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61 Vermuyden, Sir Cornelius

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering

[br]

b. c. 1590 St Maartensdijk, Zeeland, the Netherlands

d. 4 February 1656 probably London, England

[br]

Dutch/British civil engineer responsible for many of the drainage and flood-protection schemes in low-lying areas of England in the seventeenth century.

[br]

At the beginning of the seventeenth century, several wealthy men in England joined forces as "adventurers" to put their money into land ventures. One such group was responsible for the draining of the Fens. The first need was to find engineers who were versed in the processes of land drainage, particularly when that land was at, or below, sea level. It was natural, therefore, to turn to the Netherlands to find these skilled men. Joachim Liens was one of the first of the Dutch engineers to go to England, and he started work on the Great Level; however, no real progress was made until 1621, when Cornelius Vermuyden was brought to England to assist in the work.

Vermuyden had grown up in a district where he could see for himself the techniques of embanking and reclaiming land from the sea. He acquired a reputation of expertise in this field, and by 1621 his fame had spread to England. In that year the Thames had flooded and breached its banks near Havering and Dagenham in Essex. Vermuyden was commissioned to repair the breach and drain neighbouring marshland, with what he claimed as complete success. The Commissioners of Sewers for Essex disputed this claim and whthheld his fee, but King Charles I granted him a portion of the reclaimed land as compensation.

In 1626 Vermuyden carried out his first scheme for drainage works as a consultant. This was the drainage of Hatfield Chase in South Yorkshire. Charles I was, in fact, Vermuyden's employer in the drainage of the Chase, and the work was undertaken as a means of raising additional rents for the Royal Exchequer. Vermuyden was himself an "adventurer" in the undertaking, putting capital into the venture and receiving the title to a considerable proportion of the drained lands. One of the important elements of his drainage designs was the principal of "washes", which were flat areas between the protective dykes and the rivers to carry flood waters, to prevent them spreading on to nearby land. Vermuyden faced bitter opposition from those whose livelihoods depended on the marshlands and who resorted to sabotage of the embankments and violence against his imported Dutch workmen to defend their rights. The work could not be completed until arbiters had ruled out on the respective rights of the parties involved. Disagreements and criticism of his engineering practices continued and he gave up his interest in Hatfield Chase. The Hatfield Chase undertaking was not a great success, although the land is now rich farmland around the river Don in Doncaster. However, the involved financial and land-ownership arrangements were the key to the granting of a knighthood to Cornelius Vermuyden in January 1628, and in 1630 he purchased 4,000 acres of low-lying land on Sedgemoor in Somerset.

In 1629 Vermuyden embarked on his most important work, that of draining the Great Level in the fenlands of East Anglia. Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford, was given charge of the work, with Vermuyden as Engineer; in this venture they were speculators and partners and were recompensed by a grant of land. The area which contains the Cambridgeshire tributaries of the Great Ouse were subject to severe and usually annual flooding. The works to contain the rivers in their flood period were important. Whilst the rivers were contained with the enclosed flood plain, the land beyond became highly sought-after because of the quality of the soil. The fourteen "adventurers" who eventually came into partnership with the Earl of Bedford and Vermuyden were the financiers of the scheme and also received land in accordance with their input into the scheme. In 1637 the work was claimed to be complete, but this was disputed, with Vermuyden defending himself against criticism in a pamphlet entitled Discourse Touching the Great Fennes (1638; 1642, London). In fact, much remained to be done, and after an interruption due to the Civil War the scheme was finished in 1652. Whilst the process of the Great Level works had closely involved the King, Oliver Cromwell was equally concerned over the success of the scheme. By 1655 Cornelius Vermuyden had ceased to have anything to do with the Great Level. At that stage he was asked to account for large sums granted to him to expedite the work but was unable to do so; most of his assets were seized to cover the deficiency, and from then on he subsided into obscurity and poverty.

While Cornelius Vermuyden, as a Dutchman, was well versed in the drainage needs of his own country, he developed his skills as a hydraulic engineer in England and drained acres of derelict flooded land.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knighted 1628.

Further Reading

L.E.Harris, 1953, Vermuyden and the Fens, London: Cleaver Hume Press. J.Korthals-Altes, 1977, Sir Cornelius Vermuyden: The Lifework of a Great Anglo-

Dutchman in Land-Reclamation and Drainage, New York: Alto Press.

KM / LRD

Biographical history of technology > Vermuyden, Sir Cornelius
62 down

I
1.
adverb
1) (towards or in a low or lower position, level or state: He climbed down to the bottom of the ladder.) (hacia) abajo

2) (on or to the ground: The little boy fell down and cut his knee.) al suelo

3) (from earlier to later times: The recipe has been handed down in our family for years.) a través de los tiempos

4) (from a greater to a smaller size, amount etc: Prices have been going down steadily.) abajo

5) (towards or in a place thought of as being lower, especially southward or away from a centre: We went down from Glasgow to Bristol.) abajo

2. preposition
1) (in a lower position on: Their house is halfway down the hill.) abajo

2) (to a lower position on, by, through or along: Water poured down the drain.) hacia abajo

3) (along: The teacher's gaze travelled slowly down the line of children.) por

3. verb
(to finish (a drink) very quickly, especially in one gulp: He downed a pint of beer.) tragarse rápidamente

- downward
- downwards
- downward
- down-and-out
- down-at-heel
- downcast
- downfall
- downgrade
- downhearted
- downhill
- downhill racing
- downhill skiing
- down-in-the-mouth
- down payment
- downpour
- downright
4. adjective
He is a downright nuisance!) total

- downstairs
- downstream
- down-to-earth
- downtown
- downtown
- down-trodden
- be/go down with
- down on one's luck
- down tools
- down with
- get down to
- suit someone down to the ground
- suit down to the ground
II
noun
(small, soft feathers: a quilt filled with down.) plumón

- downie®
- downy

down adv prep abajo

don't look down! ¡no mires hacia abajo!

the boat went down the river el barco iba río abajo

fruit prices are down el precio de la fruta ha bajado

she walked down the road bajó la calle andando down también combina con muchos verbos. Aquí tienes algunos ejemplos

sit down siéntate

he put his books down on the table dejó sus libros en la mesa

he fell down the stairs and broke his leg cayó por la escalera y se rompió la pierna

down

tr[daʊn]

noun

1 (on bird) plumón nombre masculino; (on peach) pelusa; (on body, face) vello, pelusilla; (on upper lip) bozo, pelusilla

————————

down

tr[daʊn]

preposition

1 (to a lower level) (hacia) abajo

■ the car rolled down the hill el coche se fue rodando cuesta abajo

■ tears streamed down her face las lágrimas le corrían por la cara

■ he ran down the stairs corrió escaleras abajo

■ she ran her finger down the list recorrío la lista con el dedo

2 (at a lower level) abajo

■ can you see that cottage down below in the valley? ¿ves aquella casita allá abajo en el valle?

3 (along) por

■ cut it down the middle córtalo por la mitad

■ we drove down the coast condujimos por la costa

■ she walked down the street iba por la calle

4 SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL familiar (to, in) a, en

■ we went down the pub fuimos al pub

5 (in time) a través de

■ down the ages a través de los tiempos

adverb

1 (to lower level) (hacia) abajo; (to the floor) al suelo; (to the ground) a tierra

■ he looked down at his feet miró a sus pies

■ why don't you go and lie down? ¿por qué no te echas?

■ the boy fell down el chico se cayó (al suelo)

■ she bent down to pick up the coin se agachó para recoger la moneda

■ the girl was knocked down la chica fue atropellada

■ the river flows down to the sea el río fluye hasta el mar

■ let's walk down instead of getting the lift bajemos a pie en vez de coger el ascensor

2 (at lower level) abajo

■ down here/there aquí/allí abajo

■ it's in the third drawer down está en el tercer cajón

■ she'll be down in a minute enseguida baja

3 (in or towards the south) a

■ we're moving down to Southampton nos mudamos a Southampton

4 (less - of price, quantity, volume, etc)

■ sales are down by 10% las ventas han bajado un diez por ciento

■ profits are down on last year's las ganancias han bajado desde el año pasado

■ they were two goals down after 10 minutes iban perdiendo por dos goles después de 10 minutos

■ turn the volume down baja el volumen

5 (on paper, in writing)

■ she wrote his phone number down apuntó su teléfono

■ put me down for the lottery apúntame para la lotería

6 (of money - to be paid at once in cash) al contado; (- out of pocket) menos

■ you have to pay 100 pounds down hay que pagar un depósito de cien libras

■ at the end I was a fiver down al final había perdido cinco libras

adjective

1 (to a lower level- escalator) de bajada; (- train) que va hacia las afueras

2 familiar (finished, dealt with) acabado,-a, hecho,-a

■ seven down, three to go! ¡he hecho siete, faltan tres!

3 (not in operation) no operativo,-a

■ the lines are down las líneas están cortadas

■ the system's down el sistema no funciona

4 familiar (depressed) deprimido,-a

■ she's feeling a bit down anda un poco deprimida

transitive verb

1 (knock over, force to ground) derribar, tumbar

2 familiar (drink) tragarse rápidamente, beberse rápidamente

■ he downed the glass in one se bebió la copa de un trago

interjection

1 (to dog) ¡quieto!

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

down to (as far as) hasta

down under (en) Australia

down with...! ¡abajo...!

to be down on somebody tenerle ojeriza a alguien

to be down to something quedar sólo algo

■ I'm down to my last pound no me queda más que una sola libra

to be down to somebody (responsibility) ser responsabilidad de 2 (fault) ser culpa de

■ it's all down to me now ya todo depende de mi

to be/come/go down with something SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL estar con algo

to down tools dejar de trabajar

to have a down on somebody tenerle ojeriza a alguien, tenerle manía a alguien

to keep food down retener comida

■ he can't keep any food down no puede retener nada de comida

to put something down dejar algo

■ can you put that book down for a second? ¿puedes dejar ese libro un momento?

to put the phone down colgar

■ she put the phone down on me me colgó

down ['daʊn] vt

1) fell: tumbar, derribar, abatir

2) defeat: derrotar

down adv

1) downward: hacia abajo

2)

to lie down : acostarse, echarse

3)

to put down (money) : pagar un depósito (de dinero)

4)

to sit down : sentarse

5)

to take down, to write down : apuntar, anotar

down adj

1) descending: de bajada

the down elevator: el ascensor de bajada

2) reduced: reducido, rebajado

attendance is down: la concurrencia ha disminuido

3) downcast: abatido, deprimido

down n

: plumón m

down prep

1) : (hacia) abajo

down the mountain: montaña abajo

I walked down the stairs: bajé por la escalera

2) along: por, a lo largo de

we ran down the beach: corrimos por la playa

3) : a través de

down the years: a través de los años

down

adj.

• acostado, -a adj.

• descendente adj.

• triste adj.

adv.

• abajo adv.

• bajo adv.

• hacia abajo adv.

n.

• borra s.f.

• plumón s.m.

• vello s.m.

prep.

• abajo de prep.

v.

• derrocar v.

I daʊn
adverb

1)

a) ( in downward direction)

to go down — bajar

to look down — mirar (hacia or para) abajo

I ran all the way down to the bottom — corrí hasta abajo

to help somebody down — ayudar a alguien a bajar

from the waist down — desde la cintura para abajo

down, boy! — abajo!

down with tyranny! — abajo la tiranía!

b) ( downstairs)

can you come down? — ¿puedes bajar?

2)

a) ( of position) abajo

down in the valley — abajo en el valle

two floors down — dos pisos más abajo

down here/there — aquí/allí (abajo)

down under — (colloq) en Australia

b) ( downstairs)

I'm down in the cellar — estoy aquí abajo, en el sótano

c) (lowered, pointing downward) bajado

with the blinds down — con las persianas bajadas

face down — boca abajo

d) ( in position)

the carpet isn't down yet — aún no han puesto or colocado la alfombra

e) ( prostrate)

I was down with flu all last week — estuve con gripe toda la semana pasada

3) (of numbers, volume, intensity)

with the volume down low — con el volumen al mínimo

my temperature is down to 38° C — la fiebre me ha bajado a 38° C

circulation is down — la circulación ha bajado

they were two goals down — iban perdiendo por dos goles

from the president down — desde el presidente para abajo

4)

a) (in, toward the south)

to go/come down south/to London — ir*/venir* al sur/a Londres

b) (at, to another place) (esp BrE)

down on the farm — en la granja

I'm going down to the library — voy a la biblioteca

5)

a) (dismantled, removed)

the room looks bare with the pictures down — la habitación queda desnuda sin los cuadros

once this wall is down — una vez que hayan derribado esta pared; see also burn, cut, fall down

b) ( out of action)

the telephone lines are down — las líneas de teléfono están cortadas

the system is down — ( Comput) el sistema no funciona

c) ( deflated)

one of your tires is down — tienes un neumático desinflado

6) ( in writing)

he's down for tomorrow at ten — está apuntado or anotado para mañana a las diez

she's down as unemployed — consta or figura como desempleada

7) ( hostile)

to be down on somebody — (colloq)

my teacher's down on me at the moment — la maestra me tiene ojeriza, la maestra la ha agarrado conmigo (AmL fam)

8) down to

a) ( as far as) hasta

from the roof down to the foundations — desde el tejado hasta los cimientos

right down to the present day — hasta nuestros días

b) ( reduced to)

we're down to our last tin of tomatoes — nos queda sólo una lata de tomates

c) ( to be done by)

the rest is down to you — el resto depende de ti

II

preposition

1)

a) ( in downward direction)

we ran down the slope — corrimos cuesta abajo

to come down the stairs — bajar por la escalera

it fell down a hole — se cayó por un agujero

you've spilled wine down your shirt — te has manchado la camisa de vino

b) ( at lower level)

halfway down the page — hacia la mitad de la página

2)

a) ( along)

we drove on down the coast/the Mississippi — seguimos por la costa/a lo largo del Misisipí

b) ( further along)

the library is just down the street — la biblioteca está un poco más allá or más adelante

c) (to, in) (BrE colloq)

I saw her down the pub yesterday — ayer la vi en el bar

3) ( through)

down the centuries — a través de los siglos

III

adjective

1) (before n) ( going downward)

the down escalator — la escalera mecánica de bajada or para bajar

2) ( depressed) (colloq) (pred) deprimido

IV

noun

1) u

a) ( on bird) plumón m

b) (on face, body) vello m, pelusilla f

c) (on plant, fruit) pelusa f

2) downs pl (esp BrE Geog) colinas fpl

V

transitive verb

a) ( drink) beberse or tomarse rápidamente

b) ( knock down) \<\<person\>\> tumbar, derribar

I [daʊn] When down is an element in a phrasal verb, eg back down, glance down, play down, look up the verb.
1. ADV

1) (physical movement) abajo, hacia abajo; (=to the ground) a tierra

there was snow all the way down to London — estuvo nevando todo el camino hasta Londres

• to fall down — caerse

• I ran all the way down — bajé toda la distancia corriendo

2) (static position) abajo; (=on the ground) por tierra, en tierra

to be down — (Aer) haber aterrizado, estar en tierra; [person] haber caído, estar en tierra

I'll be down in a minute — ahora bajo

he isn't down yet — (eg for breakfast) todavía no ha bajado

the blinds are down — están bajadas las persianas

the sun is down — el sol se ha puesto

• down below — allá abajo

• down by the river — abajo en la ribera

• down here — aquí (abajo)

• down on the shore — abajo en la playa

• down there — allí (abajo)

3) (Geog)

• he came down from Glasgow to London — ha bajado or venido de Glasgow a Londres

to be down from college — haber terminado el curso universitario

• he lives down South — vive en el sur

• down under — (Brit) * (=in Australia) en Australia; (=in New Zealand) en Nueva Zelanda

to go down under — (Brit) * (=to Australia) ir a Australia; (=to New Zealand) ir a Nueva Zelanda

4) (in writing)

write this down — apunta esto

you're down for the next race — estás inscrito para la próxima carrera

you're down for Tuesday — te hemos apuntado para el martes

5) (in volume, degree, status)

the tyres are down — los neumáticos están desinflados

his temperature is down — le ha bajado la temperatura

the price of meat is down — ha bajado el precio de la carne

England are two goals down — Inglaterra está perdiendo por dos tantos

I'm £20 down — he perdido 20 libras

• I'm down to my last cigarette — me queda un cigarrillo nada más

6) (indicating a series or succession)

from the year 1600 down to the present day — desde el año 1600 hasta el presente

from the biggest down to the smallest — desde el más grande hasta el más pequeño

7) (=ill)

I've been down with flu — he estado con gripe

8)

down to: it's down to him — (=due to, up to) le toca a él, le incumbe a él

it's all down to us now — ahora nosotros somos los únicos responsables

9) (as deposit)

to pay £50 down — pagar un depósito de 50 libras, hacer un desembolso inicial de 50 libras

10) (in exclamations)

down! — ¡abajo!; (to dog) ¡quieto!

down with traitors! — ¡abajo los traidores!

11) (=completed etc)

one down, five to go — uno en el bote y quedan cinco

12) (esp US)

to be down on sb — tener manía or inquina a algn *

2. PREP

1) (indicating movement)

he went down the hill — fue cuesta abajo

to go down the road — ir calle abajo

he's gone down the pub * — se ha ido al bar

looking down this road, you can see... — mirando carretera abajo, se ve...

he ran his finger down the list — pasó el dedo por la lista

the rain was running down the trunk — la lluvia corría por el tronco

2) (=at a lower point on)

he lives down the street (from us) — vive en esta calle, más abajo de nosotros

• down the ages — a través de los siglos

• face down — boca abajo

• down river — río abajo ( from de)

3. ADJ

1) (=depressed) deprimido

2) (=not functioning)

the computer is down — el ordenador no funciona

the power lines are down — los cables de alta tensión están cortados

the telephone lines are down — las líneas de teléfono están cortadas

3) (Brit) [train, line] de bajada

4. VT
*
1) [+ food] devorar; [+ drink] beberse (de un trago), tragarse

he downed a pint of beer — tragó una pinta de cerveza

2) [+ opponent] tirar al suelo, echar al suelo; [+ plane] derribar, abatir

- down tools

5.

N

to have a down on sb — (Brit) * tenerle manía or inquina a algn *

6.

CPD

down bow N — (Mus) descenso m de arco

down cycle N — (Econ) ciclo m de caída

down payment N — (Econ) (=initial payment) entrada f ; (=deposit) desembolso m inicial

II

[daʊn]
N (on bird) plumón m, flojel m ; (on face) bozo m ; (on body) vello m ; (on fruit) pelusa f ; (Bot) vilano m
III

[daʊn]
N (Geog) colina f
the Downs — (Brit) las Downs (colinas del sur de Inglaterra)

* * *

I [daʊn]
adverb

1)

a) ( in downward direction)

to go down — bajar

to look down — mirar (hacia or para) abajo

I ran all the way down to the bottom — corrí hasta abajo

to help somebody down — ayudar a alguien a bajar

from the waist down — desde la cintura para abajo

down, boy! — abajo!

down with tyranny! — abajo la tiranía!

b) ( downstairs)

can you come down? — ¿puedes bajar?

2)

a) ( of position) abajo

down in the valley — abajo en el valle

two floors down — dos pisos más abajo

down here/there — aquí/allí (abajo)

down under — (colloq) en Australia

b) ( downstairs)

I'm down in the cellar — estoy aquí abajo, en el sótano

c) (lowered, pointing downward) bajado

with the blinds down — con las persianas bajadas

face down — boca abajo

d) ( in position)

the carpet isn't down yet — aún no han puesto or colocado la alfombra

e) ( prostrate)

I was down with flu all last week — estuve con gripe toda la semana pasada

3) (of numbers, volume, intensity)

with the volume down low — con el volumen al mínimo

my temperature is down to 38° C — la fiebre me ha bajado a 38° C

circulation is down — la circulación ha bajado

they were two goals down — iban perdiendo por dos goles

from the president down — desde el presidente para abajo

4)

a) (in, toward the south)

to go/come down south/to London — ir*/venir* al sur/a Londres

b) (at, to another place) (esp BrE)

down on the farm — en la granja

I'm going down to the library — voy a la biblioteca

5)

a) (dismantled, removed)

the room looks bare with the pictures down — la habitación queda desnuda sin los cuadros

once this wall is down — una vez que hayan derribado esta pared; see also burn, cut, fall down

b) ( out of action)

the telephone lines are down — las líneas de teléfono están cortadas

the system is down — ( Comput) el sistema no funciona

c) ( deflated)

one of your tires is down — tienes un neumático desinflado

6) ( in writing)

he's down for tomorrow at ten — está apuntado or anotado para mañana a las diez

she's down as unemployed — consta or figura como desempleada

7) ( hostile)

to be down on somebody — (colloq)

my teacher's down on me at the moment — la maestra me tiene ojeriza, la maestra la ha agarrado conmigo (AmL fam)

8) down to

a) ( as far as) hasta

from the roof down to the foundations — desde el tejado hasta los cimientos

right down to the present day — hasta nuestros días

b) ( reduced to)

we're down to our last tin of tomatoes — nos queda sólo una lata de tomates

c) ( to be done by)

the rest is down to you — el resto depende de ti

II

preposition

1)

a) ( in downward direction)

we ran down the slope — corrimos cuesta abajo

to come down the stairs — bajar por la escalera

it fell down a hole — se cayó por un agujero

you've spilled wine down your shirt — te has manchado la camisa de vino

b) ( at lower level)

halfway down the page — hacia la mitad de la página

2)

a) ( along)

we drove on down the coast/the Mississippi — seguimos por la costa/a lo largo del Misisipí

b) ( further along)

the library is just down the street — la biblioteca está un poco más allá or más adelante

c) (to, in) (BrE colloq)

I saw her down the pub yesterday — ayer la vi en el bar

3) ( through)

down the centuries — a través de los siglos

III

adjective

1) (before n) ( going downward)

the down escalator — la escalera mecánica de bajada or para bajar

2) ( depressed) (colloq) (pred) deprimido

IV

noun

1) u

a) ( on bird) plumón m

b) (on face, body) vello m, pelusilla f

c) (on plant, fruit) pelusa f

2) downs pl (esp BrE Geog) colinas fpl

V

transitive verb

a) ( drink) beberse or tomarse rápidamente

b) ( knock down) \<\<person\>\> tumbar, derribar

English-spanish dictionary > down
63 new

nju:
1. adjective
1) (having only just happened, been built, made, bought etc: She is wearing a new dress; We are building a new house.) nuevo

2) (only just discovered, experienced etc: Flying in an aeroplane was a new experience for her.) nuevo

3) (changed: He is a new man.) nuevo

4) (just arrived etc: The schoolchildren teased the new boy.) nuevo

2. adverb
(freshly: new-laid eggs.) recién

- newly
- newcomer
- newfangled
- new to

new adj nuevo

she's got a new boyfriend tiene un nuevo novio

these shoes are old, I need some new ones estos zapatos están viejos, necesito unos nuevos

new to something nuevo en algo

I'm still new to this company aún soy nuevo en esta empresa

new

tr[njʊː]

adjective

1 nuevo,-a

■ a new car un coche nuevo

■ new bread pan recién hecho

2 (baby) recién nacido,-a

■ she's got a new baby acaba de tener un hijo

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

as good as new como nuevo,-a

to be new to something ser nuevo,-a en algo

what's new? ¿qué hay de nuevo?

new blood sangre nombre femenino nueva

new deal programa nombre masculino de reformas

New Delhi Nueva Delhi

New England Nueva Inglaterra

New Englander nativo o habitante de Nueva Inglaterra

New Hampshire Nueva Hampshire

New Jersey Nueva Jersey

new moon luna nueva

New Orleans Nueva Orleans

New South Wales Nueva Gales del Sur

New Testament Nuevo Testamento

new town SMALLBRITISH ENGLISH/SMALL ciudad nueva de promoción pública

new wave nueva ola

New World Nuevo Mundo

New Year Año Nuevo

New Year's Day día nombre masculino de Año Nuevo

New Year's Eve Nochevieja

New York Nueva York

New Yorker neoyorquino,-a

New Zealand Nueva Zelanda

New Zealander neocelandés,-esa

new ['nu:, 'nju:] adj

1) : nuevo

a new dress: un vestido nuevo

2) recent: nuevo, reciente

what's new?: ¿qué hay de nuevo?

a new arrival: un recién llegado

3) different: nuevo, distinto

this problem is new: este problema es distinto

new ideas: ideas nuevas

4)

like new : como nuevo

new

adj.

• fresco, -a adj.

• inexperto, -a adj.

• nuevo, -a adj.

• original adj.

• tierno, -a adj.

adv.

• recién adv.

I nuː, njuː
adjective -er, -est

1)

a) ( unused) nuevo

brand new — flamante

is that a new suit you're wearing? — ¿estás estrenando traje?, ¿es nuevo ese traje?

as new — como nuevo

to be/look like new — ser*/parecer* nuevo

b) (recent, novel) nuevo

hi, what's new? — (colloq) ¿que tal? ¿qué hay (de nuevo)? (fam)

that's nothing new — eso no es nada nuevo

c) ( recently arrived) <member/recruit> nuevo

I'm new here — soy nueva aquí

to be new TO something: she's new to this company — es nueva en la empresa

2) (different, other) <address/job/era> nuevo

after the shower I felt like a new man — la ducha me dejó como nuevo

3)

a) ( freshly made) < wine> joven; < bread> fresco, recién hecho

b) (tender, young) <buds/leaves> nuevo

c) ( early) <crop/potatoes> nuevo

II

adverb recién

••
Cultural note:

New Age

El movimiento de la New Age cree que se debe tener un enfoque más holístico de la vida. Se originó en California en los años 70 y se extendió rápidamente a través de EEUU. Sus adherentes rechazan el materialismo y respetan los ciclos de la naturaleza ya que pueden ayudar a restablecer el balance espiritual y restablecer la armonía dentro del entorno

[njuː]
1. ADJ
(compar newer) (superl newest)
1) (=unused) [purchase, acquisition] nuevo

I've bought a new house/coat — me he comprado una casa nueva/un abrigo nuevo

I've put in new batteries — he puesto pilas nuevas

I'll open a new packet of biscuits — abriré otro paquete de galletas

• she sold it as new — lo vendió que parecía nuevo

• new for old insurance — seguro m de valor de nuevo

• it's as good as new — está como nuevo

• it looks like new — parece nuevo

2) (=novel, different) [idea, theory, boyfriend] nuevo

it's a new way of thinking — es una nueva forma de pensar

I feel like a new man — me siento como nuevo

she's been a new woman since she got divorced — desde que se ha divorciado parece otra

• new face — (=person) cara f nueva (=image)

the new face of — la nueva imagen de

• that's nothing new — eso no es ninguna novedad

there's nothing new under the sun — no hay nada nuevo bajo el sol

• that's a new one on me! — ¡la primera vez que lo oigo!

• that's something new! — iro ¡qué or vaya novedad!

• hi, what's new? * — hola, ¿que hay de nuevo?

so what's new? * — iro ¡qué or vaya novedad!

3) (=recently arrived) [recruit, student, worker] nuevo

the new people at number five — los nuevos vecinos del número cinco

• new boy — (Scol) alumno m nuevo

• new girl — (Scol) alumna f nueva

• are you new here? — ¿eres nuevo aquí?

• the new rich — los nuevos ricos

• I'm new to the area — hace poco que vivo aquí

he's new to the office/job — es nuevo en la oficina/el trabajo

4) (=freshly produced) [bread] recién hecho; [wine] joven; [crop] nuevo

new potatoes — patatas f nuevas

have you read her new book? — ¿has leído el libro que acaba de publicar?

5) (=young) [shoot, bud] nuevo

2.

CPD

new age N — new age f ; (before noun) [music, philosophy] new age adj inv

new blood N — (in team, organization) savia f nueva

New Brunswick N — Nuevo Brunswick m

new build N — nueva construcción f

New Caledonia N — Nueva Caledonia f

New Delhi N — Nueva Delhi f

New England N — Nueva Inglaterra f

New Englander N — habitante o nativo de Nueva Inglaterra

New Guinea N — Nueva Guinea f

New Hampshire N — Nuevo Hampshire m, Nueva Hampshire f

the New Hebrides NPL — las Nuevas Hébridas

New Jersey N — Nueva Jersey f

New Labour N — (Brit) (=ideology) Nuevo Laborismo m ; (=party) Nuevo Partido m Laborista

new man N — hombre de ideas modernas que se ocupa de tareas tradicionalmente femeninas como el cuidado de la casa y de los niños

New Mexico N — Nuevo Méjico m

new moon N — luna f nueva

New Orleans N — Nueva Orleáns f

new rave N — new rave f

New Scotland Yard N — Nuevo Scotland Yard m

New South Wales N — Nueva Gales f del Sur

the New Testament N — el Nuevo Testamento

new town N — (Brit) ciudad recién creada de la nada

new wave N — nueva ola f ; (before noun) [music, film] de la nueva ola

the New World N — el Nuevo Mundo

New Year N — año m nuevo

to bring or see in the New Year — celebrar el año nuevo

happy New Year! — ¡feliz año nuevo!

New Year resolutions NPL — buenos propósitos mpl del año nuevo

New Year's N — (US) * (=New Year's Eve) Nochevieja f ; (=New Year's Day) el día de año nuevo

New Year's Day N — el día de año nuevo

New Year's Eve N — Nochevieja f

New Year's Eve party N — fiesta f de fin de año

New Year's resolutions NPL — buenos propósitos mpl del año nuevo

New York N — Nueva York f ; (before noun) neoyorquino

New Yorker N — neoyorquino(-a) m / f

New Zealand N — Nueva Zelanda f, Nueva Zelandia f (LAm); (before noun) neocelandés, neozelandés

New Zealander N — neocelandés(-esa) m / f, neozelandés(-esa) m / f
NEW
Position of "nuevo"
N uevo tends to follow the noun when it means new in the sense of "brand-new" and to precede the noun when it means new in the sense of "another", "replacement" or "latest":
... the sales of new cars...... las ventas de automóviles nuevos...
... the new prime minister...... el nuevo primer ministro...
... the new model...... el nuevo modelo... For further uses and examples, see main entry
* * *

I [nuː, njuː]
adjective -er, -est

1)

a) ( unused) nuevo

brand new — flamante

is that a new suit you're wearing? — ¿estás estrenando traje?, ¿es nuevo ese traje?

as new — como nuevo

to be/look like new — ser*/parecer* nuevo

b) (recent, novel) nuevo

hi, what's new? — (colloq) ¿que tal? ¿qué hay (de nuevo)? (fam)

that's nothing new — eso no es nada nuevo

c) ( recently arrived) <member/recruit> nuevo

I'm new here — soy nueva aquí

to be new TO something: she's new to this company — es nueva en la empresa

2) (different, other) <address/job/era> nuevo

after the shower I felt like a new man — la ducha me dejó como nuevo

3)

a) ( freshly made) < wine> joven; < bread> fresco, recién hecho

b) (tender, young) <buds/leaves> nuevo

c) ( early) <crop/potatoes> nuevo

II

adverb recién

••
Cultural note:

New Age

El movimiento de la New Age cree que se debe tener un enfoque más holístico de la vida. Se originó en California en los años 70 y se extendió rápidamente a través de EEUU. Sus adherentes rechazan el materialismo y respetan los ciclos de la naturaleza ya que pueden ayudar a restablecer el balance espiritual y restablecer la armonía dentro del entorno

English-spanish dictionary > new
64 extreme

[ik'stri:m] 1. adjective
1) (very great, especially much more than usual: extreme pleasure; He is in extreme pain.) stor; vældig; ekstrem

2) (very far or furthest in any direction, especially out from the centre: the extreme south-western tip of England; Politically, he belongs to the extreme left.) yderst

3) (very violent or strong; not ordinary or usual: He holds extreme views on education.) yderliggående; ekstrem
2. noun
1) (something as far, or as different, as possible from something else: the extremes of sadness and joy.) yderpunkt

2) (the greatest degree of any state, especially if unpleasant: The extremes of heat in the desert make life uncomfortable.) yderlighed

•

- extremely
- extremism
- extremist
- extremity
- in the extreme
- to extremes
* * *
[ik'stri:m] 1. adjective
1) (very great, especially much more than usual: extreme pleasure; He is in extreme pain.) stor; vældig; ekstrem

2) (very far or furthest in any direction, especially out from the centre: the extreme south-western tip of England; Politically, he belongs to the extreme left.) yderst

3) (very violent or strong; not ordinary or usual: He holds extreme views on education.) yderliggående; ekstrem
2. noun
1) (something as far, or as different, as possible from something else: the extremes of sadness and joy.) yderpunkt

2) (the greatest degree of any state, especially if unpleasant: The extremes of heat in the desert make life uncomfortable.) yderlighed

•

- extremely
- extremism
- extremist
- extremity
- in the extreme
- to extremes

English-Danish dictionary > extreme
65 farm

1. noun
1) (an area of land, including buildings, used for growing crops, breeding and keeping cows, sheep, pigs etc: Much of England is good agricultural land and there are many farms.) landbrug

2) (the farmer's house and the buildings near it in such a place: We visited the farm; ( also adjective) a farm kitchen.) gård; gård-
2. verb
(to cultivate (the land) in order to grow crops, breed and keep animals etc: He farms (5,000 acres) in the south.) dyrke; drive landbrug

- farmer
- farming
- farmhouse
- farmyard
* * *
1. noun
1) (an area of land, including buildings, used for growing crops, breeding and keeping cows, sheep, pigs etc: Much of England is good agricultural land and there are many farms.) landbrug

2) (the farmer's house and the buildings near it in such a place: We visited the farm; ( also adjective) a farm kitchen.) gård; gård-
2. verb
(to cultivate (the land) in order to grow crops, breed and keep animals etc: He farms (5,000 acres) in the south.) dyrke; drive landbrug

- farmer
- farming
- farmhouse
- farmyard

English-Danish dictionary > farm
66 Windsor, Treaties of

Various Anglo-Portuguese treaties bear the name of Windsor. Among others were the treaties of 1386 and 1899. Signed at Windsor, England, on 9 May 1386, the former treaty confirmed the Alliance Treaty between England and Portugal of 1383 and committed both signatories to defend the other against all enemies and to participate in a "perpetual" league, friendship, and confederation. The 1899 Treaty of Windsor (a misnomer since it was signed in London) followed the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa. Portugal pledged to allow the movement of British forces through its east-African colony of Mozambique to South Africa and to prevent arms from reaching the Boers through the same colony. At the same time, there was a reaffirmation of the ancient Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, as spelled out in articles of the 1642 and 1661 Anglo-Portuguese treaties, thus signifying a mutual defense treaty for both countries. Especially vital for Portugal, concerned about secret negotiations between Great Britain and Germany over the possible breakup of Portugal's African empire due to Portugal's bankruptcy, was the 1899 treaty's reconfirmed pledge on Britain's part that it would defend Portugal as well as her overseas empire against all enemies "future and present."

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Windsor, Treaties of
67 new

new [nju:]

nouveau ⇒ 1 (a)-(e), 2 neuf ⇒ 1 (a) autre ⇒ 1 (a)

(compar newer, superl newest)

1 adjective

(a) (gen) nouveau(elle); (different) nouveau(elle), autre; (unused) neuf, nouveau(elle);

∎ a new tablecloth (brand new) une nouvelle nappe, une nappe neuve; (fresh) une nouvelle nappe, une nappe propre;

∎ new evidence de nouvelles preuves;

∎ he's wearing his new suit for the first time il porte son nouveau costume ou son costume neuf pour la première fois;

∎ I don't want to get my new gloves dirty je ne veux pas salir mes nouveaux gants ou gants neufs;

∎ this dress isn't new ce n'est pas une robe neuve ou une nouvelle robe, cette robe n'est pas neuve;

∎ have you seen their new house yet? est-ce que tu as vu leur nouvelle maison?;

∎ she needs a new sheet of paper il lui faut une autre feuille de papier;

∎ we need some new ideas il nous faut de nouvelles idées ou des idées neuves;

∎ a new application of an old theory une nouvelle application d'une vieille théorie;

∎ there are new people in the flat next door il y a de nouveaux occupants dans l'appartement d'à côté;

∎ she likes her new boss elle aime bien son nouveau patron;

∎ new members are always welcome nous sommes toujours ravis d'accueillir de nouveaux adhérents;

∎ to look for new business faire de la prospection;

∎ America was a new country (just developing) l'Amérique était un pays neuf;

∎ under new management (sign) changement de propriétaire;

∎ as or like new comme neuf; (in advertisement) état neuf;

∎ as good as new (again) (clothing, carpet) (à nouveau) comme neuf; (watch, electrical appliance) (à nouveau) en parfait état de marche;

∎ to feel like a new woman/man se sentir revivre;

∎ to make a new woman/man of sb transformer qn complètement;

∎ proverb there's nothing new under the sun il n'y a rien de nouveau sous le soleil

(b) (latest, recent → issue, recording, baby) nouveau(elle);

∎ the newest fashions la dernière mode;

∎ is there anything new on the catastrophe? est-ce qu'il y a du nouveau sur la catastrophe?;

∎ familiar what's new? quoi de neuf?;

∎ familiar (so) what's new!, what else is new! (dismissive) quelle surprise!;

∎ that's nothing new! rien de nouveau à cela!

(c) (unfamiliar → experience, environment) nouveau(elle);

∎ everything's still very new to me here tout est encore tout nouveau pour moi ici;

∎ familiar that's a new one on me! (joke) celle-là, on ne me l'avait jamais faite!; (news) première nouvelle!; (experience) on en apprend tous les jours!

(d) (recently arrived) nouveau(elle); (novice) novice;

∎ you're new here, aren't you? vous êtes nouveau ici, n'est-ce pas?;

∎ those curtains are new in this room ces rideaux n'étaient pas dans cette pièce;

∎ she's new to the job elle débute dans le métier;

∎ we're new to this area nous venons d'arriver dans la région

(e) Cookery (wine, potatoes, carrots) nouveau(elle)

2 noun

nouveau m;

∎ the cult of the new le culte du nouveau

►► familiar new blood sang m neuf;

Finance new borrowings nouveaux emprunts mpl;

new boy School nouveau m, nouvel élève m; (in office, team etc) nouveau m;

New Britain Nouvelle-Bretagne f;

New Brunswick le Nouveau-Brunswick;

∎ in New Brunswick dans le Nouveau-Brunswick;

Architecture new brutalism brutalisme m;

Marketing new buy situation situation f de nouvel achat;

New Caledonia Nouvelle-Calédonie f;

∎ in New Caledonia en Nouvelle-Calédonie;

New Caledonian

1 noun

Néo-Calédonien(enne) m,f

2 adjective

néo-calédonien;

Finance new capital capitaux mpl frais;

the New Deal

(a) History le New Deal (programme de réformes sociales mises en place aux États-Unis par le président Roosevelt au lendemain de la grande dépression des années 30)

(b) British Politics = programme du gouvernement Blair destiné à aider les jeunes à trouver un emploi;

New Delhi New Delhi;

French Canadian New Democratic Party Nouveau Parti m démocratique;

new economy nouvelle économie f;

New England Nouvelle-Angleterre f;

∎ in New England en Nouvelle-Angleterre;

New Englander habitant(e) m,f de la Nouvelle-Angleterre;

the New English Bible = texte de la Bible révisé dans les années 60;

New Forest = région forestière dans le sud de l'Angleterre;

New Forest pony New Forest m (cheval);

new girl School nouvelle (élève) f; (in office, team) nouvelle f;

new grammar la nouvelle grammaire;

New Guinea Nouvelle-Guinée f;

∎ in New Guinea en Nouvelle-Guinée;

New Hampshire le New Hampshire;

∎ in New Hampshire dans le New Hampshire;

New Hebridean

1 noun

Néo-Hébridais(e) m,f

2 adjective

néo-hébridais;

New Hebrides Nouvelles-Hébrides fpl;

∎ in the New Hebrides aux Nouvelles-Hébrides;

New Ireland Nouvelle-Irlande f;

∎ in New Ireland en Nouvelle-Irlande;

Stock Exchange new issue nouvelle émission f;

Stock Exchange new issue market marché m des nouvelles émissions, marché m primaire;

New Jersey le New Jersey;

∎ in New Jersey dans le New Jersey;

New Labour = nouveau nom donné au parti travailliste britannique vers le milieu des années quatre-vingt-dix dans le souci d'en moderniser l'image;

British familiar new lad jeune homme m moderne^□ (qui boit avec modération et n'est pas sexiste);

New Latin latin m scientifique;

British Politics the New Left la nouvelle gauche;

new look nouvelle image f;

the New Look (in post-war fashion) le new-look;

New Man homme m moderne (qui participe équitablement à l'éducation des enfants et aux tâches ménagères);

American new math, British new maths les maths fpl modernes;

the new media les nouveaux médias mpl;

New Mexico le Nouveau-Mexique;

∎ in New Mexico au Nouveau-Mexique;

British History the New Model Army = nom donné à l'armée anglaise après la révolte du Parlement en 1645;

new money (after decimalization) système m monétaire décimal; Finance crédit m de restructuration;

∎ what's ten shillings in new money? ten shillings, ça fait combien en système décimal?;

∎ she married into new money (wealth) elle s'est mariée avec un homme issue d'une famille enrichie de fraîche date; pejorative elle s'est mariée avec un nouveau riche;

new moon nouvelle lune f;

Press New Musical Express = hebdomadaire anglais de musique rock;

New Orleans La Nouvelle-Orléans;

new potato pomme f de terre nouvelle;

Commerce & Marketing new product nouveau produit m;

Commerce & Marketing new product development développement m de nouveaux produits;

Commerce & Marketing new product marketing marketing m de nouveaux produits;

New Providence île f de la Nouvelle-Providence;

New Quebec Nouveau-Québec m;

∎ in New Quebec au Nouveau-Québec;

the new rich les nouveaux riches mpl;

New Right nouvelle droite f;

Press the New Scientist = hebdomadaire scientifique britannique;

New Scotland Yard = siège de la police à Londres;

New South Wales la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud;

∎ in New South Wales en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud;

Finance new shares actions fpl nouvelles;

Press the New Statesman = hebdomadaire britannique de gauche;

new technology nouvelle technologie f, technologie f de pointe;

the New Territories les Nouveaux Territoires mpl (de Hong Kong);

Bible New Testament Nouveau Testament m;

British new town ville f nouvelle;

new wave (in cinema) nouvelle vague f; (in pop music) new wave f;

the New World le Nouveau Monde;

New Year Nouvel An m;

∎ happy New Year! bonne année!;

∎ to see in the New Year réveillonner (le 31 décembre);

New Year's resolutions résolutions fpl pour la nouvelle année;

∎ have you made any New Year's resolutions? tu as des résolutions pour la nouvelle année?;

American New Year's (day) le premier de l'an; (eve) le soir du réveillon ou du 31 décembre;

New Year's Day jour m de l'an;

New Year's Eve Saint-Sylvestre f;

the New Year's Honours List = titres et distinctions honorifiques décernés par la Reine à l'occasion de la nouvelle année et dont la liste est établie officieusement par le Premier ministre;

New York (City) New York;

New Yorker New-Yorkais(e) m,f;

Press the New Yorker = hebdomadaire culturel et littéraire new-yorkais;

Stock Exchange New York Mercantile Exchange = marché à terme des produits pétroliers de New York;

New York (State) l'État m de New York;

∎ in (the State of) New York, in New York (State) dans l'État de New York;

the New York subway le métro new-yorkais;

Press the New York Times = quotidien américain de qualité;

New Zealand Nouvelle-Zélande f;

∎ in New Zealand en Nouvelle-Zélande;

New Zealand butter beurre m néo-zélandais;

New Zealander Néo-Zélandais(e) m,f

✾ Music 'New World Symphony' or 'From the New World' Dvorák 'La Symphonie du Nouveau Monde'

ⓘ NEW LABOUR Après dix-huit ans de gouvernement conservateur, les élections de mai 1997 propulsèrent les travaillistes au pouvoir avec une écrasante majorité. Convaincus par plusieurs défaites électorales de l'inéligibilité du parti travailliste traditionnel dans une Grande-Bretagne bouleversée par le thatchérisme, les nouveaux dirigeants décidèrent de réorganiser et de renommer le parti afin d'élargir leur électorat aux classes moyennes. Les "nouveaux travaillistes" établirent des liens étroits avec le patronat et promurent une "troisième voie" comme alternative à la traditionnelle idéologie de gauche du parti. Cependant, les fidèles du parti commencèrent très vite à souhaiter un retour aux valeurs traditionnelles de la gauche.

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > new
68 Abney, William de Wiveleslie

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

[br]

b. 24 July 1843 England

d. 2 December 1920 England

[br]

English photographic scientist, inventor and author.

[br]

Abney began his career as an officer in the Army and was an instructor in chemistry in the Royal Engineers at Chatham, where he made substantial use of photography as a working tool. He retired from the Army in 1877 and joined the Science and Art Department at South Kensington. It was at Abney's suggestion that a collection of photographic equipment and processes was established in the South Kensington Museum (later to become the Science Museum Photography Collection).

Abney undertook significant researches into the nature of gelatine silver halide emulsions at a time when they were being widely adopted by photographers. Perhaps his most important practical innovations were the introduction of hydroquinone as a developing agent in 1880 and silver gelatine citrochloride emulsions for printing-out paper (POP) in 1882. However, Abney was at the forefront of many aspects of photographic research during a period of great innovation and change in photography. He devised new techniques of photomechanical printing and conducted significant researches in the fields of photochemistry and spectral analysis. Abney published throughout his career for both the specialist scientist and the more general photographic practitioner.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

KCB 1900. FRS 1877. Served at different times as President of the Royal Astronomical, Royal Photographic and Physical Societies. Chairman, Royal Society of Arts.

Further Reading

Obituary, 1921, Proceedings of the Royal Society (Series A) 99. J.M.Eder, 1945, History of Photography, trans. E.Epstein, New York.

JW

Biographical history of technology > Abney, William de Wiveleslie
69 Churchward, George Jackson

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 31 January 1857 Stoke Gabriel, Devon, England

d. 19 December 1933 Swindon, Wiltshire, England

[br]

English mechanical engineer who developed for the Great Western Railway a range of steam locomotives of the most advanced design of its time.

[br]

Churchward was articled to the Locomotive Superintendent of the South Devon Railway in 1873, and when the South Devon was absorbed by the Great Western Railway in 1876 he moved to the latter's Swindon works. There he rose by successive promotions to become Works Manager in 1896, and in 1897 Chief Assistant to William Dean, who was Locomotive Carriage and Wagon Superintendent, in which capacity Churchward was allowed extensive freedom of action. Churchward eventually succeeded Dean in 1902: his title changed to Chief Mechanical Engineer in 1916.

In locomotive design, Churchward adopted the flat-topped firebox invented by A.J.Belpaire of the Belgian State Railways and added a tapered barrel to improve circulation of water between the barrel and the firebox legs. He designed valves with a longer stroke and a greater lap than usual, to achieve full opening to exhaust. Passenger-train weights had been increasing rapidly, and Churchward produced his first 4–6– 0 express locomotive in 1902. However, he was still developing the details—he had a flair for selecting good engineering practices—and to aid his development work Churchward installed at Swindon in 1904 a stationary testing plant for locomotives. This was the first of its kind in Britain and was based on the work of Professor W.F.M.Goss, who had installed the first such plant at Purdue University, USA, in 1891. For comparison with his own locomotives Churchward obtained from France three 4–4–2 compound locomotives of the type developed by A. de Glehn and G. du Bousquet. He decided against compounding, but he did perpetuate many of the details of the French locomotives, notably the divided drive between the first and second pairs of driving wheels, when he introduced his four-cylinder 4–6–0 (the Star class) in 1907. He built a lone 4–6–2, the Great Bear, in 1908: the wheel arrangement enabled it to have a wide firebox, but the type was not perpetuated because Welsh coal suited narrow grates and 4–6–0 locomotives were adequate for the traffic. After Churchward retired in 1921 his successor, C.B.Collett, was to enlarge the Star class into the Castle class and then the King class, both 4–6–0s, which lasted almost as long as steam locomotives survived in service. In Church ward's time, however, the Great Western Railway was the first in Britain to adopt six-coupled locomotives on a large scale for passenger trains in place of four-coupled locomotives. The 4–6–0 classes, however, were but the most celebrated of a whole range of standard locomotives of advanced design for all types of traffic and shared between them many standardized components, particularly boilers, cylinders and valve gear.

[br]

Further Reading

H.C.B.Rogers, 1975, G.J.Churchward. A Locomotive Biography, London: George Allen \& Unwin (a full-length account of Churchward and his locomotives, and their influence on subsequent locomotive development).

C.Hamilton Ellis, 1958, Twenty Locomotive Men, Shepperton: Ian Allan, Ch. 20 (a good brief account).

Sir William Stanier, 1955, "George Jackson Churchward", Transactions of the Newcomen

Society 30 (a unique insight into Churchward and his work, from the informed viewpoint of his former subordinate who had risen to become Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London, Midland \& Scottish Railway).

See also: Gresley, Sir Herbert Nigel; Stanier, Sir William Arthur

PJGR

Biographical history of technology > Churchward, George Jackson
70 Coster, John

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy, Mining and extraction technology

[br]

b. c. 1647 Gloucestershire, England

d. 13 October 1718 Bristol, England

[br]

English innovator in the mining, smelting and working of copper.

[br]

John Coster, son of an iron-forge manager in the Forest of Dean, by the age of 38 was at Bristol, where he was "chief agent and sharer therein" in the new lead-smelting methods using coal fuel. In 1685 the work, under Sir Clement Clerke, was abandoned because of patent rights claimed by Lord Grandison, who financed of earlier attempts. Clerke's business turned to the coal-fired smelting of copper under Coster, later acknowledged as responsible for the subsequent success through using an improved reverberatory furnace which separated coal fume from the ores being smelted. The new technique, applicable also to lead and tin smelting, revitalized copper production and provided a basis for new British industry in both copper and brass manufacture during the following century. Coster went on to manage a copper-smelting works, and by the 1690s was supplying Esher copper-and brass-works in Surrey from his Redbrook, Gloucestershire, works on the River Wye. In the next decade he extended his activities to Cornish copper mining, buying ore and organizing ore sales, and supplying the four major copper and brass companies which by then had become established. He also made copper goods in additional water-powered rolling and hammer mills acquired in the Bristol area. Coster was ably assisted by three sons; of these, John and Robert were mainly active in Cornwall. In 1714 the younger John, with his father, patented an "engine for drawing water out of deep mines". The eldest son, Thomas, was more involved at Redbrook, in South Wales and the Bristol area. A few years after the death of his father, Thomas became partner in the brass company of Bristol and sold them the Redbrook site. He became Member of Parliament for Bristol and, by then the only surviving son, planned a large new smelting works at White Rock, Swansea, South Wales, before his death in 1734. Partners outside the family continued the business under a new name.

[br]

Bibliography

1714, British patent 397, with John Coster Jr.

Further Reading

Rhys Jenkins, 1942, "Copper works at Redbrook and Bristol", Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society 63.

Joan Day, 1974–6, "The Costers: copper smelters and manufacturers", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 47:47–58.

JD

Biographical history of technology > Coster, John
71 Elder, John

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping, Steam and internal combustion engines

[br]

b. 9 March 1824 Glasgow, Scotland

d. 17 September 1869 London, England

[br]

Scottish engineer who introduced the compound steam engine to ships and established an important shipbuilding company in Glasgow.

[br]

John was the third son of David Elder. The father came from a family of millwrights and moved to Glasgow where he worked for the well-known shipbuilding firm of Napier's and was involved with improving marine engines. John was educated at Glasgow High School and then for a while at the Department of Civil Engineering at Glasgow University, where he showed great aptitude for mathematics and drawing. He spent five years as an apprentice under Robert Napier followed by two short periods of activity as a pattern-maker first and then a draughtsman in England. He returned to Scotland in 1849 to become Chief Draughtsman to Napier, but in 1852 he left to become a partner with the Glasgow general engineering company of Randolph Elliott \& Co. Shortly after his induction (at the age of 28), the engineering firm was renamed Randolph Elder \& Co.; in 1868, when the partnership expired, it became known as John Elder \& Co. From the outset Elder, with his partner, Charles Randolph, approached mechanical (especially heat) engineering in a rigorous manner. Their knowledge and understanding of entropy ensured that engine design was not a hit-and-miss affair, but one governed by recognition of the importance of the new kinetic theory of heat and with it a proper understanding of thermodynamic principles, and by systematic development. In this Elder was joined by W.J.M. Rankine, Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics at Glasgow University, who helped him develop the compound marine engine. Elder and Randolph built up a series of patents, which guaranteed their company's commercial success and enabled them for a while to be the sole suppliers of compound steam reciprocating machinery. Their first such engine at sea was fitted in 1854 on the SS Brandon for the Limerick Steamship Company; the ship showed an improved performance by using a third less coal, which he was able to reduce still further on later designs.

Elder developed steam jacketing and recognized that, with higher pressures, triple-expansion types would be even more economical. In 1862 he patented a design of quadruple-expansion engine with reheat between cylinders and advocated the importance of balancing reciprocating parts. The effect of his improvements was to greatly reduce fuel consumption so that long sea voyages became an economic reality.

His yard soon reached dimensions then unequalled on the Clyde where he employed over 4,000 workers; Elder also was always interested in the social welfare of his labour force. In 1860 the engine shops were moved to the Govan Old Shipyard, and again in 1864 to the Fairfield Shipyard, about 1 mile (1.6 km) west on the south bank of the Clyde. At Fairfield, shipbuilding was commenced, and with the patents for compounding secure, much business was placed for many years by shipowners serving long-distance trades such as South America; the Pacific Steam Navigation Company took up his ideas for their ships. In later years the yard became known as the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company Ltd, but it remains today as one of Britain's most efficient shipyards and is known now as Kvaerner Govan Ltd.

In 1869, at the age of only 45, John Elder was unanimously elected President of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland; however, before taking office and giving his eagerly awaited presidential address, he died in London from liver disease. A large multitude attended his funeral and all the engineering shops were silent as his body, which had been brought back from London to Glasgow, was carried to its resting place. In 1857 Elder had married Isabella Ure, and on his death he left her a considerable fortune, which she used generously for Govan, for Glasgow and especially the University. In 1883 she endowed the world's first Chair of Naval Architecture at the University of Glasgow, an act which was reciprocated in 1901 when the University awarded her an LLD on the occasion of its 450th anniversary.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

President, Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland 1869.

Further Reading

Obituary, 1869, Engineer 28.

1889, The Dictionary of National Biography, London: Smith Elder \& Co. W.J.Macquorn Rankine, 1871, "Sketch of the life of John Elder" Transactions of the

Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Maclehose, 1886, Memoirs and Portraits of a Hundred Glasgow Men.

The Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Works, 1909, London: Offices of Engineering.

P.M.Walker, 1984, Song of the Clyde, A History of Clyde Shipbuilding, Cambridge: PSL.

R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (covers Elder's contribution to the development of steam engines).

RLH / FMW

Biographical history of technology > Elder, John
72 Hackworth, Timothy

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 22 December 1786 Wylam, Northumberland, England

d. 7 July 1850 Shildon, Co. Durham, England

[br]

English engineer, pioneer in construction and operation of steam locomotives.

[br]

Hackworth trained under his father, who was Foreman Blacksmith at Wylam colliery, and succeeded him upon his death in 1807. Between 1812 and 1816 he helped to build and maintain the Wylam locomotives under William Hedley. He then moved to Walbottle colliery, but during 1824 he took temporary charge of Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s works while George Stephenson was surveying the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway and Robert Stephenson was away in South America. In May 1825 Hackworth was appointed to the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR) "to have superintendence of the permanent (i.e. stationary) and locomotive engines". He established the workshops at Shildon, and when the railway opened in September he became in effect the first locomotive superintendent of a railway company. From experience of operating Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s locomotives he was able to make many detail improvements, notably spring safety valves. In 1827 he designed and built the locomotive Royal George, with six wheels coupled and inverted vertical cylinders driving the rear pair. From the pistons, drive was direct by way of piston rods and connecting rods to crankpins on the wheels, the first instance of the use of this layout on a locomotive. Royal George was the most powerful and satisfactory locomotive on the S \& DR to date and was the forerunner of Hackworth's type of heavy-goods locomotive, which was built until the mid-1840s.

For the Rainhill Trials in 1829 Hackworth built and entered the locomotive Sans Pareil, which was subsequently used on the Bol ton \& Leigh Railway and is now in the Science Museum, London. A working replica was built for the 150th anniversary of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1980. In 1833 a further agreement with the S \& DR enabled Hackworth, while remaining in charge of their locomotives, to set up a locomotive and engineering works on his own account. Its products eventually included locomotives for the London, Brighton \& South Coast and York, Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, as well as some of the earliest locomotives exported to Russia and Canada. Hackworth's son, John Wesley Hackworth, was also an engineer and invented the radial valve gear for steam engines that bears his name.

[br]

Further Reading

R.Young, 1975, Timothy Hackworth and the Locomotive, Shildon: Shildon "Stockton \& Darlington Railway" Silver Jubilee Committee; orig. pub. 1923, London (tends to emphasize Hackworth's achievements at the expense of other contemporary engineers).

L.T.C.Rolt, 1960, George and Robert Stephenson, London: Longmans (describes much of Hackworth's work and is more objective).

E.L.Ahrons, 1927, The British Steam Railway Locomotive 1825–1925, London: The Locomotive Publishing Co.

PJGR

Biographical history of technology > Hackworth, Timothy
73 Percy, John

SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

[br]

b. 23 March 1817 Nottingham, England

d. 19 June 1889 London, England

[br]

English metallurgist, first Professor of Metallurgy at the School of Mines, London.

[br]

After a private education, Percy went to Paris in 1834 to study medicine and to attend lectures on chemistry by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. After 1838 he studied medicine at Edinburgh, obtaining his MD in 1839. In that year he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at Queen's College, Birmingham, moving to Queen's Hospital at Birmingham in 1843. During his time at Birmingham, Percy became well known for his analysis of blast furnace slags, and was involved in the manufacture of optical glass. On 7 June 1851 Percy was appointed Metallurgical Professor and Teacher at the Museum of Practical Geology established in Jermyn Street, London, and opened in May 1851. In November of 1851, when the Museum became the Government (later Royal) School of Mines, Percy was appointed Lecturer in Metallurgy. In addition to his work at Jermyn Street, Percy lectured on metallurgy to the Advanced Class of Artillery at Woolwich from 1864 until his death, and from 1866 he was Superintendent of Ventilation at the Houses of Parliament. He served from 1861 to 1864 on the Special Committee on Iron set up to examine the performance of armour-plate in relation to its purity, composition and structure.

Percy is best known for his metallurgical text books, published by John Murray. Volume I of Metallurgy, published in 1861, dealt with fuels, fireclays, copper, zinc and brass; Volume II, in 1864, dealt with iron and steel; a volume on lead appeared in 1870, followed by one on fuels and refractories in 1875, and the first volume on gold and silver in 1880. Further projected volumes on iron and steel, noble metals, and on copper, did not materialize. In 1879 Percy resigned from his School of Mines appointment in protest at the proposed move from Jermyn Street to South Kensington. The rapid growth of Percy's metallurgical collection, started in 1839, eventually forced him to move to a larger house. After his death, the collection was bought by the South Kensington (later Science) Museum. Now comprising 3,709 items, it provides a comprehensive if unselective record of nineteenth-century metallurgy, the most interesting specimens being those of the first sodium-reduced aluminium made in Britain and some of the first steel produced by Bessemer in Baxter House. Metallurgy for Percy was a technique of chemical extraction, and he has been criticized for basing his system of metallurgical instruction on this assumption. He stood strangely aloof from new processes of steel making such as that of Gilchrist and Thomas, and tended to neglect early developments in physical metallurgy, but he was the first in Britain to teach metallurgy as a discipline in its own right.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1847. President, Iron and Steel Institute 1885, 1886.

Bibliography

1861–80, Metallurgy, 5 vols, London: John Murray.

Further Reading

S.J.Cackett, 1989, "Dr Percy and his metallurgical collection", Journal of the Hist. Met. Society 23(2):92–8.

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Percy, John
74 Saxby, John

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 17 August 1821 Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, England

d. 22 April 1913 Hassocks, Sussex, England

[br]

English railway signal engineer, pioneer of interlocking.

[br]

In the mid-1850s Saxby was a foreman in the Brighton Works of the London Brighton \& South Coast Railway, where he had no doubt become familiar with construction of semaphore signals of the type invented by C.H. Gregory; the London-Brighton line was one of the first over which these were installed. In the 1850s points and signals were usually worked independently, and it was to eliminate the risk of accident from conflicting points and signal positions that Saxby in 1856 patented an arrangement by which related points and signals would be operated simultaneously by a single lever.

Others were concerned with the same problem. In 1855 Vignier, an employee of the Western Railway of France, had made an interlocking apparatus for junctions, and in 1859 Austin Chambers, who worked for the North London Railway, installed at Kentish Town Junction an interlocking lever frame in which a movement that depended upon another could not even commence until the earlier one was completed. He patented it early in 1860; Saxby patented his own version of such an apparatus later the same year. In 1863 Saxby left the London Brighton \& South Coast Railway to enter into a partnership with J.S.Farmer and established Saxby \& Farmer's railway signalling works at Kilburn, London. The firm manufactured, installed and maintained signalling equipment for many prominent railway companies. Its interlocking frames made possible installation of complex track layouts at increasingly busy London termini possible.

In 1867 Saxby \& Farmer purchased Chambers's patent of 1860, Later developments by the firm included effective interlocking actuated by lifting a lever's catch handle, rather than by the lever itself (1871), and an improved locking frame known as the "gridiron" (1874). This was eventually superseded by tappet interlocking, which had been invented by James Deakin of the rival firm Stevens \& Co. in 1870 but for which patent protection had been lost through non-renewal.

Saxby \& Farmer's equipment was also much used on the European continent, in India and in the USA, to which it introduced interlocking. A second manufacturing works was set up in 1878 at Creil (Oise), France, and when the partnership terminated in 1888 Saxby moved to Creil and managed the works himself until he retired to Sussex in 1900.

[br]

Bibliography

1856, British patent no. 1,479 (simultaneous operation of points and signals). 1860, British patent no. 31 (a true interlocking mechanism).

1867, jointly with Farmer, British patent no. 538 (improvements to the interlocking mechanism patented in 1860).

1870, jointly with Farmer, British patent no. 569 (the facing point lock by plunger bolt).

1871, jointly with Farmer, British patent no. 1,601 (catch-handle actuated interlocking) 1874, jointly with Farmer, British patent no. 294 (gridiron frame).

Further Reading

Westinghouse Brake and Signal Company, 1956, John Saxby (1821–1913) and His Part in the Development of Interlocking and of the Signalling Industry, London (published to mark the centenary of the 1856 patent).

PJGR

Biographical history of technology > Saxby, John
75 Smith, Sir Francis Pettit

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

[br]

b. 9 February 1808 Copperhurst Farm, near Hythe, Kent, England

d. 12 February 1874 South Kensington, London, England

[br]

English inventor of the screw propeller.

[br]

Smith was the only son of Charles Smith, Postmaster at Hythe, and his wife Sarah (née Pettit). After education at a private school in Ashford, Kent, he took to farming, first on Romney Marsh, then at Hendon, Middlesex. As a boy, he showed much skill in the construction of model boats, especially in devising their means of propulsion. He maintained this interest into adult life and in 1835 he made a model propelled by a screw driven by a spring. This worked so well that he became convinced that the screw propeller offered a better method of propulsion than the paddle wheels that were then in general use. This notion so fired his enthusiasm that he virtually gave up farming to devote himself to perfecting his invention. The following year he produced a better model, which he successfully demonstrated to friends on his farm at Hendon and afterwards to the public at the Adelaide Gallery in London. On 31 May 1836 Smith was granted a patent for the propulsion of vessels by means of a screw.

The idea of screw propulsion was not new, however, for it had been mooted as early as the seventeenth century and since then several proposals had been advanced, but without successful practical application. Indeed, simultaneously but quite independently of Smith, the Swedish engineer John Ericsson had invented the ship's propeller and obtained a patent on 13 July 1836, just weeks after Smith. But Smith was completely unaware of this and pursued his own device in the belief that he was the sole inventor.

With some financial and technical backing, Smith was able to construct a 10 ton boat driven by a screw and powered by a steam engine of about 6 hp (4.5 kW). After showing it off to the public, Smith tried it out at sea, from Ramsgate round to Dover and Hythe, returning in stormy weather. The screw performed well in both calm and rough water. The engineering world seemed opposed to the new method of propulsion, but the Admiralty gave cautious encouragement in 1839 by ordering that the 237 ton Archimedes be equipped with a screw. It showed itself superior to the Vulcan, one of the fastest paddle-driven ships in the Navy. The ship was put through its paces in several ports, including Bristol, where Isambard Kingdom Brunel was constructing his Great Britain, the first large iron ocean-going vessel. Brunel was so impressed that he adapted his ship for screw propulsion.

Meanwhile, in spite of favourable reports, the Admiralty were dragging their feet and ordered further trials, fitting Smith's four-bladed propeller to the Rattler, then under construction and completed in 1844. The trials were a complete success and propelled their lordships of the Admiralty to a decision to equip twenty ships with screw propulsion, under Smith's supervision.

At last the superiority of screw propulsion was generally accepted and virtually universally adopted. Yet Smith gained little financial reward for his invention and in 1850 he retired to Guernsey to resume his farming life. In 1860 financial pressures compelled him to accept the position of Curator of Patent Models at the Patent Museum in South Kensington, London, a post he held until his death. Belated recognition by the Government, then headed by Lord Palmerston, came in 1855 with the grant of an annual pension of £200. Two years later Smith received unofficial recognition when he was presented with a national testimonial, consisting of a service of plate and nearly £3,000 in cash subscribed largely by the shipbuilding and engineering community. Finally, in 1871 Smith was honoured with a knighthood.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knighted 1871.

Further Reading

Obituary, 1874, Illustrated London News (7 February).

1856, On the Invention and Progress of the Screw Propeller, London (provides biographical details).

Smith and his invention are referred to in papers in Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 14 (1934): 9; 19 (1939): 145–8, 155–7, 161–4, 237–9.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Smith, Sir Francis Pettit
76 Strutt, Jedediah

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

[br]

b. 26 July 1726 South Normanton, near Alfreton, Derbyshire, England

d. 7 May 1797 Derby, England

[br]

English inventor of a machine for making ribbed knitting.

[br]

Jedediah Strutt was the second of three sons of William, a small farmer and maltster at South Normanton, near Alfreton, Derbyshire, where the only industry was a little framework knitting. At the age of 14 Jedediah was apprenticed to Ralph Massey, a wheelwright near Derby, and lodged with the Woollats, whose daughter Elizabeth he later married in 1755. He moved to Leicester and in 1754 started farming at Blackwell, where an uncle had died and left him the stock on his farm. It was here that he made his knitting invention.

William Lee's knitting machine remained in virtually the same form as he left it until the middle of the eighteenth century. The knitting industry moved away from London into the Midlands and in 1730 a Nottingham workman, using Indian spun yarn, produced the first pair of cotton hose ever made by mechanical means. This industry developed quickly and by 1750 was providing employment for 1,200 frameworkers using both wool and cotton in the Nottingham and Derby areas. It was against this background that Jedediah Strutt obtained patents for his Derby rib machine in 1758 and 1759.

The machine was a highly ingenious mechanism, which when placed in front of an ordinary stocking frame enabled the fashionable ribbed stockings to be made by machine instead of by hand. To develop this invention, he formed a partnership first with his brother-in-law, William Woollat, and two leading Derby hosiers, John Bloodworth and Thomas Stamford. This partnership was dissolved in 1762 and another was formed with Woollat and the Nottingham hosier Samuel Need. Strutt's invention was followed by a succession of innovations which enabled framework knitters to produce almost every kind of mesh on their machines. In 1764 the stocking frame was adapted to the making of eyelet holes, and this later lead to the production of lace. In 1767 velvet was made on these frames, and two years later brocade. In this way Strutt's original invention opened up a new era for knitting. Although all these later improvements were not his, he was able to make a fortune from his invention. In 1762 he was made a freeman of Nottingham, but by then he was living in Derby. His business at Derby was concerned mainly with silk hose and he had a silk mill there.

It was partly his need for cotton yarn and partly his wealth which led him into partnership with Richard Arkwright, John Smalley and David Thornley to exploit Arkwright's patent for spinning cotton by rollers. Together with Samuel Need, they financed the Arkwright partnership in 1770 to develop the horse-powered mill in Nottingham and then the water-powered mill at Cromford. Strutt gave advice to Arkwright about improving the machinery and helped to hold the partnership together when Arkwright fell out with his first partners. Strutt was also involved, in London, where he had a house, with the parliamentary proceedings over the passing of the Calico Act in 1774, which opened up the trade in British-manufactured all-cotton cloth.

In 1776 Strutt financed the construction of his own mill at Helper, about seven miles (11 km) further down the Derwent valley below Cromford. This was followed by another at Milford, a little lower on the river. Strutt was also a partner with Arkwright and others in the mill at Birkacre, near Chorley in Lancashire. The Strutt mills were developed into large complexes for cotton spinning and many experiments were later carried out in them, both in textile machinery and in fireproof construction for the mills themselves. They were also important training schools for engineers.

Elizabeth Strutt died in 1774 and Jedediah never married again. The family seem to have lived frugally in spite of their wealth, probably influenced by their Nonconformist background. He had built a house near the mills at Milford, but it was in his Derby house that Jedediah died in 1797. By the time of his death, his son William had long been involved with the business and became a more important cotton spinner than Jedediah.

[br]

Bibliography

1758. British patent no. 722 (Derby rib machine). 1759. British patent no. 734 (Derby rib machine).

Further Reading

For the involvement of Strutt in Arkwright's spinning ventures, there are two books, the earlier of which is R.S.Fitton and A.P.Wadsworth, 1958, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 1758–1830, Manchester, which has most of the details about Strutt's life. This has been followed by R.S.Fitton, 1989, The Arkwrights, Spinners of Fortune, Manchester.

R.L.Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester (for a general background to the textile industry of the period).

W.Felkin, 1967, History of the Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures, reprint, Newton Abbot (orig. pub. 1867) (covers Strutt's knitting inventions).

RLH

Biographical history of technology > Strutt, Jedediah
77 Vignoles, Charles Blacker

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 31 May 1793 Woodbrook, Co. Wexford, Ireland

d. 17 November 1875 Hythe, Hampshire, England

[br]

English surveyor and civil engineer, pioneer of railways.

[br]

Vignoles, who was of Huguenot descent, was orphaned in infancy and brought up in the family of his grandfather, Dr Charles Hutton FRS, Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. After service in the Army he travelled to America, arriving in South Carolina in 1817. He was appointed Assistant to the state's Civil Engineer and surveyed much of South Carolina and subsequently Florida. After his return to England in 1823 he established himself as a civil engineer in London, and obtained work from the brothers George and John Rennie.

In 1825 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) lost their application for an Act of Parliament, discharged their engineer George Stephenson and appointed the Rennie brothers in his place. They in turn employed Vignoles to resurvey the railway, taking a route that would minimize objections. With Vignoles's route, the company obtained its Act in 1826 and appointed Vignoles to supervise the start of construction. After Stephenson was reappointed Chief Engineer, however, he and Vignoles proved incompatible, with the result that Vignoles left the L \& MR early in 1827.

Nevertheless, Vignoles did not sever all connection with the L \& MR. He supported John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in the construction of the locomotive Novelty and was present when it competed in the Rainhill Trials in 1829. He attended the opening of the L \& MR in 1830 and was appointed Engineer to two railways which connected with it, the St Helens \& Runcorn Gap and the Wigan Branch (later extended to Preston as the North Union); he supervised the construction of these.

After the death of the Engineer to the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway, Vignoles supervised construction: the railway, the first in Ireland, was opened in 1834. He was subsequently employed in surveying and constructing many railways in the British Isles and on the European continent; these included the Eastern Counties, the Midland Counties, the Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyme \& Manchester (which proved for him a financial disaster from which he took many years to recover), and the Waterford \& Limerick. He probably discussed rail of flat-bottom section with R.L. Stevens during the winter of 1830–1 and brought it into use in the UK for the first time in 1836 on the London \& Croydon Railway: subsequently rail of this section became known as "Vignoles rail". He considered that a broader gauge than 4 ft 8½ in. (1.44 m) was desirable for railways, although most of those he built were to this gauge so that they might connect with others. He supported the atmospheric system of propulsion during the 1840s and was instrumental in its early installation on the Dublin \& Kingstown Railway's Dalkey extension. Between 1847 and 1853 he designed and built the noted multi-span suspension bridge at Kiev, Russia, over the River Dnieper, which is more than half a mile (800 m) wide at that point.

Between 1857 and 1863 he surveyed and then supervised the construction of the 155- mile (250 km) Tudela \& Bilbao Railway, which crosses the Cantabrian Pyrenees at an altitude of 2,163 ft (659 m) above sea level. Vignoles outlived his most famous contemporaries to become the grand old man of his profession.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society 1829. FRS 1855. President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1869–70.

Bibliography

1830, jointly with John Ericsson, British patent no. 5,995 (a device to increase the capability of steam locomotives on grades, in which rollers gripped a third rail).

1823, Observations upon the Floridas, New York: Bliss \& White.

1870, Address on His Election as President of the Institution of Civil Engineers.

Further Reading

K.H.Vignoles, 1982, Charles Blacker Vignoles: Romantic Engineer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (good modern biography by his great-grandson).

See also: Samuda, Joseph d'Aguilar

PJGR

Biographical history of technology > Vignoles, Charles Blacker
78 Ayrton, William Edward

SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Telecommunications

[br]

b. 14 September 1847 London, England

d. 8 November 1908 London, England

[br]

English physicist, inventor and pioneer in technical education.

[br]

After graduating from University College, London, Ayrton became for a short time a pupil of Sir William Thomson in Glasgow. For five years he was employed in the Indian Telegraph Service, eventually as Superintendent, where he assisted in revolutionizing the system, devising methods of fault detection and elimination. In 1873 he was invited by the Japanese Government to assist as Professor of Physics and Telegraphy in founding the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo. There he created a teaching laboratory that served as a model for those he was later to organize in England and which were copied elsewhere. It was in Tokyo that his joint researches with Professor John Perry began, an association that continued after their return to England. In 1879 he became Professor of Technical Physics at the City and Guilds Institute in Finsbury, London, and later was appointed Professor of Physics at the Central Institution in South Kensington.

The inventions of Avrton and Perrv included an electric tricycle in 1882, the first practicable portable ammeter and other electrical measuring instruments. By 1890, when the research partnership ended, they had published nearly seventy papers in their joint names, the emphasis being on a mathematical treatment of subjects including electric motor design, construction of electrical measuring instruments, thermodynamics and the economical use of electric conductors. Ayrton was then employed as a consulting engineer by government departments and acted as an expert witness in many important patent cases.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRS 1881. President, Physical Society 1890–2. President, Institution of Electrical Engineers 1892. Royal Society Royal Medal 1901.

Bibliography

28 April 1883, British patent no. 2,156 (Ayrton and Perry's ammeter and voltmeter). 1887, Practical Electricity, London (based on his early laboratory courses; 7 edns followed during his lifetime).

1892, "Electrotechnics", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 21, 5–36 (for a survey of technical education).

Further Reading

D.W.Jordan, 1985, "The cry for useless knowledge: education for a new Victorian technology", Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 132 (Part A): 587– 601.

G.Gooday, 1991, History of Technology, 13: 73–111 (for an account of Ayrton and the teaching laboratory).

GW

Biographical history of technology > Ayrton, William Edward
79 Fourdrinier, Henry

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

b. 11 February 1766 London, England

d. 3 September 1854 Mavesyn Ridware, near Rugeley, Staffordshire, England

[br]

English pioneer of the papermaking machine.

[br]

Fourdrinier's father was a paper manufacturer and stationer of London, from a family of French Protestant origin. Henry took up the same trade and, with his brother Sealy (d. 1847), devoted many years to developing the papermaking machine. Their first patent was taken out in 1801, but success was still far off. A machine for making paper had been invented a few years previously by Nicolas Robert at the Didot's mill at Essonnes, south of Paris. Robert quarrelled with the Didots, who then contacted their brother-in-law in England, John Gamble, in an attempt to raise capital for a larger machine. Gamble and the Fourdriniers called in the engineer Bryan Donkin, and between them they patented a much improved machine in 1807. In the new machine, the paper pulp flowed on to a moving continuous woven wire screen and was then squeezed between rollers to remove much of the water. The paper thus formed was transferred to a felt blanket and passed through a second press to remove more water, before being wound while still wet on to a drum. For the first time, a continuous sheet of paper could be made. Other inventors soon made further improvements: in 1817 John Dickinson obtained a patent for sizing baths to improve the surface of the paper; while in 1820 Thomas Crompton patented a steam-heated drum round which the paper was passed to speed up the drying process. The development cost of £60,000 bankrupted the brothers. Although Parliament extended the patent for fourteen years, and the machine was widely adopted, they never reaped much profit from it. Tsar Alexander of Russia became interested in the papermaking machine while on a visit to England in 1814 and promised Henry Fourdrinier £700 per year for ten years for super-intending the erection of two machines in Russia; Henry carried out the work, but he received no payment. At the age of 72 he travelled to St Petersburg to seek recompense from the Tsar's successor Nicholas I, but to no avail. Eventually, on a motion in the House of Commons, the British Government awarded Fourdrinier a payment of £7,000. The paper trade, sensing the inadequacy of this sum, augmented it with a further sum which they subscribed so that an annuity could be purchased for Henry, then the only surviving brother, and his two daughters, to enable them to live in modest comfort. From its invention in ancient China (see Cai Lun), its appearance in the Middle Ages in Europe and through the first three and a half centuries of printing, every sheet of paper had to made by hand. The daily output of a hand-made paper mill was only 60–100 lb (27–45 kg), whereas the new machine increased that tenfold. Even higher speeds were achieved, with corresponding reductions in cost; the old mills could not possibly have kept pace with the new mechanical printing presses. The Fourdrinier machine was thus an essential element in the technological developments that brought about the revolution in the production of reading matter of all kinds during the nineteenth century. The high-speed, giant paper-making machines of the late twentieth century work on the same principle as the Fourdrinier of 1807.

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Further Reading

R.H.Clapperton, 1967, The Paper-making Machine, Oxford: Pergamon Press. D.Hunter, 1947, Papermaking. The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft, London.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Fourdrinier, Henry
80 Herschel, John Frederick William

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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b. 7 March 1792 Slough, England

d. 11 May 1871 Collingwood, England

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English scientist who introduced "hypo" (thiosulphate) as a photographic fixative and discovered the blueprint process.

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The only son of Sir William Herschel, the famous astronomer, John graduated from Cambridge in 1813 and went on to become a distinguished astronomer, mathematician and chemist. He left England in November 1833 to set up an observatory near Cape Town, South Africa, where he embarked on a study of the heavens in the southern hemisphere. He returned to England in the spring of 1838, and between 1850 and 1855 Herschel served as Master of the Royal Mint. He made several notable contributions to photography, perhaps the most important being his discovery in 1819 that hyposulphites (thiosulphates) would dissolve silver salts. He brought this property to the attention of W.H.F. Talbot, who in 1839 was using a common salt solution as a fixing agent for his early photographs. After trials, Talbot adopted "hypo", which was a far more effective fixative. It was soon adopted by other photographers and eventually became the standard photographic fixative, as it still is in the 1990s. After hearing of the first photographic process in January 1839, Herschel devised his own process within a week. In September 1839 he made the first photograph on glass. He is credited with introducing the words "positive", "negative" and "snapshot" to photography, and in 1842 he invented the cyanotype or "blueprint" process. This process was later to be widely adopted by engineers and architects for the reproduction of plans and technical drawings, a practice abandoned only in the late twentieth century.

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Principal Honours and Distinctions

Knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order 1831. Baronet 1838. FRS 1813. Copley Medal 1821.

Further Reading

Dictionary of National Biography, 1968, Vol. IX, pp. 714–19.

H.J.P.Arnold, 1977, William Henry Fox Talbot, London; Larry J.Schaaf, 1992, Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot and the Invention of Photography, Newhaven and London (for details of his contributions to photography and his relationship with Talbot).

JW

Biographical history of technology > Herschel, John Frederick William

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