post Stroke Depression, postsynaptic density14) Электроника: Pulse Shape Discrimination15) Вычислительная техника: Printer Sharing Device, preliminary system design, расширение файлов в формате Adobe Photoshop, Programmer's Supplementary Documents (BSD, Unix)16) Нефть: permanently shut down, process shutdown system, production shutdown, project specific dictionaries17) Транспорт: Position Sensitive Detector18) Целлюлозно-бумажная промышленность: напорный шнековый разгрузчик19) СМИ: Play Sequence Descriptor20) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: prediction based on seismic data, process shut down, остановка технологического процесса (process shutdown)21) Образование: Personal And Social Development, Practical Self Defense22) Сетевые технологии: Programmable System Device23) Программирование: индивидуальная программная документация (см. personal software documentation)24) Сахалин Р: process shutdown25) Химическое оружие: prevention of significant deterioration26) Молочное производство: Paternal Sister Dam27) Расширение файла: Periscope Debugger Definition file, Periscope Debugger Def file (Periscope)28) Нефть и газ: pore size distribution29) МИД: power spectral density30) Электротехника: phase-sensitive detector31) Фантастика Power Stroke Diesel32) Цемент: particle size distribution, распределение по размерам частиц, распределение частиц, распределение частиц по размерам33) Должность: Performance Standards Development34) NYSE. Puget Sound Energy, Inc.35) Аэропорты: Port Said, Arab Republic of Egypt -
28 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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29 Language
Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)[A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling itSolving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into anotherLANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own LanguageThe forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)[It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human InteractionLanguage cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
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30 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
31 Knowledge
It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)"Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge
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32 Memory
To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)[Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of PsychologyIf a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat DiscouragingThe results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory
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33 near cash
!гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:"consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;" "the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;" "strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and"the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:"the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and"the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)"Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and"Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.More information about DEL and AME is set out below.In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets."Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest."Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:"Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and"The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:"provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;" "enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;" "introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and"not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:"an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;" "an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;" "to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with"further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.This document was updated on 19 December 2005.Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money————————————————————————————————————————"GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money"————————————————————————————————————————GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money————————————————————————————————————————GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.———————————————————————————————————————— -
34 Thinking
But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, [conceives], affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. (Descartes, 1951, p. 153)I have been trying in all this to remove the temptation to think that there "must be" a mental process of thinking, hoping, wishing, believing, etc., independent of the process of expressing a thought, a hope, a wish, etc.... If we scrutinize the usages which we make of "thinking," "meaning," "wishing," etc., going through this process rids us of the temptation to look for a peculiar act of thinking, independent of the act of expressing our thoughts, and stowed away in some particular medium. (Wittgenstein, 1958, pp. 41-43)Analyse the proofs employed by the subject. If they do not go beyond observation of empirical correspondences, they can be fully explained in terms of concrete operations, and nothing would warrant our assuming that more complex thought mechanisms are operating. If, on the other hand, the subject interprets a given correspondence as the result of any one of several possible combinations, and this leads him to verify his hypotheses by observing their consequences, we know that propositional operations are involved. (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 279)In every age, philosophical thinking exploits some dominant concepts and makes its greatest headway in solving problems conceived in terms of them. The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophers construed knowledge, knower, and known in terms of sense data and their association. Descartes' self-examination gave classical psychology the mind and its contents as a starting point. Locke set up sensory immediacy as the new criterion of the real... Hobbes provided the genetic method of building up complex ideas from simple ones... and, in another quarter, still true to the Hobbesian method, Pavlov built intellect out of conditioned reflexes and Loeb built life out of tropisms. (S. Langer, 1962, p. 54)Experiments on deductive reasoning show that subjects are influenced sufficiently by their experience for their reasoning to differ from that described by a purely deductive system, whilst experiments on inductive reasoning lead to the view that an understanding of the strategies used by adult subjects in attaining concepts involves reference to higher-order concepts of a logical and deductive nature. (Bolton, 1972, p. 154)There are now machines in the world that think, that learn and create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in the visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied. (Newell & Simon, quoted in Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 138)But how does it happen that thinking is sometimes accompanied by action and sometimes not, sometimes by motion, and sometimes not? It looks as if almost the same thing happens as in the case of reasoning and making inferences about unchanging objects. But in that case the end is a speculative proposition... whereas here the conclusion which results from the two premises is an action.... I need covering; a cloak is a covering. I need a cloak. What I need, I have to make; I need a cloak. I have to make a cloak. And the conclusion, the "I have to make a cloak," is an action. (Nussbaum, 1978, p. 40)It is well to remember that when philosophy emerged in Greece in the sixth century, B.C., it did not burst suddenly out of the Mediterranean blue. The development of societies of reasoning creatures-what we call civilization-had been a process to be measured not in thousands but in millions of years. Human beings became civilized as they became reasonable, and for an animal to begin to reason and to learn how to improve its reasoning is a long, slow process. So thinking had been going on for ages before Greece-slowly improving itself, uncovering the pitfalls to be avoided by forethought, endeavoring to weigh alternative sets of consequences intellectually. What happened in the sixth century, B.C., is that thinking turned round on itself; people began to think about thinking, and the momentous event, the culmination of the long process to that point, was in fact the birth of philosophy. (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 1980, p. xi)The way to look at thought is not to assume that there is a parallel thread of correlated affects or internal experiences that go with it in some regular way. It's not of course that people don't have internal experiences, of course they do; but that when you ask what is the state of mind of someone, say while he or she is performing a ritual, it's hard to believe that such experiences are the same for all people involved.... The thinking, and indeed the feeling in an odd sort of way, is really going on in public. They are really saying what they're saying, doing what they're doing, meaning what they're meaning. Thought is, in great part anyway, a public activity. (Geertz, quoted in J. Miller, 1983, pp. 202-203)Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Einstein, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 17)What, in effect, are the conditions for the construction of formal thought? The child must not only apply operations to objects-in other words, mentally execute possible actions on them-he must also "reflect" those operations in the absence of the objects which are replaced by pure propositions. Thus, "reflection" is thought raised to the second power. Concrete thinking is the representation of a possible action, and formal thinking is the representation of a representation of possible action.... It is not surprising, therefore, that the system of concrete operations must be completed during the last years of childhood before it can be "reflected" by formal operations. In terms of their function, formal operations do not differ from concrete operations except that they are applied to hypotheses or propositions [whose logic is] an abstract translation of the system of "inference" that governs concrete operations. (Piaget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 237)[E]ven a human being today (hence, a fortiori, a remote ancestor of contemporary human beings) cannot easily or ordinarily maintain uninterrupted attention on a single problem for more than a few tens of seconds. Yet we work on problems that require vastly more time. The way we do that (as we can observe by watching ourselves) requires periods of mulling to be followed by periods of recapitulation, describing to ourselves what seems to have gone on during the mulling, leading to whatever intermediate results we have reached. This has an obvious function: namely, by rehearsing these interim results... we commit them to memory, for the immediate contents of the stream of consciousness are very quickly lost unless rehearsed.... Given language, we can describe to ourselves what seemed to occur during the mulling that led to a judgment, produce a rehearsable version of the reaching-a-judgment process, and commit that to long-term memory by in fact rehearsing it. (Margolis, 1987, p. 60)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Thinking
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35 Creativity
Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with DisorderEven to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)[P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity
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36 Eisler, Paul
[br]b. 1907 Vienna, Austria[br]Austrian engineer responsible for the invention of the printed circuit.[br]At the age of 23, Eisler obtained a Diploma in Engineering from the Technical University of Vienna. Because of the growing Nazi influence in Austria, he then accepted a post with the His Master's Voice (HMV) agents in Belgrade, where he worked on the problems of radio reception and sound transmission in railway trains. However, he soon returned to Vienna to found a weekly radio journal and file patents on graphical sound recording (for which he received a doctorate) and on a system of stereoscopic television based on lenticular vertical scanning.In 1936 he moved to England and sold the TV patent to Marconi for £250. Unable to find a job, he carried out experiments in his rooms in a Hampstead boarding-house; after making circuits using strip wires mounted on bakelite sheet, he filed his first printed-circuit patent that year. He then tried to find ways of printing the circuits, but without success. Obtaining a post with Odeon Theatres, he invented a sound-level control for films and devised a mirror-drum continuous-film projector, but with the outbreak of war in 1939, when the company was evacuated, he chose to stay in London and was interned for a while. Released in 1941, he began work with Henderson and Spalding, a firm of lithographic printers, to whom he unwittingly assigned all future patents for the paltry sum of £1. In due course he perfected a means of printing conducting circuits and on 3 February 1943 he filed three patents covering the process. The British Ministry of Defence rejected the idea, considering it of no use for military equipment, but after he had demonstrated the technique to American visitors it was enthusiastically taken up in the US for making proximity fuses, of which many millions were produced and used for the war effort. Subsequently the US Government ruled that all air-borne electronic circuits should be printed.In the late 1940s the Instrument Department of Henderson and Spalding was split off as Technograph Printed Circuits Ltd, with Eisler as Technical Director. In 1949 he filed a further patent covering a multilayer system; this was licensed to Pye and the Telegraph Condenser Company. A further refinement, patented in the 1950s, the use of the technique for telephone exchange equipment, but this was subsequently widely infringed and although he negotiated licences in the USA he found it difficult to license his ideas in Europe. In the UK he obtained finance from the National Research and Development Corporation, but they interfered and refused money for further development, and he eventually resigned from Technograph. Faced with litigation in the USA and open infringement in the UK, he found it difficult to establish his claims, but their validity was finally agreed by the Court of Appeal (1969) and the House of Lords (1971).As a freelance inventor he filed many other printed-circuit patents, including foil heating films and batteries. When his Patent Agents proved unwilling to fund the cost of filing and prosecuting Complete Specifications he set up his own company, Eisler Consultants Ltd, to promote food and space heating, including the use of heated cans and wallpaper! As Foil Heating Ltd he went into the production of heating films, the process subsequently being licensed to Thermal Technology Inc. in California.[br]Bibliography1953, "Printed circuits: some general principles and applications of the foil technique", Journal of the British Institution of Radio Engineers 13: 523.1959, The Technology of Printed Circuits: The Foil Technique in Electronic Production.1984–5, "Reflections of my life as an inventor", Circuit World 11:1–3 (a personal account of the development of the printed circuit).1989, My Life with the Printed Circuit, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania: Lehigh University Press.KF -
37 early
'ə:li
1. adverb1) (near the beginning (of a period of time etc): early in my life; early in the afternoon.) en los inicios, al principio; pronto; temprano2) (sooner than others; sooner than usual; sooner than expected or than the appointed time: He arrived early; She came an hour early.) temprano
2. adjective1) (belonging to, or happening, near the beginning of a period of time etc: early morning; in the early part of the century.) temprano2) (belonging to the first stages of development: early musical instruments.) antiguo; los primeros; primitivo3) (happening etc sooner than usual or than expected: the baby's early arrival; It's too early to get up yet.) temprano4) (prompt: I hope for an early reply to my letter.) pronto•- early bird
early adj adv temprano / prontodo you usually get up early? ¿sueles levantarte temprano?tr['ɜːlɪ]1 (before expected) temprano,-a, pronto2 (initial) primero,-a■ what are your earliest memories? ¿cuáles son tus primeros recuerdos?1 (before expected) temprano, pronto; (soon) pronto2 (near beginning) temprano■ early in the morning a primera hora de la mañana, por la mañana temprano3 (in good time) con tiempo, con anticipación\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLat the earliest como muy prontoearlier on antesit's still early days aún es prontoat your earliest convenience con la mayor brevedadthe early bird catches the worm a quien madruga Dios le ayudato have an early night acostarse prontoto make an early start salir tempranoearly bird / early riser madrugador,-raearly man el hombre nombre masculino primitivoearly retirement jubilación nombre femenino anticipadaearly warning system sistema de alerta rojathe early hours / the early morning la madrugadahe arrived early: llegó tempranoas early as possible: lo más pronto posible, cuanto antesten minutes early: diez minutos de adelantothe early stages: las primeras etapasin early May: a principios de mayoearly man: el hombre primitivoearly painting: la pintura antiguahe was early: llegó tempranoearly fruit: frutas tempranerasan early death: una muerte prematuraadj.• adelantado, -a adj.• primero, -a adj.• primitivo, -a adj.• pronto, -a adj.• tempranero, -a adj.• temprano, -a adj.adv.• al principio adv.• temprano adv.
I 'ɜːrli, 'ɜːliadjective -lier, -liest1) ( before expected time) <arrival/elections> anticipadoto be early — \<\<person\>\> llegar* temprano; \<\<baby\>\> adelantarse
the bus was early — el autobús pasó (or salió etc) antes de la hora
2)a) ( before normal time)to have an early night/lunch — acostarse*/comer temprano
early retirement — jubilación f anticipada
b) <crop/variety> temprano, tempranero3) ( far back in time)in the early hours of the morning — en las primeras horas de la mañana, de madrugada
in early June — a principios or a comienzos de junio
from an early age — desde pequeño, desde temprana edad (liter)
5) ( in near future) prontoat the earliest possible moment — lo antes or lo más pronto posible
II
adverb -lier, -liest1) ( before expected time) temprano2) ( before usual time) temprano, pronto (Esp)3) ( long ago)it was known as early as 200 BC — ya se sabía en el año 200 A.C
early in the morning/afternoon — por la mañana/tarde temprano
early in the week/year — a principios de semana/año
5) ( soon) pronto['ɜːlɪ] (compar earlier) (superl earliest)they won't be here till nine at the earliest — por temprano que lleguen no estarán aquí antes de las nueve
1. ADJ1) (=before appointed time)•
to be early — llegar temprano or prontoyou're early! — ¡llegas temprano or pronto!
I was half an hour early for the meeting — llegué a la reunión con media hora de adelanto, llegué a la reunión media hora antes de que empezase
2) (=before usual time) [death, menopause] prematuro, temprano•
to have an early lunch — almorzar temprano, comer temprano•
it was an early summer — el verano se había adelantado, el verano había llegado pronto3) (=soon) pronto•
at your earliest convenience — (Comm) con la mayor brevedad posible4) (=towards beginning)a) (of morning)•
we need two seats on an early flight — necesitamos dos plazas en un vuelo que salga por la mañana temprano or un vuelo a primera hora de la mañana•
to get up at an early hour — levantarse temprano, levantarse de madrugada•
it was early in the morning — era muy de mañana, era muy tempranob) [period, process]the early days/months/years of sth — los primeros días/meses/años de algo
in the early 60s/70s — a principios de los 60/70
she's in her early forties/seventies — tiene poco más de cuarenta/setenta años, tiene cuarenta/setenta y pocos (años)
in early January/March — a principios de enero/marzo
it's still early — (in process) es pronto todavía
from an early age — desde pequeño, desde una edad temprana frm
it flowers from early spring to early autumn — florece desde principios de la primavera a principios del otoño
•
the disease is hard to detect in its early stages — es difícil detectar la enfermedad en sus fases inicialesit's early days yet —
we may have to modify the plans, but it's early days yet — (esp Brit) quizás tengamos que modificar los planes, pero aún es pronto para saberlo
5) (=first) [man, Church] primitivo; [settlers, pioneers, Christians] primer6) (Hort) [fruit, vegetable, crop] temprano2. ADV1) (=ahead of time) [arrive, leave, get up, go to bed] temprano, prontohe arrived ten minutes early — llegó diez minutos antes de la hora, llegó con diez minutos de anticipación
- early to bed, early to risebright 2.2) (=soon) prontoas early as possible — lo más pronto posible, cuanto antes
3) (=towards beginning of sth)a) (in morning) tempranoyou get up too early — te levantas demasiado temprano, madrugas demasiado
b) (in period, process)•
early in sth, early in the afternoon — a primera hora de la tarde•
early last century — a principios del siglo pasado•
early next year — a principios del año que viene•
early on in his career — en los primeros años de su carreraearlier on — anteriormente, antes
•
early this month — a principios de (este) mes3.CPDearly bird * N — madrugador(a) m / f
early closing N — (also: early-closing day) (Brit) día en que muchas tiendas solo abren por la mañana
early riser N — madrugador(a) m / f
early warning radar system N — sistema m de radar de alerta temprana
early warning system N — sistema m de alarma temprana or precoz, sistema m de alerta temprana or precoz
pain acts as the body's early warning system — el dolor actúa como un sistema de alarma or alerta precoz
* * *
I ['ɜːrli, 'ɜːli]adjective -lier, -liest1) ( before expected time) <arrival/elections> anticipadoto be early — \<\<person\>\> llegar* temprano; \<\<baby\>\> adelantarse
the bus was early — el autobús pasó (or salió etc) antes de la hora
2)a) ( before normal time)to have an early night/lunch — acostarse*/comer temprano
early retirement — jubilación f anticipada
b) <crop/variety> temprano, tempranero3) ( far back in time)in the early hours of the morning — en las primeras horas de la mañana, de madrugada
in early June — a principios or a comienzos de junio
from an early age — desde pequeño, desde temprana edad (liter)
5) ( in near future) prontoat the earliest possible moment — lo antes or lo más pronto posible
II
adverb -lier, -liest1) ( before expected time) temprano2) ( before usual time) temprano, pronto (Esp)3) ( long ago)it was known as early as 200 BC — ya se sabía en el año 200 A.C
early in the morning/afternoon — por la mañana/tarde temprano
early in the week/year — a principios de semana/año
5) ( soon) pronto -
38 EN
- эффективность
- цели в области качества
- характеристика качества
- характеристика
- управление качеством
- улучшение качества
- удовлетворенность потребителей
- требование
- соответствие
- снижение градации
- система управления измерениями
- система менеджмента качества
- система менеджмента
- система
- сигнал электрического интерфейса, уровень n
- руководство по качеству
- ремонт
- результативность
- разрешение на отступление
- разрешение на отклонение
- процесс квалификации
- процесс измерения
- процесс
- процедура
- прослеживаемость
- производственная среда
- проектирование и разработка
- проект
- продукция
- проверяемая организация
- предупреждающее действие
- потребитель
- постоянное улучшение
- поставщик
- политика в области качества
- планирование качества
- план качества
- переделка
- организация
- организационная структура
- объективное свидетельство
- обеспечение качества
- нормативная и техническая документация
- несоответствие
- надежность
- метрологическое подтверждение пригодности
- метрологическая характеристика
- метрологическая служба
- менеджмент качества
- менеджмент
- коррекция
- корректирующее действие
- контроль
- компетентность
- качество
- испытание
- инфраструктура
- информация
- измерительное оборудование
- запись
- заинтересованная сторона
- Европейский стандарт
- документ
- дефект
- градация
- высшее руководство
- выпуск
- возможности
- валидация
- анализ
Европейский стандарт
(МСЭ-Т Q.1741).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
сигнал электрического интерфейса, уровень n
(МСЭ-Т Y.1453).
[ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]Тематики
- электросвязь, основные понятия
EN
- electrical interface signal, level n
- En
3.17 Европейский стандарт (European Norm; EN): Стандарт Европейского Союза.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 22742-2006: Автоматическая идентификация. Кодирование штриховое. Символы линейного штрихового кода и двумерные символы на упаковке продукции оригинал документа
3.4.3 проект (en project; fr projet): Уникальный процесс (3.4.1), состоящий из совокупности скоординированной и управляемой деятельности с начальной и конечной датами, предпринятый для достижения цели, соответствующей конкретным требованиям (3.1.2), включающий ограничения сроков, стоимости и ресурсов.
Примечания
1 Отдельный проект может быть частью структуры более крупного проекта.
2 В некоторых проектах цели совершенствуются, а характеристики (3.5.1) продукции определяются соответственно по мере развития проекта.
3 Выходом проекта может быть одно изделие или несколько единиц продукции (3.4.2).
4 Адаптировано из ИСО 10006.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.1.1 качество (en quality; fr qualité): Степень соответствия совокупности присущих характеристик (3.5.1) требованиям (3.1.2).
Примечания*
1 Термин «качество» может применяться с такими прилагательными, как плохое, хорошее или отличное.
2 Термин «присущий» в отличие от термина «присвоенный» означает имеющийся в чем-то. Прежде всего это относится к постоянным характеристикам.
__________
* Примечания приведены в редакции, отличной от ИСО 9000.
(Измененная редакция. Изм. № 1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.1.2 требование (en requirement; fr exigence): Потребность или ожидание, которое установлено, обычно предполагается или является обязательным.
Примечания
1 «Обычно предполагается» означает, что это общепринятая практика организации (3.3.1), ее потребителей (3.3.5) и других заинтересованных сторон (3.3.7), когда предполагаются рассматриваемые потребности или ожидания.
2 Для обозначения конкретного вида требования могут применяться определяющие слова, например требование к продукции, требование к менеджменту качества, требование потребителя.
3 Установленным является такое требование, которое определено, например в документе (3.7.2).
4 Требования могут выдвигаться различными заинтересованными сторонами.
(Измененная редакция. Изм. № 1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.1.3 градация (en grade; fr classe): Класс, сорт, категория или разряд, присвоенные различным требованиям (3.1.2) к качеству продукции (3.4.2), процессов (3.4.1) или систем (3.2.1), имеющих то же самое функциональное применение.
Пример: класс авиабилета или категория гостиницы в справочнике гостиниц.
Примечание - При определении требования к качеству градация обычно устанавливается.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.1.4 удовлетворенность потребителей (en customer satisfaction; fr satisfaction du client): Восприятие потребителями степени выполнения их требований (3.1.2).
Примечания
1 Жалобы потребителей являются показателем низкой удовлетворенности потребителей, однако их отсутствие не обязательно предполагает высокую удовлетворенность потребителей.
2 Даже если требования потребителей были с ними согласованы и выполнены, это не обязательно обеспечивает высокую удовлетворенность потребителей.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.1.5 возможности (en capability; fr capacité): Способность организации (3.3.1), системы (3.2.1) или процесса (3.4.1) производить продукцию (3.4.2), которая будет соответствовать требованиям (3.1.2) к этой продукции.
Примечание - Термины, относящиеся к возможностям процесса в области статистики, определены в ГОСТ Р 50779.11.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.1 система (en system; fr systéme): Совокупность взаимосвязанных или взаимодействующих элементов.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.2 система менеджмента (en management system; fr systéme de management): Система (3.2.1) для разработки политики и целей и достижения этих целей.
Примечание - Система менеджмента организации (3.3.1) может включать различные системы менеджмента, такие как система менеджмента качества (3.2.3), система менеджмента финансовой деятельности или система менеджмента охраны окружающей среды.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.3 система менеджмента качества (en quality management system; fr systéme de management de la qualité): Система менеджмента (3.2.2) для руководства и управления организацией (3.3.1) применительно к качеству (3.1.1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.4 политика в области качества (en quality policy; fr politique qualité): Общие намерения и направление деятельности организации (3.3.1) в области качества (3.1.1), официально сформулированные высшим руководством (3.2.7).
Примечания
1 Как правило, политика в области качества согласуется с общей политикой организации и обеспечивает основу для постановки целей в области качества (3.2.5).
2 Принципы менеджмента качества, изложенные в настоящем стандарте, могут служить основой для разработки политики в области качества.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.5 цели в области качества (en quality objective; fr objectif qualité): Цели, которых добиваются или к которым стремятся в области качества (3.1.1).
Примечания
1 Цели в области качества обычно базируются на политике организации в области качества (3.2.4).
2 Цели в области качества обычно устанавливаются для соответствующих функций и уровней организации (3.3.1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.6 менеджмент (en management; fr management): Скоординированная деятельность по руководству и управлению организацией (3.3.1).
Примечание - В английском языке термин «management» иногда относится к людям, т.е. к лицу или группе работников, наделенных полномочиями и ответственностью для руководства и управления организацией. Когда «management» используется в этом смысле, его следует всегда применять с определяющими словами с целью избежания путаницы с понятием «management», определенным выше. Например не одобряется выражение «руководство должно...», в то время как «высшее руководство (3.2.7) должно...» - приемлемо.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.7 высшее руководство (en top management; fr direction): Лицо или группа работников, осуществляющих направление деятельности и управление организацией (3.3.1) на высшем уровне.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.8 менеджмент качества (en quality management; fr management de la qualité): Скоординированная деятельность по руководству и управлению организацией (3.3.1) применительно к качеству (3.1.1).
Примечание - Руководство и управление применительно к качеству обычно включает разработку политики в области качества (3.2.4) и целей в области качества (3.2.5), планирование качества (3.2.9), управление качеством (3.2.10), обеспечение качества (3.2.11) и улучшение качества (3.2.12).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.9 планирование качества (en quality planning; fr planification de la qualité): Часть менеджмента качества (3.2.8), направленная на установление целей в области качества (3.2.5) и определяющая необходимые операционные процессы (3.4.1) жизненного цикла продукции и соответствующие ресурсы для достижения целей в области качества.
Примечание - Разработка планов качества (3.7.5) может быть частью планирования качества.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.10 управление качеством (en quality; fr maîtrise de la qualité): Часть менеджмента качества (3.2.8), направленная на выполнение требований (3.1.2) к качеству.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.11 обеспечение качества (en quality assurance; fr assurance de la qualité): Часть менеджмента качества (3.2.8), направленная на создание уверенности, что требования (3.1.2) к качеству будут выполнены.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.12 улучшение качества (en quality improvement; fr amélioration de la qualité): Часть менеджмента качества (3.2.8), направленная на увеличение способности выполнить требования (3.1.2) к качеству.
Примечание - Требования могут относиться к любым аспектам, таким как результативность (3.2.14), эффективность (3.2.15) или прослеживаемость (3.5.4).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.13 постоянное улучшение (en continual improvement; fr amélioration continue): Повторяющаяся деятельность по увеличению способности выполнить требования (3.1.2).
Примечание - Процесс (3.4.1) установления целей и поиска возможностей улучшения является постоянным процессом, использующим наблюдения аудита (проверки) (3.9.6) и заключения по результатам аудита (проверки) (3.9.7), анализ данных, анализ (3.8.7) со стороны руководства или другие средства и обычно ведущим к корректирующим действиям (3.6.5) или предупреждающим действиям (3.6.4).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.14 результативность (en effectiveness; fr efficacité): Степень реализации запланированной деятельности и достижения запланированных результатов.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.2.15 эффективность (en efficiency, fr efficience): Соотношение между достигнутым результатом и использованными ресурсами.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.1 организация (en organization; fr organisme): Группа работников и необходимых средств с распределением ответственности, полномочий и взаимоотношений.
Примеры: компания, корпорация, фирма, предприятие, учреждение, благотворительная организация, предприятие розничной торговли, ассоциация, а также их подразделения или комбинация из них.
Примечания
1 Распределение обычно бывает упорядоченным.
2 Организация может быть государственной или частной.
3 Настоящее определение действительно применительно к стандартам на системы менеджмента качества (3.2.3). Термин «организация» определен иначе в руководстве ИСО/МЭК 2.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.2 организационная структура (en organizational structure; fr organisation): Распределение ответственности, полномочий и взаимоотношений между работниками.
Примечания
1 Распределение обычно бывает упорядоченным.
2 Официально оформленная организационная структура часто содержится в руководстве по качеству (3.7.4) или в плане качества (3.7.5) проекта (3.4.3).
3 Область применения организационной структуры может включать соответствующие взаимодействия с внешними организациями (3.3.1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.3 инфраструктура (en infrastructure; fr infrastructure): < организация> Совокупность зданий, оборудования и служб обеспечения, необходимых для функционирования организации (3.3.1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.4 производственная среда (en work environment; fr environnement de travail): Совокупность условий, в которых выполняется работа.
Примечание - Условия включают физические, социальные, психологические и экологические факторы (такие как температура, системы признания и поощрения, эргономика и состав атмосферы).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.5 потребитель (en customer; fr client): Организация (3.3.1) или лицо, получающие продукцию (3.4.2).
Примеры: клиент, заказчик, конечный пользователь, розничный торговец, бенефициар и покупатель.
Примечание - Потребитель может быть внутренним или внешним по отношению к организации.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.6 поставщик (en supplier; fr fournisseur): Организация (3.3.1) или лицо, предоставляющие продукцию (3.4.2).
Примеры: производитель, оптовик, предприятие розничной торговли или продавец продукции, исполнитель услуги, поставщик информации.
Примечания
1 Поставщик может быть внутренним или внешним по отношению к организации.
2 В контрактной ситуации поставщика иногда называют «подрядчиком».
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.3.7 заинтересованная сторона (en interested party; fr partie intéressée): Лицо или группа, заинтересованные в деятельности или успехе организации (3.3.1).
Примеры: потребители (3.3.5), владельцы, работники организации, поставщики (3.3.6), банкиры, ассоциации, партнеры или общество.
Примечание - Группа может состоять из организации, ее части или из нескольких организаций.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.4.1 процесс (en process; fr processus): Совокупность взаимосвязанных или взаимодействующих видов деятельности, преобразующая входы в выходы.
Примечания
1 Входами к процессу обычно являются выходы других процессов.
2 Процессы в организации (3.3.1), как правило, планируются и осуществляются в управляемых условиях с целью добавления ценности.
3 Процесс, в котором подтверждение соответствия (3.6.1) конечной продукции (3.4.2) затруднено или экономически нецелесообразно, часто относят к «специальному процессу».
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.4.2 продукция (en product; fr produit): Результат процесса (3.4.1).
Примечания
1 Имеются четыре общие категории продукции:
- услуги (например перевозки);
- программные средства (например компьютерная программа, словарь);
- технические средства (например узел двигателя);
- перерабатываемые материалы (например смазка).
Многие виды продукции содержат элементы, относящиеся к различным общим категориям продукции. Отнесение продукции к услугам, программным или техническим средствам или перерабатываемым материалам зависит от преобладающего элемента.
Например поставляемая продукция «автомобиль» состоит из технических средств (например шин), перерабатываемых материалов (горючее, охлаждающая жидкость), программных средств (программное управление двигателем, инструкция водителю) и услуги (разъяснения по эксплуатации, даваемые продавцом).
2 Услуга является результатом, по меньшей мере, одного действия, обязательно осуществленного при взаимодействии поставщика (3.3.6) и потребителя (3.3.5), она, как правило, нематериальна. Предоставление услуги может включать, к примеру, следующее:
- деятельность, осуществленную на поставленной потребителем материальной продукции (например автомобиль, нуждающийся в ремонте);
- деятельность, осуществленную на поставленной потребителем нематериальной продукции (например заявление о доходах, необходимое для определения размера налога);
- предоставление нематериальной продукции (например информации в смысле передачи знаний);
- создание благоприятных условий для потребителей (например в гостиницах и ресторанах).
Программное средство содержит информацию и обычно является нематериальным, может также быть в форме подходов, операций или процедуры (3.4.5).
Техническое средство, как правило, является материальным и его количество выражается исчисляемой характеристикой (3.5.1). Перерабатываемые материалы обычно являются материальными и их количество выражается непрерывной характеристикой. Технические средства и перерабатываемые материалы часто называются товарами.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.4.4 проектирование и разработка (en design and development; fr conception et développement): Совокупность процессов (3.4.1), переводящих требования (3.1.2) в установленные характеристики (3.5.1) или нормативную и техническую документацию (3.7.3) на продукцию (3.4.2), процесс (3.4.1) или систему (3.2.1).
Примечания
1 Термины «проектирование» и «разработка» иногда используют как синонимы, а иногда - для определения различных стадий процесса проектирования и разработки в целом.
2 Для обозначения объекта проектирования и разработки могут применяться определяющие слова (например проектирование и разработка продукции или проектирование и разработка процесса).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.11 разрешение на отклонение (en concession; fr dérogation (aprés production): Разрешение на использование или выпуск (3.6.13) продукции (3.4.2), которая не соответствует установленным требованиям (3.1.2).
Примечание - Разрешение на отклонение обычно распространяется на поставку продукции с несоответствующими характеристиками (3.5.1) для установленных согласованных ограничений по времени или количеству данной продукции.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.4.5 процедура (en procedure; fr procédure): Установленный способ осуществления деятельности или процесса (3.4.1).
Примечания
1 Процедуры могут быть документированными или недокументированными.
2 Если процедура документирована, часто используется термин «письменная процедура» или «документированная процедура». Документ (3.7.2), содержащий процедуру, может называться «документированная процедура».
<3>3.5 Термины, относящиеся к характеристикам
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.5.1 характеристика (en characteristic; fr caractéristique): Отличительное свойство.
Примечания
1 Характеристика может быть собственной или присвоенной.
2 Характеристика может быть качественной или количественной.
3 Существуют различные классы характеристик, такие как:
- физические (например механические, электрические, химические или биологические характеристики);
- органолептические (например связанные с запахом, осязанием, вкусом, зрением, слухом);
- этические (например вежливость, честность, правдивость);
- временные (например пунктуальность, безотказность, доступность);
- эргономические (например физиологические характеристики или связанные с безопасностью человека);
- функциональные (например максимальная скорость самолета).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.5.2 характеристика качества (en quality characteristic; fr caractéristique qualité): Присущая характеристика (3.5.1) продукции (3.4.2), процесса (3.4.1) или системы (3.2.1), вытекающая из требования (3.1.2).
Примечания
1 «Присущая» означает имеющаяся в чем-то. Прежде всего это относится к постоянной характеристике.
2 Присвоенные характеристики продукции, процесса или системы (например цена продукции, владелец продукции) не являются характеристиками качества этой продукции, процесса или системы.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.5.3 надежность (en dependability; fr sûreté de fonctionnement): Собирательный термин, применяемый для описания свойства готовности и влияющих на него свойств безотказности, ремонтопригодности и обеспеченности технического обслуживания и ремонта.
Примечание - Надежность применяется только для общего неколичественного описания свойства. [МЭК 60050-191:1990].
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.5.4 прослеживаемость (en traceability; fr tracabilité): Возможность проследить историю, применение или местонахождение того, что рассматривается.
Примечания
1 При рассмотрении продукции (3.4.2) прослеживаемость может относиться к:
- происхождению материалов и комплектующих;
- истории обработки;
- распределению и местонахождению продукции после поставки.
2 В области метрологии определение, приведенное в VIM-1993, 6.10, является принятым.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.1 соответствие (en conformity; fr conformite): Выполнение требования (3.1.2).
Примечания
1 Настоящее определение согласуется с приведенным в Руководстве ИСО/МЭК 2, но отличается от него формулировкой, чтобы соответствовать концепции ИСО 9000.
2 В английском языке термин «conformance» является синонимом, но он вызывает возражения.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.2 несоответствие (en nonconformity; fr non-conformite): Невыполнение требования (3.1.2).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.3 дефект (en defect; fr defaut): Невыполнение требования (3.1.2), связанного с предполагаемым или установленным использованием.
Примечания
1 Различие между понятиями дефект и несоответствие (3.6.2) является важным, так как имеет подтекст юридического характера, связанный с вопросами ответственности за качество продукции. Следовательно, термин «дефект» надо использовать чрезвычайно осторожно.
2 Использование, предполагаемое потребителем (3.3.5), может зависеть от характера информации, такой как инструкции по использованию и техническому обслуживанию, предоставляемые поставщиком (3.3.6).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.4 предупреждающее действие (en preventive; fr action preventive): Действие, предпринятое для устранения причины потенциального несоответствия (3.6.2) или другой потенциально нежелательной ситуации.
Примечания
1 У потенциального несоответствия может быть несколько причин.
2 Предупреждающее действие предпринимается для предотвращения возникновения события, тогда как корректирующее действие (3.6.5) - для предотвращения повторного возникновения события.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.5 корректирующее действие (en corrective action; fr action corrective): Действие, предпринятое для устранения причины обнаруженного несоответствия (3.6.2) или другой нежелательной ситуации.
Примечания
1 У несоответствия может быть несколько причин.
2 Корректирующее действие предпринимается для предотвращения повторного возникновения события, тогда как предупреждающее действие (3.6.4) - для предотвращения возникновения события.
3 Существует различие между коррекцией (3.6.6) и корректирующим действием.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.6 коррекция (en correction; fr correction): Действие, предпринятое для устранения обнаруженного несоответствия (3.6.2).
Примечания
1 Коррекция может осуществляться в сочетании с корректирующим действием (3.6.5).
2 Коррекция может включать, например переделку (3.6.7) или снижение градации (3.6.8).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.7 переделка (en rework; fr reprise): Действие, предпринятое в отношении несоответствующей продукции (3.4.2), с тем чтобы она соответствовала требованиям (3.1.2).
Примечание - В отличие от переделки ремонт (3.6.9) может состоять в воздействии на отдельные части несоответствующей продукции или в их замене.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.8 снижение градации (en regrade; fr reclassement): Изменение градации (3.1.3) несоответствующей продукции (3.4.2), чтобы она соответствовала требованиям (3.1.2), отличным от исходных.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.9 ремонт (en repair; fr réparation): Действие, предпринятое в отношении несоответствующей продукции (3.4.2), чтобы сделать ее приемлемой для предполагаемого использования.
Примечания
1 Ремонт включает действие по исправлению, предпринятое в отношении ранее соответствовавшей продукции для ее восстановления с целью использования, например как часть технического обслуживания.
2 В отличие от переделки (3.6.7) ремонт может воздействовать на отдельные части несоответствующей продукции или изменять их.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.12 разрешение на отступление (en deviation permit; fr dérogation (avant production): Разрешение на отступление от исходных установленных требований (3.1.2) к продукции (3.4.2) до ее производства.
Примечание - Разрешение на отступление, как правило, дается на ограниченное количество продукции или период времени, а также для конкретного использования.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.6.13 выпуск (en release; fr libération): Разрешение на переход к следующей стадии процесса (3.4.1).
Примечание - В английском языке, в контексте компьютерных программных средств, термином «release» часто называют версию самих программных средств.
<3>3.7 Термины, относящиеся к документации
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.7.1 информация (en information; fr information): Значимые данные.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.7.2 документ (en document; fr document): Информация (3.7.1) и соответствующий носитель.
Примеры: записи (3.7.6), нормативная и техническая документация (3.7.3), процедурный документ, чертеж, отчет, стандарт.
Примечания
1 Носитель может быть бумажным, магнитным, электронным или оптическим компьютерным диском, фотографией или эталонным образцом, или комбинацией из них.
2 Комплект документов, например технических условий и записей, часто называется «документацией».
3 Некоторые требования (3.1.2) (например требование к разборчивости) относятся ко всем видам документов, однако могут быть иные требования к техническим условиям (например требование к управлению пересмотрами) и записям (например требование к восстановлению).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.7.3 нормативная и техническая документация (en specification; fr spécification): Документы (3.7.2), устанавливающие требования (3.1.2).
Примечания
1 Нормативные документы могут относиться к деятельности (например документированная процедура, технологическая документация на процесс или методику испытаний) или продукции (3.4.2) (например технические условия на продукцию, эксплуатационная документация и чертежи).
2 Термин дан в редакции, отличной от приведенной в ИСО 9000, в соответствии с терминологией, принятой в Российской Федерации.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.7.4 руководство по качеству (en quality manual; fr manuеl qualité): Документ (3.7.2), определяющий систему менеджмента качества (3.2.3) организации (3.3.1).
Примечание - Руководства по качеству могут различаться по форме и детальности изложения, исходя из соответствия размеру и сложности организации.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.7.5 план качества (en quality plan; fr qualité): Документ (3.7.2), определяющий, какие процедуры (3.4.5) и соответствующие ресурсы, кем и когда должны применяться к конкретному проекту (3.4.3), продукции (3.4.2), процессу (3.4.1) или контракту.
Примечания
1 Эти процедуры обычно включают те процедуры, которые имеют ссылки на процессы менеджмента качества и процессы производства продукции.
2 План качества часто содержит ссылки на разделы руководства по качеству (3.7.4) или документированные процедуры.
3 План качества, как правило, является одним из результатов планирования качества (3.2.9).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.7.6 запись (en record; fr enregistrement): Документ (3.7.2), содержащий достигнутые результаты или свидетельства осуществленной деятельности.
Примечания
1 Записи могут использоваться, например для документирования прослеживаемости (3.5.4), свидетельства проведения верификации (3.8.4), предупреждающих действий (3.6.4) и корректирующих действий (3.6.5).
2 Обычно пересмотры записей не нуждаются в управлении.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.8.1 объективное свидетельство (en objective evidence; fr preuve tangible): Данные, подтверждающие наличие или истинность чего-либо.
Примечание - Объективное свидетельство может быть получено путем наблюдения, измерения, испытания (3.8.3) или другими способами.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.8.2 контроль (en inspection; fr contrôle): Процедура оценивания соответствия путем наблюдения и суждений, сопровождаемых соответствующими измерениями, испытаниями или калибровкой. [Руководство ИСО/МЭК 2].
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.8.3 испытание (en test; fr essai): Определение одной или нескольких характеристик (3.5.1) согласно установленной процедуре (3.4.5).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.8.5 валидация (en validation; fr validation): Подтверждение на основе представления объективных свидетельств (3.8.1) того, что требования (3.1.2), предназначенные для конкретного использования или применения, выполнены.
Примечания
1 Термин «подтверждено» используется для обозначения соответствующего статуса.
2 Условия применения могут быть реальными или смоделированными.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.8.6 процесс квалификации (en qualification process; fr processus de qualification): Процесс (3.4.1) демонстрации способности выполнить установленные требования (3.1.2).
Примечания
1 Термин «квалифицирован» используется для обозначения соответствующего статуса.
2 Квалификация может распространяться на работников, продукцию (3.4.2), процессы или системы (3.2.1).
Пример: квалификация аудиторов (экспертов по сертификации систем качества), квалификация материала.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.8.7 анализ (en review; fr revue): Деятельность, предпринимаемая для установления пригодности, адекватности, результативности (3.2.14) рассматриваемого объекта для достижения установленных целей.
Примечание - Анализ может также включать определение эффективности (3.2.15).
Примеры: анализ со стороны руководства, анализ проектирования и разработки, анализ требований потребителей и анализ несоответствий.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.9.8 проверяемая организация (en auditee; fr audité): Организация (3.3.1), подвергающаяся аудиту (проверке) (3.9.1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.9.12 компетентность (en competence; fr compétence): Выраженная способность применять свои знания и умение.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.10.1 система управления измерениями (en measurement control system; fr systéme de maîtrise de la measure): Совокупность взаимосвязанных или взаимодействующих элементов, необходимых для достижения метрологического подтверждения пригодности (3.10.3) и постоянного управления процессами измерения (3.10.2).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.10.2 процесс измерения (en measurement process; fr processus de mesure): Совокупность операций для установления значения величины.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.10.3 метрологическое подтверждение пригодности (en metrological confirmation; fr confirmation métrologique): Совокупность операций, необходимая для обеспечения соответствия измерительного оборудования (3.10.4) требованиям (3.1.2), отвечающим его назначению.
Примечания
1 Метрологическое подтверждение пригодности обычно включает калибровку или верификацию (3.8.4), любую необходимую юстировку или ремонт (3.6.9) и последующую перекалибровку, сравнение с метрологическими требованиями для предполагаемого использования оборудования, а также требуемое пломбирование и маркировку.
2 Метрологическое подтверждение пригодности не выполнено до тех пор, пока пригодность измерительного оборудования для использования по назначению не будет продемонстрирована и задокументирована.
3 Требования к использованию по назначению включают такие характеристики, как диапазон, разрешающая способность, максимально допустимые погрешности и т.д.
4 Требования к метрологическому подтверждению пригодности обычно отличаются от требований на продукцию и в них не регламентируются.
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.10.4 измерительное оборудование (en measuring equipment; fr équipement de mesure): Средства измерения, программные средства, эталоны, стандартные образцы, вспомогательная аппаратура или комбинация из них, необходимые для выполнения процесса измерения (3.10.2).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.10.5 метрологическая характеристика (en metrological characteristic; fr caractéristique metrologyque): Отличительная особенность, которая может повлиять на результаты измерения.
Примечания
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
3.10.6 метрологическая служба (en metrological function; fr fonction métrologique): Организационная структура, несущая ответственность за определение и внедрение системы управления измерениями (3.10.1).
Источник: ГОСТ Р ИСО 9000-2001: Системы менеджмента качества. Основные положения и словарь оригинал документа
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > EN
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39 control
1) управление; регулирование; контроль; надзор2) регулирующий орган; регулирующий и контролирующий блок; управляющий клапан (напр. автоматического фильтра)3) мн. ч. тяги управления; рычаги управления; органы управления4) контрольный5) управлять; контролировать; регулировать•- control of concrete quality - control of streams - accounting control - air control - air pollution control - automatic control - batch control - brine line flow control - cascade control - continuous control - conveyer control - crane control - crest control - development control - distant control - electrical control - electronic control unit - environmental control - feed control - fingertip control - fire control system - flood control - foot control - hand control - health control - highway traffic control - humidity control - ice control - inductive loop control - lack of control - level control - manual control - material quality control - odour control - overall technical control - pedestrian control - planning control - pneumatic control - pollution control - power control - press-button control - progress control - pulse control - quality control - radar control - radioactive control - regular control - remote control - selective control - shipping control - street traffic control - tape control - technical control - temperature control - thermostatic control - tight control over building norms - timed control - traffic control - traffic-actuated control - two-position control* * *1. управление, руководство2. контроль, проверка; надзор3. регулировка, регулирование4. орган [рычаг] управления, регулятор5. меры борьбы (с пылью, заражением), меры защиты ( от шума)- control of accesscontrol to strict tolerance — контроль [проверка] с соблюдением строгих требований в отношении допусков
- control of concrete quality
- controls of lifting appliances
- air control
- air traffic control
- air volume control
- algae control
- automatic cycling control
- automatic drier control
- automatic mix control
- automatic proportioning control
- automatic push-button control
- avalanche control
- budgetary control
- building control
- cabin controls
- cascade control
- centralized control
- close control
- compensated control
- concrete quality control
- concrete temperature control
- constant flow/variable temperature control
- constant temperature/variable flow control
- corrosion control
- cost control
- crack control
- cycling control
- density control
- derivative control
- development control
- dew point control
- differential control
- differential pressure control
- direct humidity control
- discharge control
- distant control
- downstream control
- dust control
- electrical control
- flame failure control
- floating control
- flood control
- floor flatness control
- foot control
- ground control
- hand control
- high-low control
- horizontal control
- humidity control
- hydraulic dust control
- ice control
- integral control
- job cost control
- landslide control
- level control
- local control
- low pressure control
- manual control
- manual cycling control
- manual proportioning control
- mechanical control
- mix control
- mixing control
- modulating control
- moisture control
- noise control
- odor control
- one-man control
- on-off control
- pedal control
- photo control
- photogrammetric control
- planning control
- pneumatic control
- pollution control
- power control
- power-assisted control
- priority control
- process quality control
- process control
- progress control
- proportional control
- pulse control
- push button control
- quality control
- rate action control
- reflective crack control
- remote control
- reset control
- river control
- rodent control
- running control
- sediment control
- self-operated control
- sequence control
- set control
- site control of materials
- slave control
- smoke control
- snow control
- snow and ice control
- sound control
- spring control
- statistical quality control
- step control
- stock control
- supplemental control
- thermostatic control
- traffic control
- traffic merging control
- tunneling control by laser and double target
- two-position control
- two-step control
- unison control
- upstream control
- vibration control
- water control
- workability control
- zone control -
40 law
n1) закон- in law2) право; правоведение; законодательство- take law proceedings against smb.- institute law proceedings against smb.4) закон (природы, научный)5) правило•- land law- remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law- club law- case law- good law- law act- air law
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