-
1 primary meaning
1) общ. основное [первичное\] значение (слова, выражения и т. п.)2) марк., пат. первичное значение (первичное, разработанное и запатентованное фирмой название марки)Ant: -
2 primary meaning
Реклама: основное значение, первичное значение -
3 primary meaning
• perusmerkitys -
4 primary
∎ our primary objective notre premier objectif, notre objectif principal;∎ our primary duty notre premier devoir m;∎ the primary meaning of this word le sens premier de ce mot;∎ this question is of primary importance cette question revêt une importance capitale;∎ the primary cause of the accident la cause principale de l'accident2 noun(e) Electricity bobine f primaire►► Music primary accent accent m principal;Electricity primary cell pile f primaire;Electricity primary circuit circuit m primaire;Electricity primary coil bobine f primaire;primary colour couleur f primaire;Marketing primary data informations fpl primaires, données fpl primaires;Finance primary dealer spécialiste mf en valeurs du Trésor;Marketing primary demand demande f primaire;American Stock Exchange primary earnings per share bénéfices mpl premiers par action;School primary education enseignement m primaire;Ornithology primary feather rémige f;primary health care soins mpl primaires;Medicine primary infection primo-infection f;Medicine primary lesion lésion f ou accident m primaire;Stock Exchange primary market marché m primaire, marché m du neuf;Astronomy primary planet planète f principale ou primaire;Commerce primary product matière f première, produit m brut;primary production production f de matières premières;Accountancy primary ratio ratio m des bénéfices d'exploitation sur le capital employé;Geology primary rocks roches fpl primaires;primary school école f primaire;primary school teacher instituteur(trice) m,f;Economics primary sector secteur m primaire;∎ Economics the primary sector industries les industries fpl du secteur primaire;Linguistics primary stress accent m principal;Anatomy primary tooth dent f de laitⓘ PRIMARIES Les élections primaires américaines (directes ou indirectes selon les États) aboutissent à la sélection des candidats qui seront en lice pour représenter les deux grands partis nationaux à l'élection présidentielle. -
5 primary
1. adjective1) (first) primär (geh.); grundlegendprimary source — Primärquelle, die (geh.)
2) (chief) Haupt[rolle, -sorge, -ziel, -zweck]2. noun* * ** * *pri·ma·ry[ˈpraɪməri, AM -meri]\primary concern Hauptanliegen ntto have \primary jurisdiction zuständig seinthe FBI still has \primary jurisdiction die Zuständigkeit liegt zunächst beim FBI\primary responsibility Hauptverantwortlichkeit f2. (not derivative) roh gewonnen, Roh-\primary source materials Rohmaterialien pl* * *['praImərɪ]1. adj(= chief, main) Haupt-, wesentlich, primär (form)that is our primary concern — das ist unser Hauptanliegen or unsere Hauptsorge
of primary importance —
at primary level ( Brit Sch ) — in der Grundschule, auf Grundschulniveau
2. n1) (= colour) Grundfarbe f2) (esp Brit: primary school) Grundschule f3) (US: election) (innerparteiliche) Vorwahl* * *A adj1. erst(er, e, es), ursprünglich, anfänglich, Erst…, Anfangs…, Ur…:primary election → B 6 a;primary instinct Urinstinkt m;primary meeting → B 6 b;primary tumo(u)r Primärtumor m (besonders des Krebses)2. primär, hauptsächlich, wichtigst(er, e, es), Haupt…:primary circuit → B 4 a;primary colo(u)r → B 2;primary concern Hauptsorge f;primary electrons PHYS primäre Elektronen, Primärelektronen;primary evidence JURa) gesetzliches Beweismittel,b) Prima-facie-Beweis m, Anscheinsbeweis m;of primary importance von höchster Wichtigkeit;primary liability JUR unmittelbare Haftung;primary literature Primärliteratur f;primary planet → B 5;primary quality Haupteigenschaft f;primary road Straße f erster Ordnung;primary winding → B 4 b;primary wing → B 3 b3. grundlegend, elementar, Grund…:b) US Grundschul-, Br Grund- und Hauptschulwesen n;a) Br Grund- und Hauptschule f,b) US Grundschule f;primary industry Grundstoffindustrie f;primary meaning Ur-, Grundbedeutung f;a) WIRTSCH Grundstoff m,b) Urprodukt n4. GEOLa) paläozoischb) zuerst oder ursprünglich entstanden5. CHEMa) primär, sauerb) Primär…6. LINGB s2. Primär-, Grundfarbe f3. ZOOLa) ORN Hauptfeder f, Schwungfeder f erster Reiheb) Vorderflügel m (von Insekten)4. ELEKa) Primär(strom)kreis mb) Primärwicklung f5. ASTRON Hauptplanet m6. POL USa) Vorwahl f (zur Aufstellung von Wahlkandidaten)b) Versammlung f zur Nominierung der Wahlkandidatenprim. abk1. primary2. primate3. primitive* * *1. adjective1) (first) primär (geh.); grundlegendprimary source — Primärquelle, die (geh.)
2) (chief) Haupt[rolle, -sorge, -ziel, -zweck]2. noun* * *adj.anfangs... adj.primär adj.ursprünglich adj. -
6 primary
1. [ʹpraım(ə)rı] n1. что-л. имеющее первостепенное значение2. амер.1) первичные, предварительные выборы, голосование (сторонников какой-л. партии) для определения кандидатов на выборахrun-off primary - второй тур предварительных выборов (на голосование ставятся две кандидатуры, получившие большинство голосов)
2) предварительное предвыборное собрание для выдвижения кандидатов (обыкн. с участием сторонников одной партии)3. = primary colour4. зоол. маховое перо первого порядка5. эл. первичная обмотка ( трансформатора)6. = primary planet7. физ. первичный электрон; первичная частица8. геол. палеозой, палеозойская эра9. = primary school2. [ʹpraım(ə)rı] a1. первоначальный; самый ранний; первыйprimary election = primary I 2, 1)
primary assembly /meeting/ = primary I 2, 2)
primary amputation - мед. ампутация, произведённая в первые 24 часа
primary stage of civilization - начальная /самая ранняя, первичная/ ступень цивилизации
2. спец. первичныйprimary rocks - геол. первичные /первозданные/ породы
primary element - хим. первичный элемент
primary carbon - хим. первичный углеродный атом
primary current - эл. ток в первичной обмотке
primary cell - эл. гальванический элемент
3. простой, исходныйprimary goods /products/ - сырьё, сырьевые материалы
primary producing countries - страны, производящие сырьё /производители сырья/
4. начальный, элементарныйprimary education /instruction/ - начальное обучение
5. 1) основной, важнейший; главныйprimary wing - а) переднее крыло ( у насекомого); б) маховое крыло ( у птицы)
primary activity - эк. основной род занятий
primary fire position - воен. основная огневая позиция
primary target - воен. основная цель; цель первой очереди
primary armament - а) воен. основное вооружение; б) мор. артиллерия главного калибра
2) профилирующий ( о продукции предприятия)6. лингв.1) корневой2) основнойprimary accent /stress/ - фон. главное ударение
primary meaning - основное /первичное/ значение
7. мат. примарный -
7 primary
* * *I [práiməri]adjective ( primarily adverb)prvi, prvoten, izviren, začeten; prvenstven, glaven, osnoven, temeljen; physics chemistry primaren; geology paleozojskiprimary rocks — prakamenje, pragorovjelinguistics primary accent — glavni naglas (besede)juridically primary evidence — zakonito dokazilo, zadosten dokazjuridically primary liability — neposredno poroštvo, neposredna zavezaeconomy primary share — temeljna delnicaeconomy primary product — prvinagrammar primary tenses — sedanji, pretekli in prihodnji časII [práiməri]nounglavna stvar, osnovna stvar; osnovna barva (tudi primary colour); zoology glavno letalno pero (tudi primary quill ali feather), sprednje krilo pri insektih (tudi primary wing); electrical primarni tok (tudi primary circuit); astronomy glavni planet (tudi primary planet); American politics predvolilno zborovanje (tudi primary assembly ali meeting) za izbiro kandidata -
8 primary
1. n1) те, що має першорядне значення2) амер. pl попередні вибори; голосування для висування кандидатів на виборах; попередні передвиборні збори для висування кандидатів3) основний колір4) геол. палеозойська ера5) астр. планета, що обертається навколо сонця6) ел. первинна обмотка (трансформатора)2. adj1) первинний, перший, первісний2) простий; вихідний3) початковий, елементарний4) основний, найважливішийprimary target — військ. основна ціль
primary armament — військ. основне озброєння; мор. артилерія головного калібру
5) лінгв. кореневий; головний, основний6) біол. найпростіший* * *I n1) що-небудь, що має першорядне значення2) cл. первинні, попередні вибори, голосування ( прихильників якої-небудь партії) для визначення кандидатів на виборах; попередні передвиборні збори для висування кандидатів ( за участю прихильників однієї партії)3) = primary colour4) зooл. махове перо першого порядку5) eл. первинна обмотка ( трансформатора)6) = primary planet7) фiз. первинний електрон; первинна частинка8) гeoл. палеозой, палеозойська ера9) = primary schoolII a1) первісний; найбільш ранній; перший2) cпeц. первиннийprimary cell — eл. гальванічний елемент
3) простий, вихіднийprimary goods /products/ — сировина, сировинні матеріали
4) початковий, елементарний5) основний, найважливіший; головнийprimary need — нагальна потреба; профілюючий ( про продукцію підприємства)
6) лiнгв. кореневий; основний7) мaт. примарний -
9 primary
/'praiməri/ * tính từ - nguyên thuỷ, đầu, đầu tiên =primary rocks+ đá nguyên sinh - gốc, nguyên, căn bản =the primary meaning of a word+ nghĩa gốc của một từ - sơ đẳng, sơ cấp =primary school+ trường sơ cấp =primary education+ giáo dục sơ đẳng =primary particle+ (vật lý) hạt sơ cấp - chủ yếu, chính, bậc nhất =the primary aim+ mục đích chính =primary stress+ trọng âm chính =the primary tenses+ (ngôn ngữ học) những thời chính (hiện tại, tương lai, quá khứ) =of primary importance+ quan trọng bậc nhất - (địa lý,địa chất) (thuộc) đại cổ sinh !primary battery - (điện học) bộ pin !primary meeting (assembly) - hội nghị tuyển lựa ứng cử viên * danh từ - điều đầu tiên - điều chính, điều chủ yếu, điều căn bản - (hội họa) màu gốc - (thiên văn học) hành tinh sơ cấp (hành tinh xoay quanh mặt trời) - hội nghị tuyển lựa ứng cử viên - (địa lý,địa chất) đại cổ sinh -
10 primary
[΄praiməri] n հիմնական (գույն). ամ. քղք. նախնական ընտրություններ. աստղ. մոլորակ. էլ. առաջնային հոսանքի կոճ. երկրբ. առաջնային. primary cause հիմնական պատճառը. primary meaning սկզբնական իմաստը. primary concern առաջնակարգ խնդիր. of primary importance առաջնահերթ կարևորություն ունեցող. primary education տարրական կրթություն. primary school տարրական դպրոց. primary colours հիմնական գույներ -
11 primary sense
subst. eller primary meaninggrunnbetydning, opprinnelig betydning -
12 primary
primary [ˈpraɪmərɪ]1. adjectivea. ( = first) primaireb. ( = basic) [reason, concern] principal2. noun3. compounds━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Aux États-Unis, les primaries constituent un processus de sélection préliminaire des candidats qui seront choisis par les principaux partis lors de la campagne électorale pour l'élection présidentielle. Elles ont lieu dans 35 États, de février à juin, l'année de l'élection. Chaque État envoie en juillet-août des « delegates » aux conventions démocrate et républicaine chargées de désigner leur candidat à la présidence. Ces délégués sont généralement choisis en fonction du nombre de voix obtenu par les candidats lors des primaries.* * *['praɪmərɪ], US [-merɪ] 1.1) US Politics (also primary election) primaire f2.1) ( main) gen principal; [sense, meaning, stage] premier/-ière2) School [teaching, education] primaire; [post] dans l'enseignement primaire3) Economics [industry, products] de base -
13 primary
primary, US [transcription][-merI]A n3 Sch ⇒ primary school.B adj1 ( main) [aim, cause, concern, factor, reason, role, source, task] principal ; [sense, meaning] premier/-ière (after n) ; [importance] primordial ; of primary importance de première importance ;3 ( initial) [stage] premier/-ière (before n) ;4 Geol [rock] primaire ;ⓘ Primaries Aux États-Unis, les partis politiques choisissent leurs délégués au cours des élections primaires. Les délégués se réunissent ensuite dans une convention nationale pour désigner le candidat du parti à la présidence et le candidat à la vice-présidence: c'est le presidential ticket. -
14 primary
['praɪmərɪ] [AE -merɪ] 1.2) ling. [ stress] principale3) scol. [ education] elementare; [teaching, post] nella scuola primaria4) econ. attrib. [ products] del settore primario2.2) scol. primary school* * ** * *['praɪmərɪ] [AE -merɪ] 1.2) ling. [ stress] principale3) scol. [ education] elementare; [teaching, post] nella scuola primaria4) econ. attrib. [ products] del settore primario2.2) scol. primary school -
15 primary
ˈpraɪmərɪ
1. сущ.
1) обыкн. мн. что-л. основополагающее, первостепенной важности Syn: fundamental
2) астр. планета солнечной системы Syn: primary planet
3) а) основной цвет Syn: primitive, primary colour б) восприятие основного цвета
4) амер. а) предварительные выборы б) голосование для выставления кандидатов от своей партии на выборы в) предварительное предвыборное собрание для выдвижения кандидатов closed primary contested primary direct primary divisive primary open primary preferential primary presidential primary uncontested primary
5) электр. первичная обмотка( трансформатора)
6) геол. палеозойская эра
2. прил.
1) а) первоначальный, первичный primary electron ≈ первичный электрон the primary stage of civilization ≈ примитивная стадия цивилизации primary rocks ≈ первичные породы Syn: primitive б) исходный, непроизводный, элементарный primary goods ≈ сырьевые материалы, сырье primary products ≈ сырье Syn: initial в) самый ранний, начальный, первый primary tooth ≈ молочный зуб primary school ≈ начальная школа Syn: milk tooth
2) основной;
базисный, важнейший, ведущий, главный primary purpose ≈ основная цель primary task ≈ первоочередная задача primary device ≈ основное устройство primary necessities ≈ предметы первой необходимости Security is a primary need. ≈ Обеспечение безопасности это самая важная необходимость. primary planet ≈ планета солнечной системы primary right ≈ приоритет Syn: chief, main, basic, fundamental
3) непосредственный, прямой primary sources of information ≈ сведения из первоисточника Syn: direct, firsthand
4) предварительный, подготовительный primary instruction ≈ предварительная инструкция
5) биол. простейший что-л. имеющее первостепенное значение (американизм) первичные, предварительные выборы, голосование (сторонников какой-л. партии) для определения кандидатов на выборах - closed * закрытые, предварительные выборы ( с проверкой права голосующих на участие в них) - open * открытые предварительные выборы - run-off * второй тур предварительных выборов (на голосование ставятся две кандидатуры, получившие большинство голосов) предварительное предвыборное собрание для выдвижения кандидатов (обыкн. с участием сторонников одной партии) (зоология) маховое перо первого порядка (электротехника) первичная обмотка( трансформатора) планета солнечной системы (в отличие от спутников) (физическое) первичный электрон;
первичная частица (геология) палеозой, палеозойская эра начальная школа школа для детей в возрасте от 5 до 11 лет( в Англии) первоначальный;
самый ранний;
первый - * source первоисточник - * amputation (медицина) ампутация, произведенная в первые 24 часа - * care первая помощь - * health worker фельдшер * stage of civilization начальная /самая ранняя, первичная/ ступень цивилизации (специальное) первичный - * rocks( геология) первичные /первозданные/ породы - * element( химическое) первичный элемент - * carbon( химическое) первичный углеродный атом - * current( электротехника) ток, в первичной обмотке - * cell (электротехника) гальванический элемент простой, исходный - * goods /products/ сырье, сырьевые материалы - * producing countries страны, производящие сырье /производители сырья/ начальный, элементарный - * education /instruction/ начальное обучение - * trainer учебный самолет( для начальной летной подготовки) основной, важнейший, главный - * necessities предметы первой необходимости - * policy основная политическая линия - * resourses сырьевые ресурсы - * wing переднее крыло( у насекомого) ;
маховое крыло( у птицы) - * need насущная необходимость - * activity (экономика) основной род занятий - * fire position( военное) основная огневая позиция - * target( военное) основная цель;
цель первой очереди - * armament( военное) основное вооружение;
(морское) артиллерия главного калибра - a matter of * importance вопрос первостепенной важности - our * concern наша первоочередная задача профилирующий (о продукции предприятия) - * to the industry профилирующий для данной области промышленности корневой - * word корневое слово основной - * accent /stress/ (фонетика) главное ударение - * meaning основное /первичное/ значение (математика) примарный of ~ importance первостепенной важности;
primary needs самые насущные потребности;
primary right приоритет primary важнейший ~ голосование для выставления кандидатов на выборах ~ (что-л.), имеющее первостепенное значение ~ (что-л.), имеющее первостепенное значение ~ вчт. исходный ~ исходный ~ основной, важнейший, главный ~ основной;
важнейший, главный;
primary colours основные цвета;
the primary planets планеты, вращающиеся вокруг солнца ~ основной ~ основной цвет ~ геол. палеозойская эра ~ эл. первичная обмотка (трансформатора) ~ вчт. первичное выражение ~ амер. первичные, предварительные выборы, голосование для определения кандидата партии на выборах ~ (амер.) первичные, предварительные выборы, голосование для определения кандидата партии на выборах ~ вчт. первичный ~ первоначальный, первичный;
primary school общая начальная школа (для детей от 5 до 11 лет) ~ первоначальный, первичный ~ первоначальный ~ астр. планета, вращающаяся вокруг солнца ~ предварительное предвыборное собрание для выдвижения кандидатов ~ предварительные выборы ~ биол. простейший ~ простой of ~ importance первостепенной важности;
primary needs самые насущные потребности;
primary right приоритет ~ основной;
важнейший, главный;
primary colours основные цвета;
the primary planets планеты, вращающиеся вокруг солнца ~ rocks геол. первичные породы;
primary products сырье;
primary producing countries страны, производящие сырье ~ rocks геол. первичные породы;
primary products сырье;
primary producing countries страны, производящие сырье products: primary ~ сырье primary ~ сырьевые материалы of ~ importance первостепенной важности;
primary needs самые насущные потребности;
primary right приоритет ~ rocks геол. первичные породы;
primary products сырье;
primary producing countries страны, производящие сырье ~ первоначальный, первичный;
primary school общая начальная школа (для детей от 5 до 11 лет) school: primary ~ начальная школа -
16 HEIR
aryon (also haryon is glossed as "heir", but this gloss is paranthetic and "prince" is given as the primary meaning. Hildinyar is translated "my heirs" in Aragorn's oath; it appears that this is actually a form of hildo "follower".) –GAR (see 3AR), LotR:1003, 1004 -
17 LETTER
tengwa (pl. tengwar is attested; this word was used primarily of the Fëanorian letters. However, the term "Tengwar of Rúmil" occurring in LotR:1151 seems to indicate that the word tengwa can indeed be used of a letter of any kind, not only the Fëanorian letters. In non-technical use tengwa may also be translated "consonant" [q.v.]. It is uncertain whether tengwa "letter" can be used in the sense mail, text sent in the post; the primary meaning is clearly "character, a single symbol in writing".) The noun tengwa is also the source of the verb tengwa- “read”. – Another word for “letter” is sarat (pl. sarati is attested) – an older [MET] word Tolkien notes was used of "a 'letter' or any individual significant mark", used of the Rúmilian letters after the invention of the Fëanorian Tengwar (but cf. the term "Tengwar of Rúmil" mentioned above). –TEK, WJ:396, VT49:48, LotR:1151 -
18 TWIN
onóna (also = adj "twinborn", the primary meaning of the word), pl. ónoni (surprisingly, a dual form is not used) –WJ:367 -
19 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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20 Memory
To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)[Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of PsychologyIf a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat DiscouragingThe results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory
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