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pioneer+well

  • 21 pioneer

    1. noun
    1) пионер, первый поселенец или исследователь; инициатор; новатор, зачинатель
    2) пионер (член пионерской организации)
    3) сапер
    4) (attr.) пионерский
    5) (attr.) первый; pioneer work нововведение; новаторство
    6) (attr.) mil. саперный; pioneer tools шанцевый инструмент
    7) (attr.) mining pioneer well разведочная скважина
    2. verb
    1) прокладывать путь, быть пионером
    2) вести, руководить
    * * *
    (n) инициатор; новатор; пионер
    * * *
    "впереди идущий"
    * * *
    [pi·o·neer || ‚paɪə'nɪr /-'nɪə] n. первооткрыватель, первопроходец, пионер, первый поселенец; зачинатель, инициатор, новатор v. прокладывать путь, быть пионером, быть первооткрывателем, вести, направлять, руководить
    * * *
    * * *
    1. сущ. 1) воен. "впереди идущий" 2) пионер 3) устар. а) землекоп б) сапер 2. прил. 1) тж. перен. первый 2) пробный 3. гл. 1) а) воен. прокладывать дорогу для продвижения войск б) тж. перен. быть пионером, первооткрывателем; открывать и/или исследовать раньше других (тж. to pioneer it) в) биол. заселять, занимать свободные территории (о растении, виде) 2) руководить, вести; направлять, управлять (исследованиями и т. п.)

    Новый англо-русский словарь > pioneer

  • 22 Well

    [Wellington] веллингтон (свита отдела леонард пермской системы, Среднеконтинентальный район)

    * * *

    to abandon a well — ликвидировать скважину;

    to bean a well back — снижать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

    to bean a well up — повышать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

    to blow a well — открывать фонтанирующую скважину на короткое время (для удаления воды, песка);

    to bring a well in — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

    to bump off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

    to case a well — обсаживать ствол скважины;

    to complete a well — заканчивать скважину;

    to dry up a well — откачивать жидкость из скважины;

    to flow a well hard — эксплуатировать фонтанирующую скважину с максимально возможным дебитом;

    to flush a well out — промывать скважину;

    to hand off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

    to junk a well — ликвидировать скважину;

    to kill a well — глушить скважину (уравновешивать пластовое давление);

    to knife a well — чистить скважину (от парафина) скребками;

    to line a well — обсаживать ствол скважины;

    to mud a well up — подавать буровой раствор в скважину (после бурения с продувкой);

    to place a well on choke — начинать дросселировать поток из скважины с помощью штуцера;

    to plug up a well — устанавливать в скважину цементную пробку (с целью её ликвидации);

    to pull a well — ликвидировать скважину с извлечением лифтовых труб и насосного оборудования;

    to put a well on production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to put a well on the pump1. начинать насосную эксплуатацию скважины; 2. устанавливать насосный подъёмник в скважине

    to rework a well — восстановить дебит скважины;

    to rock a well — возбуждать приток в скважине попеременным открытием и закрытием устья;

    to shoot a well — торпедировать скважину;

    to shut down a well — консервировать скважину (в процессе строительства);

    to shut in a well — закрывать скважину, останавливать скважину (устьевой задвижкой);

    to strip a well — попеременно двигать колонны насосных штанг и лифтовых труб в скважине (для предотвращения скопления парафина);

    to suspend a well — законсервировать строящуюся скважину;

    to test a well — измерять дебит скважины;

    to wake up a well — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

    well on the pump — насосная скважина;


    * * *
    скважина; колодец

    * * *

    * * *
    2) резервуар; компенсационный колодец, отстойник, зумпф

    well has stopped flowing naturally — скважина прекратила естественное фонтанирование;

    well imperfect due of method of completion — скважина, несовершенная по способу заканчивания;

    well in operation — действующая скважина;

    well kicked off natural — скважина, начавшая фонтанировать без возбуждения, без тартания и без кислотной обработки;

    well off — простаивающая скважина;

    well on the beam — скважина с насосным подъёмником;

    well on the pump — насосная скважина;

    well out of control — открыто фонтанирующая скважина; скважина, фонтанирование которой не удается остановить ();

    well out of operation — бездействующая скважина;

    well put into production — скважина, введённая в эксплуатацию;

    well set on packer — скважина, оборудования пакером;

    to bean a well back — снижать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

    to bean a well up — повышать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

    to blow a well clean — продувать скважину;

    to bring a well in — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

    to bring in a well — ввести скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to bump off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

    to cap a well — ликвидировать скважину;

    to case a well — крепить скважину обсадными трубами, обсаживать ствол скважины;

    to complete a well — 1) подготавливать скважину к эксплуатации 2) заканчивать скважину;

    to drill a well — бурить скважину;

    to drive a well — бурить скважину;

    to dry up a well — откачивать жидкость из скважины;

    to dual a well — 1) эксплуатировать одновременно два горизонта в скважине 2) использовать силовую установку одной скважины для эксплуатации другой;

    to flow a well hard — эксплуатировать фонтанирующую скважину с максимально возможным дебитом;

    to flush a well out — промывать скважину;

    to get a well back on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to hand a well off — прекращать насосную эксплуатацию скважины;

    to hand off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

    to junk a well — ликвидировать скважину;

    to line a well — крепить скважину обсадными трубами, обсаживать ствол скважины;

    to place a well on choke — начинать дросселировать поток из скважины с помощью штуцера;

    to prepare a well for production — подготавливать скважину к эксплуатации;

    to pull a well — ликвидировать скважину с извлечением насосно-компрессорных труб и насосного оборудования;

    to put a well back on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to put a well into production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to put a well on production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to put a well on stream — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to put a well on the pump — 1) начинать насосную эксплуатацию скважины 2) устанавливать насосный подъёмник в скважине;

    to return a well on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию; повторно вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

    to rework a well — восстановить дебит скважины;

    to rock a well — возбуждать приток в скважине попеременным открытием и закрытием устья;

    to shoot a well — торпедировать скважину;

    to shut in a well — закрывать скважину; останавливать фонтанирование; останавливать скважину ( устьевой задвижкой);

    to start a well — приступать к бурению скважины;

    to strip a well — попеременно двигать колонны насосных штанг и насосно-компрессорных труб в скважине ( для предотвращения скопления парафина);

    to suspend a well — консервировать строящуюся скважину;

    to test a well — измерять дебит скважины;

    to test a well for production — испытывать скважину на приток;

    to wake up a well — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

    to wash a well into production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию понижением уровня воды;

    to wash a well out — промывать скважину;

    - abandoned condensate well
    - abandoned gas well
    - abandoned oil well
    - abandoned oil-and-gas well
    - abnormal-pressure well
    - absorption well
    - Abyssinian well
    - adjacent well
    - adjoining well
    - appraisal well
    - artesian well
    - barefooted well
    - barren well
    - base well
    - beam well
    - beam-pumped well
    - belching well
    - benchmark well
    - blow well
    - blowing well
    - blowout well
    - blue sky exploratory well
    - borderline well
    - bore well
    - Braden head gas well
    - breakthrough well
    - breathing well
    - brought-in well
    - cable-tool well
    - cased well
    - cased-through well
    - cemented-up well
    - center well
    - closed-in well
    - close-spaced wells
    - cluster well
    - commercial well
    - completed well
    - condensate well
    - confirmation well
    - connected well
    - controlled directional well
    - converted gas-input well
    - cored well
    - corner well
    - corrosive well
    - cratering well
    - crooked well
    - curved well
    - dead well
    - declined well
    - deep well
    - deflected well
    - development well
    - development gas well
    - development test well
    - deviated well
    - deviating well
    - dewatering well
    - directional well
    - directionally drilled well
    - discovery well
    - disposal well
    - diving well
    - down-dip well
    - drain-hole well
    - drawn well
    - drawned-out well
    - drill well
    - drill ship well
    - drill ship center well
    - drilled well
    - drilled gas-input well
    - drilled water-input well
    - drilling well
    - driven well
    - drowned well
    - dry well
    - dual well
    - dual-completion well
    - dual-completion gas well
    - dual-completion oil well
    - dually-completed well
    - dual-pumping well
    - dual-zone well
    - edge well
    - exception well
    - exhausted well
    - exploratory well
    - extension well
    - field well
    - field development well
    - fill-in well
    - flank well
    - flooded well
    - flowing well
    - flowing producing oil well
    - fresh-water well
    - fully penetrating well
    - gas well
    - gas-injection well
    - gaslift well
    - geophysical well
    - geothermal well
    - gurgling well
    - gusher well
    - hand dog well
    - head well
    - high-flow-rate well
    - high-pressure well
    - horizontal well
    - hydrodynamically imperfect well
    - hydrodynamically perfect well
    - hypothetical well
    - image well
    - imperfect well
    - inactive well
    - inclined well
    - individual well
    - infill well
    - injection well
    - injured well
    - input well
    - inspection well
    - intake well
    - intracontour well
    - isolated-branched well
    - jack well
    - junked well
    - key well
    - kicking well
    - killed well
    - killer well
    - leaking well
    - line well
    - low pressure well
    - marginal well
    - medium-depth well
    - monitor well
    - most probably well
    - mudded well
    - mudded-up well
    - multipay well
    - multiple-completion well
    - multiple-string small diameter well
    - multiple-zone well
    - multistring well
    - natural well
    - neighboring well
    - noncommercial well
    - nonproducing well
    - nonproductive well
    - observation well
    - off-pattern injection well
    - off-structure well
    - offset well
    - offshore well
    - oil well
    - old well drilled deeper
    - old well plugged back
    - old well worked-over
    - old abandoned well
    - on-structure well
    - on-the-beam well
    - on-the-pump well
    - open hole well
    - orifice well
    - out-of-control well
    - outpost extension well
    - output well
    - overhauled well
    - partially penetrating well
    - paying well
    - perfect well
    - perforated well
    - perimeter well
    - piestic well
    - pinch-out well
    - pioneer well
    - pipe well
    - planned well
    - platform well
    - plugged-and-abandoned well
    - pressure well
    - pressure-observation well
    - pressure-relief well
    - producing well
    - producing oil well
    - producing oil-and-gas well
    - production well
    - prolific well
    - prospect well
    - pumped well
    - pumper well
    - pumping well
    - pumping producing oil well
    - purposely deviated well
    - purposely slanted well
    - quadruple completion well
    - recipient wells
    - recovery well
    - relief well
    - returned well to production
    - rod-line well
    - running well
    - salt-dome well
    - salt-up well
    - salt-water well
    - salt-water disposal well
    - salt-water injection well
    - sand well
    - sand-clogged well
    - sanded well
    - sanded-up well
    - sanding-up well
    - sand-plugged well
    - sand-producing well
    - sand-up well
    - sandy well
    - satellite well
    - seabed well
    - selective water-injection well
    - service well
    - shallow well
    - shut-in well
    - shut-in gas well
    - shut-in oil well
    - side well
    - single well
    - single-completion well
    - single-jacker well
    - single-string well
    - slanted well
    - slim hole well
    - special well
    - staggered wells
    - steam well
    - steam-injection well
    - step-out well
    - straight well
    - stratigraphic well
    - stratigraphic test well
    - stripped well
    - stripper well
    - strong well
    - structure test well
    - subsalt well
    - sunken well
    - superdeep well
    - supply well
    - surging well
    - suspended well
    - temporarily abandoned well
    - temporarily shut-in well
    - test well
    - triple-completion well
    - tubed well
    - turnkey well
    - twin well
    - two-casing well
    - two-string well
    - ultradeep well
    - underwater well
    - unloading well
    - unprofitable well
    - untubed well
    - upstream well
    - vertical well
    - waste disposal well
    - water well
    - water-dependent well
    - water-disposal well
    - water-free well
    - water-injection well
    - water-producing well
    - water-supply well
    - wet well
    - wide-spaced wells
    - wild well
    - wild gas well
    - wildcat well
    - worked-over well
    - workover well
    * * *

    Англо-русский словарь нефтегазовой промышленности > Well

  • 23 well

    1) колодец; источник
    3) водоём; резервуар
    4) отстойник, зумпф
    5) шахта (напр. лифта)
    8) канал; труба
    - absorption well - air well - anchor well - artesian well - blowing well - bore well - bow well - branched well - clarification well - commercial well - control well - dead well - discharging well - disposal well - drainage well - dredging well - dug well - dump well - elevator well - exploratory well - feed well - filter well - flowing well - imperfect well - intake well - irrigation well - isolated well - key well - ladle well - lift well - light well - master well - natural-strained well - observation well - offset well - open well - open-end well - pioneer well - pipe well - pressure-relief well - recharge well - relief well - screened well - stair well - steep-sided well - stilling well - stripped well - suction well - sunk well - supply well - surging well - three-dimensional square well - tube well - tubular well - water well
    * * *
    колодец; скважина; источник
    - absorbing well
    - abyssinian well
    - air well
    - artesian well
    - bleeder well
    - bored well
    - bow well
    - cased well
    - clarification well
    - collecting well
    - combination well
    - completely penetrating well
    - compound well
    - confined well
    - control well
    - deep well
    - discharging well
    - disposal well
    - drain well
    - dredging well
    - driven well
    - dry well
    - dug well
    - dump well
    - ebbing well
    - elevator well
    - escalator well
    - filter well
    - float well
    - flowing well
    - fully penetrating well
    - gauge well
    - gravity well
    - groundwater well
    - horizontal filter well
    - hot well
    - imperfect well
    - incomplete well
    - index well
    - injection well
    - inlet well
    - input well
    - inverted well
    - leaching well
    - lift well
    - negative well
    - nonartesian well
    - nonpenetrating well
    - observation well
    - open well
    - open-end well
    - partially penetrating well
    - percolation well
    - perfect well
    - perforated-casing well
    - pump well
    - radial well
    - recharge well
    - relief well
    - sand drainage well
    - screened well
    - settling well
    - shallow well
    - stair well
    - stern well
    - stilling well
    - test well
    - thermometer well
    - tube well
    - waste well
    - water well
    - wet well

    Англо-русский строительный словарь > well

  • 24 pioneer

    {paiə'niə}
    I. 1. пионер (и прен.), първи заселник/поселник
    2. инициатор, първи привърженик/изследовател
    3. воен. сапъор, пионер
    4. биол. животно/растение, годно да се приспособи към нови (лоши) условия и да създаде нов екологичен цикъл
    5. attr пионерски
    II. 1. пионер съм, инициатор съм на, ръководя
    2. проправям път за, въвеждам (нови методи и пр.)
    3. заселвам
    * * *
    {paiъ'niъ} n 1. пионер (и прен.), първи заселник/поселник; 2.(2) {paiъ'niъ} v 1. пионер съм, инициатор съм на; ръководя; 2
    * * *
    ръководя; пионер; водя;
    * * *
    1. attr пионерски 2. i. пионер (и прен.), първи заселник/поселник 3. ii. пионер съм, инициатор съм на, ръководя 4. биол. животно/растение, годно да се приспособи към нови (лоши) условия и да създаде нов екологичен цикъл 5. воен. сапъор, пионер 6. заселвам 7. инициатор, първи привърженик/изследовател 8. проправям път за, въвеждам (нови методи и пр.)
    * * *
    pioneer[¸paiə´niə] I. n 1. пионер, първи заселник (изследовател); 2. прен. инициатор, поддръжник; 3. воен. сапьор; пионер; 4. attr: \pioneer tools окопен инструмент; \pioneer well сондажен кладенец; II. v 1. проправям (прокарвам) път (за); 2. водя, ръководя; 3. пионер съм в, инициатор съм на.

    English-Bulgarian dictionary > pioneer

  • 25 stock

    stok
    1. noun
    1) ((often in plural) a store of goods in a shop, warehouse etc: Buy while stocks last!; The tools you require are in / out of stock (= available / not available).) existencias, stock
    2) (a supply of something: We bought a large stock of food for the camping trip.) reserva, provisión
    3) (farm animals: He would like to purchase more (live) stock.) ganado
    4) ((often in plural) money lent to the government or to a business company at a fixed interest: government stock; He has $20,000 in stocks and shares.) acciones, valores
    5) (liquid obtained by boiling meat, bones etc and used for making soup etc.) caldo
    6) (the handle of a whip, rifle etc.) culata

    2. adjective
    (common; usual: stock sizes of shoes.) corriente, normal, de serie

    3. verb
    1) (to keep a supply of for sale: Does this shop stock writing-paper?) tener en stock, vender
    2) (to supply (a shop, farm etc) with goods, animals etc: He cannot afford to stock his farm.) abastecer
    - stocks
    - stockbroker
    - stock exchange
    - stock market
    - stockpile

    4. verb
    (to accumulate (a supply of this sort).) acumular, almacenar
    - stock-taking
    - stock up
    - take stock

    stock1 n existencias
    I'm afraid that colour is out of stock lo siento, pero ese color está agotado
    stock2 vb vender / tener

    stock m (pl stocks) stock ' stock' also found in these entries: Spanish: abastecerse - acopiar - acopio - alhelí - bajar - balance - bolsa - bursátil - caldo - estirpe - existencia - existente - extracción - hazmerreír - inversión - participación - repostar - reserva - trabajar - abastecer - acción - aprovisionar - cepa - cuadrar - cubo - inventario - poblar - surtir - tronco English: AMEX - bundle - collapse - concise - exercise - gain - in - laughing stock - list - market - NYSE - packet - preferred stock - quote - rolling stock - stock - stock car - stock car-racing - stock exchange - stock market - stock up - stock-cube - broker - carry - clearance - deplete - float - joint - replenish - reserve - run - sell - store - supply - surplus - trading - turn - yard
    tr[stɒk]
    1 (supply) reserva
    2 SMALLCOMMERCE/SMALL (goods) existencias nombre femenino plural, stock nombre masculino; (variety) surtido
    3 SMALLFINANCE/SMALL (company's capital) capital nombre masculino social
    4 SMALLAGRICULTURE/SMALL (livestock) ganado
    5 SMALLCOOKERY/SMALL (broth) caldo
    6 SMALLBOTANY/SMALL (flower) alhelí nombre masculino
    7 (trunk, main part of tree) tronco; (of vine) cepa
    10 formal use (standing, status) prestigio; (popularity) popularidad nombre femenino
    11 (of gun) culata; (of tool, whip, fishing rod) mango
    1 SMALLCOMMERCE/SMALL (goods, size) corriente, normal, de serie, estándar
    2 pejorative (excuse, argument, response) de siempre, típico,-a, de costumbre; (greeting, speech) consabido,-a; (phrase, theme) trillado,-a, gastado,-a, muy visto,-a
    1 SMALLCOMMERCE/SMALL (keep supplies of) tener en stock; (sell) vender
    do you stock textbooks? ¿venden libros de texto?
    2 (provide with a supply) abastecer de, surtir de, proveer de; (fill - larder etc) llenar ( with, de); (- lake, pond) poblar
    1 SMALLFINANCE/SMALL (shares) acciones nombre femenino plural, valores nombre masculino plural
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be out of stock estar agotado,-a
    to have something in stock tener algo en stock, tener algo en existencias
    to take stock SMALLCOMMERCE/SMALL hacer el inventario
    to take stock of something figurative use evaluar algo, hacer balance de algo
    government stock papel de estado
    stock certificate SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL título de acciones
    stock company SMALLTHEATRE/SMALL compañía de repertorio 2 SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL sociedad nombre femenino anónima
    stock cube pastilla de caldo
    stock market bolsa, mercado bursátil
    stock ['stɑk] vt
    : surtir, abastecer, vender
    stock vi
    to stock up : abastecerse
    1) supply: reserva f, existencias fpl (en comercio)
    to be out of stock: estar agotadas las existencias
    2) securities: acciones fpl, valores mpl
    3) livestock: ganado m
    4) ancestry: linaje m, estirpe f
    5) broth: caldo m
    6)
    to take stock : evaluar
    n.
    cepa s.f.
    enseres s.m.pl.
    estirpe s.f.
    existencias s.f.pl.
    ganado s.m.
    provisión s.f.
    renta s.f.
    repuesto s.m.
    retén s.m.
    surtido s.m.
    v.
    abastecer v.
    acopiar v.
    almacenar v.
    poblar v.
    proveer v.
    surtir v.

    I stɑːk, stɒk
    1)
    a) ( supply) (often pl) reserva f
    b) u (of shop, business) existencias fpl, estoc m, stock m

    to have something in stock — tener* algo en estoc or en existencias

    we're out of stock of green ones — no nos quedan verdes, las verdes se han agotado or están agotadas

    to take stock of something — hacer* un balance de algo, evaluar* algo

    2) ( Fin)
    a) u ( shares) acciones fpl, valores mpl; ( government securities) bonos mpl or papel m del Estado
    b)

    stocks and bonds o (BrE) stocks and shares — acciones fpl; ( including government securities) acciones fpl y bonos mpl del Estado

    3) u ( livestock) ganado m; (before n)

    stock farmer — ganadero, -ra m,f

    stock farmingganadería f, cría f de ganado

    4) u ( descent) linaje m, estirpe f

    to come of good stock — ser* de buena familia

    5) c ( of gun) culata f
    6) u ( Culin) caldo m
    7) c (plant, flower) alhelí m
    8) stocks pl ( Hist)
    9) u (AmE Theat) (no art) repertorio m; (before n) <play, company> de repertorio

    II
    1) ( Busn) vender
    2) ( fill) \<\<store\>\> surtir, abastecer*; \<\<larder\>\> llenar

    to stock a lake with fish — poblar* un lago de peces

    Phrasal Verbs:

    III
    adjective (before n)
    a) < size> estándar adj inv; < model> de serie, estándar adj inv
    b) < response> típico; < character> típico

    a stock phrase — un cliché, una frase hecha

    [stɒk]
    1. N
    1) (Comm) existencias fpl

    to have sth in stock — tener algo en existencia

    to be out of stock — estar agotado

    to take stock — (=make inventory) hacer el inventario; (fig) evaluar la situación

    to take stock of[+ situation, prospects] evaluar; [+ person] formarse una opinión sobre

    2) (=supply) reserva f

    fish/coal stocks are low — las reservas de peces/carbón escasean

    to get in or lay in a stock of sth — abastecerse de algo

    I always keep a stock of tinned food — siempre estoy bien abastecido de latas de comida

    housing
    3) (=selection) surtido m

    luckily he had a good stock of books — por suerte tenía un buen surtido de libros

    we have a large stock of sportswear — tenemos un amplio surtido de ropa deportiva

    4) (Theat)

    stock of playsrepertorio m de obras

    5) (Econ) (=capital) capital m social, capital m en acciones; (=shares) acciones fpl ; (=government securities) bonos mpl del estado
    6) (=status) prestigio m

    his stock has gone up or risen (with the public) — ha ganado prestigio (entre el público)

    laughing
    7) (Agr) (=livestock) ganado m

    breeding stock — ganado de cría

    8) (=descent)

    people of Mediterranean stockgentes fpl de ascendencia mediterránea

    to be or come of good stock — ser de buena cepa

    9) (Culin) caldo m

    beef/ chicken stock — caldo de vaca/pollo

    10) (Rail) (also: rolling stock) material m rodante
    11) (=handle) (gen) mango m ; [of gun, rifle] culata f
    12) (Bot)
    a) (=flower) alhelí m
    b) (=stem, trunk) [of tree] tronco m ; [of vine] cepa f ; (=source of cuttings) planta f madre; (=plant grafted onto) patrón m
    13) stocks
    a)

    the stocks — (Hist) el cepo

    b) (Naut) astillero m, grada f de construcción

    to be on the stocks — [ship] estar en vías de construcción; (fig) [piece of work] estar en preparación

    14) (=tie) fular m
    2. VT
    1) (=sell) [+ goods] vender

    do you stock light bulbs? — ¿vende usted bombillas?

    we don't stock that brandno vendemos esa marca

    we stock a wide range of bicycles — tenemos un gran surtido de bicicletas

    2) (=fill) [+ shop] surtir, abastecer ( with de); [+ shelves] reponer; [+ library] surtir, abastecer ( with de); [+ farm] abastecer ( with con); [+ freezer, cupboard] llenar ( with de); [+ lake, river] poblar ( with de)

    a well stocked shop/library — una tienda/biblioteca bien surtida

    the lake is stocked with trout — han poblado el lago de truchas

    3. ADJ
    1) (Comm) [goods, model] de serie, estándar

    stock linelínea f estándar

    stock sizetamaño m estándar

    2) (=standard, hackneyed) [argument, joke, response] típico

    "mind your own business" is her stock response to such questions — -no es asunto tuyo, es la respuesta típica que da a esas preguntas

    a stock phraseuna frase hecha

    3) (Theat) [play] de repertorio
    4) (Agr) (for breeding) de cría

    stock mareyegua f de cría

    4.
    CPD

    stock book Nlibro m de almacén, libro m existencias

    stock car N(US) (Rail) vagón m para el ganado; (Aut, Sport) stock-car m

    stock-car racing

    stock certificate Ncertificado m or título m de acciones

    stock company Nsociedad f anónima, sociedad f de acciones

    stock control Ncontrol m de existencias

    stock cube N — (Culin) pastilla f or cubito m de caldo

    stock dividend Ndividendo m en acciones

    Stock Exchange N — (Econ) Bolsa f

    to be on the Stock Exchange[listed company] ser cotizado en bolsa

    prices on the Stock Exchange, Stock Exchange prices — cotizaciones fpl en bolsa

    stock farm Ngranja f para la cría de ganado

    stock index Níndice m bursátil

    stock list N — (Econ) lista f de valores y acciones; (Comm) lista f or inventario m de existencias

    stock management Ngestión f de existencias

    stock market N — (Econ) bolsa f, mercado m bursátil

    stock option (US) Nstock option f, opción f sobre acciones

    stock option plan Nplan que permite que los ejecutivos de una empresa compren acciones de la misma a un precio especial

    joint 4.
    * * *

    I [stɑːk, stɒk]
    1)
    a) ( supply) (often pl) reserva f
    b) u (of shop, business) existencias fpl, estoc m, stock m

    to have something in stock — tener* algo en estoc or en existencias

    we're out of stock of green ones — no nos quedan verdes, las verdes se han agotado or están agotadas

    to take stock of something — hacer* un balance de algo, evaluar* algo

    2) ( Fin)
    a) u ( shares) acciones fpl, valores mpl; ( government securities) bonos mpl or papel m del Estado
    b)

    stocks and bonds o (BrE) stocks and shares — acciones fpl; ( including government securities) acciones fpl y bonos mpl del Estado

    3) u ( livestock) ganado m; (before n)

    stock farmer — ganadero, -ra m,f

    stock farmingganadería f, cría f de ganado

    4) u ( descent) linaje m, estirpe f

    to come of good stock — ser* de buena familia

    5) c ( of gun) culata f
    6) u ( Culin) caldo m
    7) c (plant, flower) alhelí m
    8) stocks pl ( Hist)
    9) u (AmE Theat) (no art) repertorio m; (before n) <play, company> de repertorio

    II
    1) ( Busn) vender
    2) ( fill) \<\<store\>\> surtir, abastecer*; \<\<larder\>\> llenar

    to stock a lake with fish — poblar* un lago de peces

    Phrasal Verbs:

    III
    adjective (before n)
    a) < size> estándar adj inv; < model> de serie, estándar adj inv
    b) < response> típico; < character> típico

    a stock phrase — un cliché, una frase hecha

    English-spanish dictionary > stock

  • 26 Floyer, Sir John

    SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology
    [br]
    b. 3 March 1649 Hints, Warwickshire, England
    d. 1734 Lichfield, Staffordshire, England
    [br]
    English physician, pioneer in the measurement of pulse and respiration rate.
    [br]
    The younger son of a landed Midlands family, Floyer embarked on medical studies at Oxford at the age of 15 and graduated in 1674. He returned to Lichfield where he resided and practised, as well as being acquainted with the family of Samuel Johnson, for the remainder of a long life. Described by a later biographer as "fantastic, whimsical, pretentious, research-minded and nebulous", he none the less, as his various medical writings testify, became a pioneer in several fields of medical endeavour. It seems likely that he was well aware of the teachings of Sanctorius in relation to measurement in medicine and he probably had a copy of Sanctorius's weighing-machine made and put to use in Lichfield.
    He also embarked on extensive studies relating to pulse, respiration rate, temperature, barometric readings and even latitude. Initially he used the minute hand of a pendulum clock or a navigational minute glass. He then commissioned from Samuel Watson, a London watch-and clockmaker, a physicians' pulse watch incorporating a second-hand and a stop mechanism. In 1707 and 1710 he published a massive work, dedicated to Queen Anne, that emphasized the value of the accurate measurement of pulse rates in health and disease.
    His other interests included studies of blood pressure, asthma, and the medical value of cold bathing. It is of interest that it was at his suggestion that the young Samuel Johnson was taken to London to receive the Royal Touch, from Queen Anne, for scrofula.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1686.
    Bibliography
    1707–10, The Physicians Pulse Watch, 2 vols, London.
    Further Reading
    D.D.Gibb, 1969, 'Sir John Floyer, M.D. (1649–1734), British Medical Journal.
    MG

    Biographical history of technology > Floyer, Sir John

  • 27 Adamson, Daniel

    [br]
    b. 1818 Shildon, Co. Durham, England
    d. January 1890 Didsbury, Manchester, England
    [br]
    English mechanical engineer, pioneer in the use of steel for boilers, which enabled higher pressures to be introduced; pioneer in the use of triple-and quadruple-expansion mill engines.
    [br]
    Adamson was apprenticed between 1835 and 1841 to Timothy Hackworth, then Locomotive Superintendent on the Stockton \& Darlington Railway. After this he was appointed Draughtsman, then Superintendent Engineer, at that railway's locomotive works until in 1847 he became Manager of Shildon Works. In 1850 he resigned and moved to act as General Manager of Heaton Foundry, Stockport. In the following year he commenced business on his own at Newton Moor Iron Works near Manchester, where he built up his business as an iron-founder and boilermaker. By 1872 this works had become too small and he moved to a 4 acre (1.6 hectare) site at Hyde Junction, Dukinfield. There he employed 600 men making steel boilers, heavy machinery including mill engines fitted with the American Wheelock valve gear, hydraulic plant and general millwrighting. His success was based on his early recognition of the importance of using high-pressure steam and steel instead of wrought iron. In 1852 he patented his type of flanged seam for the firetubes of Lancashire boilers, which prevented these tubes cracking through expansion. In 1862 he patented the fabrication of boilers by drilling rivet holes instead of punching them and also by drilling the holes through two plates held together in their assembly positions. He had started to use steel for some boilers he made for railway locomotives in 1857, and in 1860, only four years after Bessemer's patent, he built six mill engine boilers from steel for Platt Bros, Oldham. He solved the problems of using this new material, and by his death had made c.2,800 steel boilers with pressures up to 250 psi (17.6 kg/cm2).
    He was a pioneer in the general introduction of steel and in 1863–4 was a partner in establishing the Yorkshire Iron and Steel Works at Penistone. This was the first works to depend entirely upon Bessemer steel for engineering purposes and was later sold at a large profit to Charles Cammell \& Co., Sheffield. When he started this works, he also patented improvements both to the Bessemer converters and to the engines which provided their blast. In 1870 he helped to turn Lincolnshire into an important ironmaking area by erecting the North Lincolnshire Ironworks. He was also a shareholder in ironworks in South Wales and Cumberland.
    He contributed to the development of the stationary steam engine, for as early as 1855 he built one to run with a pressure of 150 psi (10.5 kg/cm) that worked quite satisfactorily. He reheated the steam between the cylinders of compound engines and then in 1861–2 patented a triple-expansion engine, followed in 1873 by a quadruple-expansion one to further economize steam. In 1858 he developed improved machinery for testing tensile strength and compressive resistance of materials, and in the same year patents for hydraulic lifting jacks and riveting machines were obtained.
    He was a founding member of the Iron and Steel Institute and became its President in 1888 when it visited Manchester. The previous year he had been President of the Institution of Civil Engineers when he was presented with the Bessemer Gold Medal. He was a constant contributor at the meetings of these associations as well as those of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He did not live to see the opening of one of his final achievements, the Manchester Ship Canal. He was the one man who, by his indomitable energy and skill at public speaking, roused the enthusiasm of the people in Manchester for this project and he made it a really practical proposition in the face of strong opposition.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1887.
    President, Iron and Steel Institute 1888. Institution of Civil Engineers Bessemer Gold Medal 1887.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, Engineer 69:56.
    Obituary, Engineering 49:66–8.
    H.W.Dickinson, 1938, A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (provides an illustration of Adamson's flanged seam for boilers).
    R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press (covers the development of the triple-expansion engine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Adamson, Daniel

  • 28 prime

    1. n начало, начальный период
    2. n поэт. весна
    3. n расцвет, лучшее время

    he is past his prime — пора расцвета миновала; его лучшие годы позади

    4. n лучшая часть
    5. n церк. заутреня
    6. n рассвет; заря
    7. n муз. прима; основной тон
    8. n мат. прим, знак штриха
    9. n мат. фехт. прим-позиция, первая позиция
    10. a первоначальный

    prime cause — первоначальная причина, первопричина

    11. a первичный, исходный
    12. a простой, несоставной
    13. a главный, важнейший; первый, основной
    14. a превосходный, отличный, первоклассный, лучшего качества

    prime beef — отличная говядина, говядина высшего сорта

    15. v воен. воспламенять
    16. v воен. вставлять запал или взрыватель
    17. v воен. заряжать
    18. v воен. уст. затравливать порохом
    19. v тех. заправлять; подкачивать топливо
    20. v тех. заливать перед пуском
    21. v тех. наполнять водой
    22. v тех. разг. напоить, накормить досыта
    23. v тех. заранее снабжать сведениями; инструктировать; натаскивать
    24. v спец. грунтовать
    25. v спец. делать первичную обработку вяжущим материалом
    26. v спец. подвергать первичному воздействию антигена
    27. v спец. биохим. служить затравкой
    28. v спец. тех. уносить влагу паром
    29. v спец. мат. помечать знаком штриха
    30. v повторяться через короткие интервалы
    31. v редк. выпрыгивать из воды
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. excellent (adj.) A1; bang-up; banner; best; blue-ribbon; bully; capital; champion; choice; classic; classical; elite; excellent; famous; fine; first-class; first-rate; first-string; five-star; front-rank; Grade A; great; number one; par excellence; quality; royal; select; skookum; sovereign; splendid; stunning; superb; superior; tiptop; top; topflight; top-notch; top-quality; unparalleled; whiz-bang
    2. first (adj.) beginning; cardinal; chief; dominant; earliest; first; foremost; fundamental; initial; key; leading; maiden; main; major; original; outstanding; paramount; pioneer; pre-eminent; premier; primary; primitive; principal; underivative; underived
    3. original (adj.) earliest; initial; original; pioneer; primary; primitive
    4. adulthood (noun) adulthood; maturity
    5. best (noun) best; choice; cream; elite; fat; pick; pride; primrose; prize; top
    6. flower (noun) bloom; blossom; florescence; flower; flush
    7. peak (noun) peak; perfection; zenith
    8. youth (noun) adolescence; greenness; juvenility; puberty; pubescence; spring; springtide; springtime; youth; youthfulness; youthhood
    9. apprise (verb) apprise; brief; inform; notify
    10. educate (verb) educate; instruct; teach; tutor
    11. prepare (verb) prepare; ready
    12. provoke (verb) excite; galvanize; innervate; innerve; motivate; move; pique; provoke; quicken; rouse; stimulate; suscitate
    Антонимический ряд:
    childhood; inferior; last; later; neglect; secondary

    English-Russian base dictionary > prime

  • 29 De Forest, Lee

    [br]
    b. 26 August 1873 Council Bluffs, Iowa, USA
    d. 30 June 1961 Hollywood, California, USA
    [br]
    American electrical engineer and inventor principally known for his invention of the Audion, or triode, vacuum tube; also a pioneer of sound in the cinema.
    [br]
    De Forest was born into the family of a Congregational minister that moved to Alabama in 1879 when the father became President of a college for African-Americans; this was a position that led to the family's social ostracism by the white community. By the time he was 13 years old, De Forest was already a keen mechanical inventor, and in 1893, rejecting his father's plan for him to become a clergyman, he entered the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. Following his first degree, he went on to study the propagation of electromagnetic waves, gaining a PhD in physics in 1899 for his thesis on the "Reflection of Hertzian Waves from the Ends of Parallel Wires", probably the first US thesis in the field of radio.
    He then joined the Western Electric Company in Chicago where he helped develop the infant technology of wireless, working his way up from a modest post in the production area to a position in the experimental laboratory. There, working alone after normal working hours, he developed a detector of electromagnetic waves based on an electrolytic device similar to that already invented by Fleming in England. Recognizing his talents, a number of financial backers enabled him to set up his own business in 1902 under the name of De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Company; he was soon demonstrating wireless telegraphy to interested parties and entering into competition with the American Marconi Company.
    Despite the failure of this company because of fraud by his partners, he continued his experiments; in 1907, by adding a third electrode, a wire mesh, between the anode and cathode of the thermionic diode invented by Fleming in 1904, he was able to produce the amplifying device now known as the triode valve and achieve a sensitivity of radio-signal reception much greater than possible with the passive carborundum and electrolytic detectors hitherto available. Patented under the name Audion, this new vacuum device was soon successfully used for experimental broadcasts of music and speech in New York and Paris. The invention of the Audion has been described as the beginning of the electronic era. Although much development work was required before its full potential was realized, the Audion opened the way to progress in all areas of sound transmission, recording and reproduction. The patent was challenged by Fleming and it was not until 1943 that De Forest's claim was finally recognized.
    Overcoming the near failure of his new company, the De Forest Radio Telephone Company, as well as unsuccessful charges of fraudulent promotion of the Audion, he continued to exploit the potential of his invention. By 1912 he had used transformer-coupling of several Audion stages to achieve high gain at radio frequencies, making long-distance communication a practical proposition, and had applied positive feedback from the Audion output anode to its input grid to realize a stable transmitter oscillator and modulator. These successes led to prolonged patent litigation with Edwin Armstrong and others, and he eventually sold the manufacturing rights, in retrospect often for a pittance.
    During the early 1920s De Forest began a fruitful association with T.W.Case, who for around ten years had been working to perfect a moving-picture sound system. De Forest claimed to have had an interest in sound films as early as 1900, and Case now began to supply him with photoelectric cells and primitive sound cameras. He eventually devised a variable-density sound-on-film system utilizing a glow-discharge modulator, the Photion. By 1926 De Forest's Phonofilm had been successfully demonstrated in over fifty theatres and this system became the basis of Movietone. Though his ideas were on the right lines, the technology was insufficiently developed and it was left to others to produce a system acceptable to the film industry. However, De Forest had played a key role in transforming the nature of the film industry; within a space of five years the production of silent films had all but ceased.
    In the following decade De Forest applied the Audion to the development of medical diathermy. Finally, after spending most of his working life as an independent inventor and entrepreneur, he worked for a time during the Second World War at the Bell Telephone Laboratories on military applications of electronics.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers Medal of Honour 1922. President, Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers 1930. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Edison Medal 1946.
    Bibliography
    1904, "Electrolytic detectors", Electrician 54:94 (describes the electrolytic detector). 1907, US patent no. 841,387 (the Audion).
    1950, Father of Radio, Chicago: WIlcox \& Follett (autobiography).
    De Forest gave his own account of the development of his sound-on-film system in a series of articles: 1923. "The Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16 (May): 61–75; 1924. "Phonofilm progress", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 20:17–19; 1927, "Recent developments in the Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 27:64–76; 1941, "Pioneering in talking pictures", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 36 (January): 41–9.
    Further Reading
    G.Carneal, 1930, A Conqueror of Space (biography).
    I.Levine, 1964, Electronics Pioneer, Lee De Forest (biography).
    E.I.Sponable, 1947, "Historical development of sound films", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 48 (April): 275–303 (an authoritative account of De Forest's sound-film work, by Case's assistant).
    W.R.McLaurin, 1949, Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry.
    C.F.Booth, 1955, "Fleming and De Forest. An appreciation", in Thermionic Valves 1904– 1954, IEE.
    V.J.Phillips, 1980, Early Radio Detectors, London: Peter Peregrinus.
    KF / JW

    Biographical history of technology > De Forest, Lee

  • 30 Hedley, William

    [br]
    b. 13 July 1779 Newburn, Northumberland, England
    d. 9 January 1843 Lanchester, Co. Durham, England
    [br]
    English coal-mine manager, pioneer in the construction and use of steam locomotives.
    [br]
    The Wylam wagonway passed Newburn, and Hedley, who went to school at Wylam, must have been familiar with this wagonway from childhood. It had been built c.1748 to carry coal from Wylam Colliery to the navigable limit of the Tyne at Lemington. In 1805 Hedley was appointed viewer, or manager, of Wylam Colliery by Christopher Blackett, who had inherited the colliery and wagonway in 1800. Unlike most Tyneside wagonways, the gradient of the Wylam line was insufficient for loaded wagons to run down by gravity and they had to be hauled by horses. Blackett had a locomotive, of the type designed by Richard Trevithick, built at Gateshead as early as 1804 but did not take delivery, probably because his wooden track was not strong enough. In 1808 Blackett and Hedley relaid the wagonway with plate rails of the type promoted by Benjamin Outram, and in 1812, following successful introduction of locomotives at Middleton by John Blenkinsop, Blackett asked Hedley to investigate the feasibility of locomotives at Wylam. The expense of re-laying with rack rails was unwelcome, and Hedley experimented to find out the relationship between the weight of a locomotive and the load it could move relying on its adhesion weight alone. He used first a model test carriage, which survives at the Science Museum, London, and then used a full-sized test carriage laden with weights in varying quantities and propelled by men turning handles. Having apparently satisfied himself on this point, he had a locomotive incorporating the frames and wheels of the test carriage built. The work was done at Wylam by Thomas Waters, who was familiar with the 1804 locomotive, Timothy Hackworth, foreman smith, and Jonathan Forster, enginewright. This locomotive, with cast-iron boiler and single cylinder, was unsatisfactory: Hackworth and Forster then built another locomotive to Hedley's design, with a wrought-iron return-tube boiler, two vertical external cylinders and drive via overhead beams through pinions to the two axles. This locomotive probably came into use in the spring of 1814: it performed well and further examples of the type were built. Their axle loading, however, was too great for the track and from about 1815 each locomotive was mounted on two four-wheeled bogies, the bogie having recently been invented by William Chapman. Hedley eventually left Wylam in 1827 to devote himself to other colliery interests. He supported the construction of the Clarence Railway, opened in 1833, and sent his coal over it in trains hauled by his own locomotives. Two of his Wylam locomotives survive— Puffing Billy at the Science Museum, London, and Wylam Dilly at the Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh—though how much of these is original and how much dates from the period 1827–32, when the Wylam line was re-laid with edge rails and the locomotives reverted to four wheels (with flanges), is a matter of mild controversy.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    P.R.B.Brooks, 1980, William Hedley Locomotive Pioneer, Newcastle upon Tyne: Tyne \& Wear Industrial Monuments Trust (a good recent short biography of Hedley, with bibliography).
    R.Young, 1975, Timothy Hackworth and the Locomotive, Shildon: Shildon "Stockton \& Darlington Railway" Silver Jubilee Committee; orig. pub. 1923, London.
    C.R.Warn, 1976, Waggonways and Early Railways of Northumberland, Newcastle upon Tyne: Frank Graham.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Hedley, William

  • 31 Priestman, William Dent

    [br]
    b. 23 August 1847 Sutton, Hull, England
    d. 7 September 1936 Hull, England
    [br]
    English oil engine pioneer.
    [br]
    William was the second son and one of eleven children of Samuel Priestman, who had moved to Hull after retiring as a corn miller in Kirkstall, Leeds, and who in retirement had become a director of the North Eastern Railway Company. The family were strict Quakers, so William was sent to the Quaker School in Bootham, York. He left school at the age of 17 to start an engineering apprenticeship at the Humber Iron Works, but this company failed so the apprenticeship was continued with the North Eastern Railway, Gateshead. In 1869 he joined the hydraulics department of Sir William Armstrong \& Company, Newcastle upon Tyne, but after a year there his father financed him in business at a small, run down works, the Holderness Foundry, Hull. He was soon joined by his brother, Samuel, their main business being the manufacture of dredging equipment (grabs), cranes and winches. In the late 1870s William became interested in internal combustion engines. He took a sublicence to manufacture petrol engines to the patents of Eugène Etève of Paris from the British licensees, Moll and Dando. These engines operated in a similar manner to the non-compression gas engines of Lenoir. Failure to make the two-stroke version of this engine work satisfactorily forced him to pay royalties to Crossley Bros, the British licensees of the Otto four-stroke patents.
    Fear of the dangers of petrol as a fuel, reflected by the associated very high insurance premiums, led William to experiment with the use of lamp oil as an engine fuel. His first of many patents was for a vaporizer. This was in 1885, well before Ackroyd Stuart. What distinguished the Priestman engine was the provision of an air pump which pressurized the fuel tank, outlets at the top and bottom of which led to a fuel atomizer injecting continuously into a vaporizing chamber heated by the exhaust gases. A spring-loaded inlet valve connected the chamber to the atmosphere, with the inlet valve proper between the chamber and the working cylinder being camoperated. A plug valve in the fuel line and a butterfly valve at the inlet to the chamber were operated, via a linkage, by the speed governor; this is believed to be the first use of this method of control. It was found that vaporization was only partly achieved, the higher fractions of the fuel condensing on the cylinder walls. A virtue was made of this as it provided vital lubrication. A starting system had to be provided, this comprising a lamp for preheating the vaporizing chamber and a hand pump for pressurizing the fuel tank.
    Engines of 2–10 hp (1.5–7.5 kW) were exhibited to the press in 1886; of these, a vertical engine was installed in a tram car and one of the horizontals in a motor dray. In 1888, engines were shown publicly at the Royal Agricultural Show, while in 1890 two-cylinder vertical marine engines were introduced in sizes from 2 to 10 hp (1.5–7.5 kW), and later double-acting ones up to some 60 hp (45 kW). First, clutch and gearbox reversing was used, but reversing propellers were fitted later (Priestman patent of 1892). In the same year a factory was established in Philadelphia, USA, where engines in the range 5–20 hp (3.7–15 kW) were made. Construction was radically different from that of the previous ones, the bosses of the twin flywheels acting as crank discs with the main bearings on the outside.
    On independent test in 1892, a Priestman engine achieved a full-load brake thermal efficiency of some 14 per cent, a very creditable figure for a compression ratio limited to under 3:1 by detonation problems. However, efficiency at low loads fell off seriously owing to the throttle governing, and the engines were heavy, complex and expensive compared with the competition.
    Decline in sales of dredging equipment and bad debts forced the firm into insolvency in 1895 and receivers took over. A new company was formed, the brothers being excluded. However, they were able to attend board meetings, but to exert no influence. Engine activities ceased in about 1904 after over 1,000 engines had been made. It is probable that the Quaker ethics of the brothers were out of place in a business that was becoming increasingly cut-throat. William spent the rest of his long life serving others.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    C.Lyle Cummins, 1976, Internal Fire, Carnot Press.
    C.Lyle Cummins and J.D.Priestman, 1985, "William Dent Priestman, oil engine pioneer and inventor: his engine patents 1885–1901", Proceedings of the Institution of
    Mechanical Engineers 199:133.
    Anthony Harcombe, 1977, "Priestman's oil engine", Stationary Engine Magazine 42 (August).
    JB

    Biographical history of technology > Priestman, William Dent

  • 32 Siemens, Sir Charles William

    [br]
    b. 4 April 1823 Lenthe, Germany
    d. 19 November 1883 London, England
    [br]
    German/British metallurgist and inventory pioneer of the regenerative principle and open-hearth steelmaking.
    [br]
    Born Carl Wilhelm, he attended craft schools in Lübeck and Magdeburg, followed by an intensive course in natural science at Göttingen as a pupil of Weber. At the age of 19 Siemens travelled to England and sold an electroplating process developed by his brother Werner Siemens to Richard Elkington, who was already established in the plating business. From 1843 to 1844 he obtained practical experience in the Magdeburg works of Count Stolburg. He settled in England in 1844 and later assumed British nationality, but maintained close contact with his brother Werner, who in 1847 had co-founded the firm Siemens \& Halske in Berlin to manufacture telegraphic equipment. William began to develop his regenerative principle of waste-heat recovery and in 1856 his brother Frederick (1826–1904) took out a British patent for heat regeneration, by which hot waste gases were passed through a honeycomb of fire-bricks. When they became hot, the gases were switched to a second mass of fire-bricks and incoming air and fuel gas were led through the hot bricks. By alternating the two gas flows, high temperatures could be reached and considerable fuel economies achieved. By 1861 the two brothers had incorporated producer gas fuel, made by gasifying low-grade coal.
    Heat regeneration was first applied in ironmaking by Cowper in 1857 for heating the air blast in blast furnaces. The first regenerative furnace was set up in Birmingham in 1860 for glassmaking. The first such furnace for making steel was developed in France by Pierre Martin and his father, Emile, in 1863. Siemens found British steelmakers reluctant to adopt the principle so in 1866 he rented a small works in Birmingham to develop his open-hearth steelmaking furnace, which he patented the following year. The process gradually made headway; as well as achieving high temperatures and saving fuel, it was slower than Bessemer's process, permitting greater control over the content of the steel. By 1900 the tonnage of open-hearth steel exceeded that produced by the Bessemer process.
    In 1872 Siemens played a major part in founding the Society of Telegraph Engineers (from which the Institution of Electrical Engineers evolved), serving as its first President. He became President for the second time in 1878. He built a cable works at Charlton, London, where the cable could be loaded directly into the holds of ships moored on the Thames. In 1873, together with William Froude, a British shipbuilder, he designed the Faraday, the first specialized vessel for Atlantic cable laying. The successful laying of a cable from Europe to the United States was completed in 1875, and a further five transatlantic cables were laid by the Faraday over the following decade.
    The Siemens factory in Charlton also supplied equipment for some of the earliest electric-lighting installations in London, including the British Museum in 1879 and the Savoy Theatre in 1882, the first theatre in Britain to be fully illuminated by electricity. The pioneer electric-tramway system of 1883 at Portrush, Northern Ireland, was an opportunity for the Siemens company to demonstrate its equipment.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1883. FRS 1862. Institution of Civil Engineers Telford Medal 1853. President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers 1872. President, Society of Telegraph Engineers 1872 and 1878. President, British Association 1882.
    Bibliography
    27 May 1879, British patent no. 2,110 (electricarc furnace).
    1889, The Scientific Works of C.William Siemens, ed. E.F.Bamber, 3 vols, London.
    Further Reading
    W.Poles, 1888, Life of Sir William Siemens, London; repub. 1986 (compiled from material supplied by the family).
    S.von Weiher, 1972–3, "The Siemens brothers. Pioneers of the electrical age in Europe", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 45:1–11 (a short, authoritative biography). S.von Weihr and H.Goetler, 1983, The Siemens Company. Its Historical Role in the
    Progress of Electrical Engineering 1847–1980, English edn, Berlin (a scholarly account with emphasis on technology).
    GW

    Biographical history of technology > Siemens, Sir Charles William

  • 33 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 34 Liebig, Justus von

    [br]
    b. 12 May 1803 Darmstadt, Germany
    d. 18 April 1873 Munich, Germany
    [br]
    German chemist, pioneer in the training of chemists and in agricultural chemistry.
    [br]
    As the son of a pharmacist, Lei big early acquired an interest in chemistry. In 1822 he pursued his chemical studies in Paris under Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), one of the leading chemists of the time. Three years later he became Professor of Chemistry in the small university of Giessen, near Frankfurt, where he remained for over thirty years. It was there that he established his celebrated laboratory for training in practical chemistry. The laboratory itself and the instruction given by Liebig were a model for the training of chemists throughout Europe and a steady stream of well-qualified chemists issued forth from Giessen. It was the supply of well-trained chemists that proved to be the basis for Germany's later success in industrial chemistry. The university now bears Liebig's name, and the laboratory has been preserved as a museum in the same state that it was in after the extensions of 1839. Liebig's many and important researches into chemical theory and organic chemistry lie outside the scope of this Dictionary. From 1840 he turned to the chemistry of living things. In agriculture, he stressed the importance of fertilizers containing potassium and phosphorus, although he underrated the role of nitrogen. Liebig thereby exerted a powerful influence on the movement to provide agriculture with a scientific basis.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    C.Paoloni, 1968, Justus von Liebig: eine Bibliographie sämtlicher Veröffentlichungen, Heidelberg: Carl Winter (includes a complete list of Liebig's papers and books, published collections of his letters and a list of secondary works about him).
    A.W.Hofmann, 1876, The Life Work of Liebig (Faraday Lecture), London (a valuable reference).
    J.R.Partington, 1964, A History of Chemistry, Vol. 4, London (a well-documented account of his work).
    F.R.Moulton, 1942, Liebig and After Liebig: A Century of Progress in Agricultural Chemistry, Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, publication 18 (for Liebig's work in agricultural chemistry).
    J.B.Morrell, 1972, "The chemist breeders", Ambix 19:1–47 (for information about Liebig's laboratory).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Liebig, Justus von

  • 35 Acres, Birt

    [br]
    b. 23 July 1854 Virginia, USA
    d. 1918
    [br]
    American photographer, inventor and pioneer cinematographer.
    [br]
    Born of English parents and educated in Paris, Acres travelled to England in the 1880s. He worked for the photographic manufacturing firm Elliott \& Co. in Barnet, near London, and became the Manager. He became well known through his frequent lectures, demonstrations and articles in the photographic press. The appearance of the Edison kinetoscope in 1893 seems to have aroused his interest in the recording and reproduction of movement.
    At the beginning of 1895 he took his idea for a camera to Robert Paul, an instrument maker, and they collaborated on the building of a working camera, which Acres used to record the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on 30 March 1895. He filmed the Derby at Epsom on 29 May and the opening of the Kiel Canal in June, as well as ten other subjects for the kinetoscope, which were sold by Paul. Acres's association with Paul ended in July 1895. Acres had patented the camera design, the Kinetic Lantern, on 27 May 1895 and then went on to design a projector with which he gave the first successful presentation of projected motion pictures to take place in Britain, at the Royal Photographic Society's meeting on 14 January 1896. At the end of the month Acres formed his own business, the Northern Photographic Company, to supply film stock, process and print exposed film, and to make finished film productions.
    His first shows to the public, using the renamed Kineopticon projector, started in Piccadilly Circus on 21 March 1896. He later toured the country with his show. He was honoured with a Royal Command Performance at Marlborough House on 21 July 1896 before members of the royal family. Although he made a number of films for his own use, they and his equipment were used only for his own demonstrations. His last contribution to cinematography was the design and patenting in 1898 of the first low-cost system for amateur use, the Birtac, which was first shown on 25 January 1899 and marketed in May of that year. It used half-width film, 17.5 mm wide, and the apparatus served as camera, printer and projector.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society 1895.
    Bibliography
    27 May 1895 (the Kinetic Lantern).
    9 June 1898 (the Birtac).
    Further Reading
    J.Barnes, 1976, The Beginnings of the Cinema in England, London. B.Coe, 1980, The History of Movie Photography, London.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Acres, Birt

  • 36 Hunter, John

    SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology
    [br]
    b. 14 (registered 13) February 1728 East Kilbride, Lanarkshire, Scotland
    d. 16 October 1793 London, England
    [br]
    Scottish surgeon and anatomist, pioneer of experimental methods in medicine and surgery.
    [br]
    The younger brother of William Hunter (1718–83), who was of great distinction but perhaps of slightly less achievement in similar fields, he owed much of his early experience to his brother; William, after a period at Glasgow University, moved to St George's Hospital, London. In his later teens, John assisted a brother-in-law with cabinet-making. This appears to have contributed to the lifelong mechanical skill which he displayed as a dissector and surgeon. This skill was particularly obvious when, after following William to London in 1748, he held post at a number of London teaching hospitals before moving to St George's in 1756. A short sojourn at Oxford in 1755 appears to have been unfruitful.
    Despite his deepening involvement in the study of comparative anatomy, facilitated by the purchase of animals from the Tower menagerie and travelling show people, he accepted an appointment as a staff surgeon in the Army in 1760, participating in the expedition to Belle Isle and also serving in Portugal. He returned home with over 300 specimens in 1763 and, until his appointment as Surgeon to St George's in 1768, was heavily involved in the examination of this and other material, as well as in studies of foetal testicular descent, placental circulation, the nature of pus and lymphatic circulation. In 1772 he commenced lecturing on the theory and practice of surgery, and in 1776 he was appointed Surgeon-Extraordinary to George III.
    He is rightly regarded as the founder of scientific surgery, but his knowledge was derived almost entirely from his own experiments and observations. His contemporaries did not always accept or understand the concepts which led to such aphorisms as, "to perform an operation is to mutilate a patient we cannot cure", and his written comment to his pupil Jenner: "Why think. Why not trie the experiment". His desire to establish the aetiology of gonorrhoea led to him infecting himself, as a result of which he also contracted syphilis. His ensuing account of the characteristics of the disease remains a classic of medicine, although it is likely that the sequelae of the condition brought about his death at a relatively early age. From 1773 he suffered recurrent anginal attacks of such a character that his life "was in the hands of any rascal who chose to annoy and tease him". Indeed, it was following a contradiction at a board meeting at St George's that he died.
    By 1788, with the death of Percival Pott, he had become unquestionably the leading surgeon in Britain, if not Europe. Elected to the Royal Society in 1767, the extraordinary variety of his collections, investigations and publications, as well as works such as the "Treatise on the natural history of the human teeth" (1771–8), gives testimony to his original approach involving the fundamental and inescapable relation of structure and function in both normal and disease states. The massive growth of his collections led to his acquiring two houses in Golden Square to contain them. It was his desire that after his death his collection be purchased and preserved for the nation. It contained 13,600 specimens and had cost him £70,000. After considerable delay, Par-liament voted inadequate sums for this purpose and the collection was entrusted to the recently rechartered Royal College of Surgeons of England, in whose premises this remarkable monument to the omnivorous and eclectic activities of this outstanding figure in the evolution of medicine and surgery may still be seen. Sadly, some of the collection was lost to bombing during the Second World War. His surviving papers were also extensive, but it is probable that many were destroyed in the early nineteenth century.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1767. Copley Medal 1787.
    Bibliography
    1835–7, Works, ed. J.F.Palmer, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London.
    MG

    Biographical history of technology > Hunter, John

  • 37 Shannon, Claude Elwood

    [br]
    b. 30 April 1916 Gaylord, Michigan, USA
    [br]
    American mathematician, creator of information theory.
    [br]
    As a child, Shannon tinkered with radio kits and enjoyed solving puzzles, particularly crypto-graphic ones. He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1936 with a Bachelor of Science in mathematics and electrical engineering, and earned his Master's degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1937. His thesis on applying Boolean algebra to switching circuits has since been acclaimed as possibly the most significant this century. Shannon earned his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940 with a dissertation on the mathematics of genetic transmission.
    Shannon spent a year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, then in 1941 joined Bell Telephone Laboratories, where he began studying the relative efficiency of alternative transmission systems. Work on digital encryption systems during the Second World War led him to think that just as ciphers hide information from the enemy, "encoding" information could also protect it from noise. About 1948, he decided that the amount of information was best expressed quantitatively in a two-value number system, using only the digits 0 and 1. John Tukey, a Princeton colleague, named these units "binary digits" (or, for short, "bits"). Almost all digital computers and communications systems use such on-off, or two-state logic as their basis of operation.
    Also in the 1940s, building on the work of H. Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley, Shannon proved that there was an upper limit to the amount of information that could be transmitted through a communications channel in a unit of time, which could be approached but never reached because real transmissions are subject to interference (noise). This was the beginning of information theory, which has been used by others in attempts to quantify many sciences and technologies, as well as subjects in the humanities, but with mixed results. Before 1970, when integrated circuits were developed, Shannon's theory was not the preferred circuit-and-transmission design tool it has since become.
    Shannon was also a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, claiming that computing machines could be used to manipulate symbols as well as do calculations. His 1953 paper on computers and automata proposed that digital computers were capable of tasks then thought exclusively the province of living organisms. In 1956 he left Bell Laboratories to join the MIT faculty as Professor of Communications Science.
    On the lighter side, Shannon has built many devices that play games, and in particular has made a scientific study of juggling.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    National Medal of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honor, Kyoto Prize.
    Bibliography
    His seminal paper (on what has subsequently become known as information theory) was entitled "The mathematical theory of communications", first published in Bell System Technical Journal in 1948; it is also available in a monograph (written with Warren Weaver) published by the University of Illinois Press in 1949, and in Key Papers in the Development of Information Theory, ed. David Slepian, IEEE Press, 1974, 1988. For readers who want all of Shannon's works, see N.J.A.Sloane and A.D.Wyner, 1992, The
    Collected Papers of Claude E.Shannon.
    HO

    Biographical history of technology > Shannon, Claude Elwood

  • 38 Delgado, General Humberto

    (1906-1965)
       Pioneer air force advocate and pilot, senior officer who opposed the Estado Novo, and oppositionist candidate in the 1958 presidential elections. One of the young army lieutenants who participated in the 28 May 1926 coup that established the military dictatorship, Delgado was a loyal regime supporter during its early phase (1926-44) and into its middle phase (1944-58). An important advocate of civil aeronautics, as well as being a daring pilot in the army air force and assisting the Allies in the Azores in World War II, Delgado spent an important part of his career after 1943 outside Portugal.
       On missions abroad for the government and armed forces, Delgado came to oppose the dictatorship in the l950s. In 1958, he stood as the oppositionist candidate in the presidential elections, against regime candidate Admiral Américo Tomás. In the cities, Delgado received considerable popular support for his campaign, during which he and the coalition of varied political movements, including the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) and Movement of Democratic Unity, were harassed by the regime police, PIDE. When the managed election results were "tallied," Delgado had won more than 25 percent, including heavy votes in the African colonies; this proved an embarrassment to the regime, which promptly altered electoral law so that universal male suffrage was replaced by a safer electoral college (1959).
       When legal means of opposition were closed to him, Delgado conspired with dissatisfied military officers who promised support but soon abandoned him. The government had him stripped of his job, rank, and career and, in 1959, fearing arrest by the PIDE, Delgado sought political asylum in the embassy of Brazil. Later he fled to South America and organized opposition to the regime, including liaisons and plotting with Henrique Galvão. Delgado traveled to Europe and North Africa to rally Portuguese oppositionists in exile and, in 1961-62, dabbled in coup plots. He had a role in the abortive coup at Beja, in January 1962. Brave to the extent of taking risks against hopeless odds, Delgado dreamed of instigating a popular uprising on his own.
       In 1965, along with his Brazilian secretary, Delgado kept an appointment with destiny on Portugal's Spanish frontier. Neither he nor his companion were seen alive again, and later their bodies were discovered in a shallow grave; investigations since have proved that they were murdered by PIDE agents in a botched kidnapping plot.
       When the true story of what happened to the "Brave General" was revealed in the world press, the opposition's resolve was strengthened and the Estado Novo's image reached a new low. Posthumously, General Delgado has been honored in numerous ways since the Revolution of 25 April 1974.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Delgado, General Humberto

  • 39 Bakewell, Robert

    [br]
    b. 23 May 1725 Loughborough, England
    d. 1 October 1795 Loughborough, England
    [br]
    English livestock breeder who pioneered the practice of progeny testing for selecting breeding stock; he is particularly associated with the development of the Improved Leicester breed of sheep.
    [br]
    Robert Bakewell was the son of the tenant farming the 500-acre (200 hectare) Dishley Grange Farm, near Loughborough, where he was born. The family was sufficiently wealthy to allow Robert to travel, which he began to do at an early age, exploring the farming methods of the West Country, Norfolk, Ireland and Holland. On taking over the farm he continued the development of the irrigation scheme begun by his father. Arthur Young visited the farm during his tour of east England in 1771. At that time it consisted of 440 acres (178 hectares), 110 acres (45 hectares) of which were arable, and carried a stock of 60 horses, 400 sheep and 150 other assorted beasts. Of the arable land, 30 acres (12 hectares) were under root crops, mainly turnips.
    Bakewell was not the first to pioneer selective breeding, but he was the first successfully to apply selection to both the efficiency with which an animal utilized its food, and its physical appearance. He always had a clear idea of the animal he wanted, travelled extensively to collect a range of animals possessing the characteristics he sought, and then bred from these towards his goal. He was aware of the dangers of inbreeding, but would often use it to gain the qualities he wanted. His early experiments were with Longhorn cattle, which he developed as a meat rather than a draught animal, but his most famous achievement was the development of the Improved Leicester breed of sheep. He set out to produce an animal that would put on the most meat in the least time and with the least feeding. As his base he chose the Old Leicester, but there is still doubt as to which other breeds he may have introduced to produce the desired results. The Improved Leicester was smaller than its ancestor, with poorer wool quality but with greatly improved meat-production capacity.
    Bakewell let out his sires to other farms and was therefore able to study their development under differing conditions. However, he made stringent rules for those who hired these animals, requiring the exclusive use of his rams on the farms concerned and requiring particular dietary conditions to be met. To achieve this control he established the Dishley Society in 1783. Although his policies led to accusations of closed access to his stock, they enabled him to keep a close control of all offspring. He thereby pioneered the process now recognized as "progeny testing".
    Bakewell's fame and that of his farm spread throughout the country and overseas. He engaged in an extensive correspondence and acted as host to all of influence in British and overseas agriculture, but it would appear that he was an over-generous host, since he is known to have been in financial difficulties in about 1789. He was saved from bankruptcy by a public subscription raised to allow him to continue with his breeding experiments; this experience may well have been the reason why he was such a staunch advocate of State funding of agricultural research.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    William Houseman, 1894, biography, Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. 1–31. H.C.Parsons, 1957, Robert Bakewell (contains a more detailed account).
    R.Trow Smith, 1957, A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700, London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul.
    —A History of British Livestock Husbandry 1700 to 1900 (places Bakewell within the context of overall developments).
    M.L.Ryder, 1983, Sheep and Man, Duckworth (a scientifically detailed account which deals with Bakewell within the context of its particular subject).
    AP

    Biographical history of technology > Bakewell, Robert

  • 40 Belling, Charles Reginald

    [br]
    b. 11 May 1884 Bodmin, Cornwall, England
    d. 8 February 1965 while on a cruise
    [br]
    English electrical engineer best known as the pioneer of the wire-wound clay-former heating element which made possible the efficient domestic electric fire.
    [br]
    Belling was educated at Burts Grammar School in Lostwithiel, Cornwall, and at Crossley Schools in Halifax, Yorkshire. In 1903 he was apprenticed to Crompton \& Co. at Chelmsford in Essex, the firm that in 1894 offered for sale the earliest electric heaters. These electric radiant panels were intended as heating radiators or cooking hotplates, but were not very successful because, being cast-iron panels into which heating wires had been embedded in enamel, they tended to fracture due to the different rates of thermal expansion of the iron and the enamel. Other designs of electric heaters followed, notably the introduction of large, sausage-shaped carbon filament bulbs fitted into a fire frame and backed by reflectors. This was the idea of H. Dowsing, a collaborator of Crompton, in 1904.
    After qualifying in 1906, Belling left Crompton \& Co. and went to work for Ediswan at Ponders End in Hertfordshire. He left in 1912 to set up his own business, which he began in a small shed in Enfield. With a small staff and capital of £450, he took out his first patent for his wire-wound-former electric fire in the same year. The resistance wire, made from nickel-chrome alloy such as that patented in 1906 by A.L. Marsh, was coiled round a clay former. Six such bars were attached to a cast-iron frame with heating control knobs, and the device was marketed as the Standard Belling Fire. Advertised in 1912, the fire was an immediate success and was followed by many other variations. Improvements to the first model included wire safety guards, enamel finishes and a frame ornamented with copper and brass.
    Belling turned his attention to hotplates, cookers, immersion heaters, electric irons, water urns and kettles, producing the Modernette Cooker (1919), the multi-parabola fire bar (1921), the plate and dish warmer (1924), the storage heater (1926) and the famous Baby Belling cookers, the first of which appeared in 1929. By 1955 business had developed so well that Belling opened another factory at Burnley, Lancashire. He partly underwrote, for the amount of £1 million, a proposed scientific technical college for the electrical industry at Enfield.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    G.Jukes, 1963, The Story of Belling, Belling and Co. Ltd (produced by the company in its Golden Jubilee year).
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Belling, Charles Reginald

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