Перевод: со всех языков на английский

с английского на все языки

develop+resistance

  • 1 усиливать сопротивление

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > усиливать сопротивление

  • 2 resistent werden

    vi < hygi> (Erreger; z.B. Bakterien) ■ develop resistance vi

    German-english technical dictionary > resistent werden

  • 3 изработвам

    1. make, produce, manufacture
    (съставям) work out, draw up, elaborate
    изработил съм си частта I've done my share of the work
    3. (развивам, създавам, култивирам) develop, form, cultivate
    изработвам си мнение form an opinion
    изработвам си стил cultivate o.'s style
    изработвам резистентност build up a resistance
    4. (спечелвам) earn, make
    добре изработен гол сп. a well engineered goal
    * * *
    израбо̀твам,
    гл.
    1. make, produce, manufacture; ( съставям) work out, draw up, elaborate; contrive, sl. dope out; ( извършвам) do, perform; изработил съм своята част I’ve done my share of the work;
    3. ( развивам, създавам, култивирам) develop, form, cultivate; \изработвам резистентност build up a resistance; \изработвам си мнение form an opinion; \изработвам си стил cultivate o.’s style;
    4. ( спечелвам) earn, make; • добре изработен гол спорт. a well engineered goal.
    * * *
    machine (на машина); elaborate; fashion; form: изработвам an opinion - изработвам си мнение; frame; produce; turn out
    * * *
    1. (извършвам) do, perform 2. (плащам чрез работене) work out 3. (развивам, създавам, култивирам) develop, form, cultivate 4. (спечелвам) earn, make 5. (съставям) work out, draw up, elaborate 6. make, produce, manufacture 7. ИЗРАБОТВАМ резистентност build up a resistance 8. ИЗРАБОТВАМ си мнение form an opinion 9. ИЗРАБОТВАМ си стил cultivate o.'s style 10. добре изработен гол сn. a well engineered goal 11. изработил съм си частта I've done my share of the work 12. колко изработваш на седмица? how much do you make a week?

    Български-английски речник > изработвам

  • 4 Resistenz

    f; -, kein Pl.; MED. resistance ( gegen to)
    * * *
    Re|sis|tẹnz [rezɪs'tɛnts]
    f -, -en (AUCH MED)
    resistance ( gegen to)
    * * *
    Re·sis·tenz
    <-, -en>
    [rezɪsˈtɛnts]
    f MED resistance no pl
    eine \Resistenz gegen etw akk entwickeln to develop a resistance to sth
    * * *
    Resistenz f; -, kein pl; MED resistance (
    gegen to)

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch > Resistenz

  • 5 eliminar

    v.
    to eliminate.
    El líquido eliminó las manchas The liquid eliminated the stains.
    El mafioso eliminó al testigo The mobster eliminated the witness.
    * * *
    1 (gen) to eliminate, exclude
    2 (esperanzas, miedos, etc) to get rid of, cast aside
    3 familiar (matar) to kill, eliminate
    * * *
    verb
    3) kill
    * * *
    1. VT
    1) (=hacer desaparecer) [+ mancha, obstáculo] to remove, get rid of; [+ residuos] to dispose of; [+ pobreza] to eliminate, eradicate; [+ posibilidad] to rule out

    eliminar un directorio — (Inform) to remove o delete a directory

    2) [+ concursante, deportista] to knock out, eliminate

    fueron eliminados de la competición — they were knocked out of o eliminated from the competition

    3) euf (=matar) to eliminate, do away with *
    4) [+ incógnita] to eliminate
    5) (Fisiol) to eliminate
    2.
    See:
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) < obstáculo> to remove; < párrafo> to delete, remove
    b) < candidato> to eliminate; (Dep) to eliminate, knock out
    c) (euf) ( matar) to eliminate (euph), to get rid of (euph)
    d) < residuos> to dispose of
    2) <toxinas/grasas> to eliminate
    3) (Mat) < incógnita> to eliminate
    * * *
    = abort, cut off, delete, detach, disband, discard, dispose of, do away with, eliminate, eradicate, erase, erode, kill, obviate, purge, remove, rid, suppress, take out, withdraw, screen out, retire, squeeze out, decrement, dispel, weed out, axe [ax, -USA], abolish, pare out, chop off, excise, obliterate, scrap, take off, expunge, cut out, put to + rest, sweep away, root out, nix, drive out, deselect, strip away, roll back, efface, cashier, clear out, weed, sunset, stomp + Nombre + out, zap, take + Nombre + out.
    Ex. It is important to know what police or fire responses are triggered by alarms and how that reaction can be aborted and the alarm silenced.
    Ex. The only way to solve these problems is either to revise your catalog in its totality or to cut it off.
    Ex. Expressive notation is generally easier to truncate, that is, delete final characters to create the notation for a more general subject.
    Ex. The words from the deleted abstract in the abstract word file will be detached when DOBIS/LIBIS is not busy with other work.
    Ex. With the completion of the draft in 1983, the Working Group on an International Authority System was officially disbanded.
    Ex. The dates should be checked regularly and updated so that old dates are discarded and new ones entered.
    Ex. List and describe the steps involved in withdrawing and disposing of books which are no longer required.
    Ex. DOBIS/LIBIS does away with the multiplicity of files and catalogs.
    Ex. Obviously, computers and the use of notation in computerised systems may place additional constraints upon the nature of the notation, or may eliminate the need to consider some of the characteristics below.
    Ex. In this instance links would be insufficient to eradicate the false drop.
    Ex. Pressing the delete key erases a characters without leaving a blank space.
    Ex. These arrangements should also erode price differentials between Europe and the US, and permit each country to support its own online services.
    Ex. He was looking for the book 'Flowers and Bullets and Freedom to kill' = Estaba buscando el libro "Flores, balas y libertad para matar".
    Ex. The intercalation of (41-4) after 329 obviates this function.
    Ex. The system requests the number of the borrower and then purges that borrower's name and number from its files.
    Ex. Folders allow a set of papers to be kept together when a set on a given topic is removed from the file.
    Ex. This function can be used to rid access-point files of unused entries.
    Ex. It is possible to suppress references and to omit steps in a hierarchy.
    Ex. A scheme should allow reduction, to take out subjects and their subdivisions which are no longer used.
    Ex. Thus, all cards corresponding to documents covering 'Curricula' are withdrawn from the pack.
    Ex. Most journals rely for a substantial part of their income on advertisements; how would advertisers view the prospect of being selectively screened out by readers?.
    Ex. This article stresses the importance for libraries of making current informationav ailable on AIDS, and of retiring out-of-date information on the subject.
    Ex. Subjects not in the core of major employment areas are likely to be squeezed out of the standard curriculum.
    Ex. Document terms absent from the original query were decremented.
    Ex. But years and experience do not always dispel the sense of unease.
    Ex. Information services administrators expect library schools to uphold admission standards and weed out unsuitable candidates.
    Ex. 'He's been trying to cover up his tracks; those engineers who got axed were his scapegoats'.
    Ex. Who knows? If we can abolish the card catalogue and replace it with some form more acceptable to library users, they may even begin to use library catalogues!.
    Ex. Because the assumption in this method is that none of the preceding years' operations are worth continuing unless they can be shown to be necessary, zero-based budgeting (ZZB) can be useful for paring out the deadwood of obsolete or uselessly extravagant programs.
    Ex. Others chop off old records to remain within the limits of 680 MB.
    Ex. Once a new digitized system has been introduced irrelevancies and redundant features can more easily be seen and excised.
    Ex. Typing errors cannot be obliterated with a normal erasing fluid as this would print and appear as a blotch on the copies.
    Ex. There have even been rumours of plans to scrap most of the industrial side of its work and disperse key elements, such as the work on regional and industrial aid, to the provinces.
    Ex. Meek took her glasses off and twiddled them as her supervisor related the following incident.
    Ex. This article examines the controversial issue about whether to expunge books about satanism from the library shelves.
    Ex. In order to support a core acquistions programme of essential materials for its users, a library will more readily cut out material on the fringe of its needs if such material can be obtained by a good document supply system.
    Ex. Careful investigation by the library board of the possibilities inherent in system membership usually puts to rest preconceived fears.
    Ex. Librarians should ensure that the principles they stand for are not swept away on a tide of technological jingoism.
    Ex. Libraries should root out unproductive and obsolete activities.
    Ex. This play was nixed by school officials on the grounds that the subject of sweatshops was not appropriate for that age group.
    Ex. The development of user-friendly interfaces to data bases may drive out the unspecialised information broker in the long run.
    Ex. There is a need to provide public access to the Internet and to develop guidelines for selecting and deselecting appropriate resources.
    Ex. Like its predecessor, it wants to strip away the sentimentality surrounding male-female relationships and reveal the ugly, unvarnished truth.
    Ex. Some Russia specialists say President Putin is rolling back liberal economic and political reforms ushered in by his predecessor.
    Ex. The beauty, the aliveness, the creativity, the passion that made her lovable and gave her life meaning has been effaced.
    Ex. His case was referred to the next session, and in the following May he was cashiered.
    Ex. Pockets of resistance still remain in Fallujah, but the vast majority of insurgents have been cleared out.
    Ex. It seems to me that the electronic catalog provides the ability to build a file that can, in fact, be easily weeded.
    Ex. It's instructive to remember just how passionately the media hyped the dangers of ' sunsetting' the ban.
    Ex. Like I said, no wonder racism won't die, it takes BOTH sides to stomp it out, not just one!.
    Ex. This electric fly swatter will zap any fly or mosquito with 1500 volts.
    Ex. My lasting image of Omar is of him crouched in the rubble waiting for U.S. troops to get close enough so he could take one of them out.
    ----
    * ayudar a eliminar obstáculos = clear + the path, clear + the way.
    * eliminar al intermediario = cut out + the middleman.
    * eliminar ambigüedades = disambiguate.
    * eliminar barreras = flatten + barriers, tackle + barriers, erase + boundaries.
    * eliminar de un golpe = eliminate + at a stroke.
    * eliminar de un texto = redact out, redact.
    * eliminar diferencias = flatten out + differences.
    * eliminar el hielo = de-ice [deice].
    * eliminar el sarro = descale.
    * eliminar gases = pass + gas, break + wind, pass + wind.
    * eliminar la necesidad de = remove + the need for.
    * eliminar las barreras = break down + barriers.
    * eliminar las diferencias = iron out + differences.
    * eliminar los duplicados = deduplicate.
    * eliminar + Nombre = clear of + Nombre.
    * eliminar obstáculos = clear + the path, clear + the way.
    * eliminar por etapas = phase out.
    * eliminar progresivamente = phase out.
    * eliminar puestos de trabajo = shed + jobs, axe + jobs, cut + jobs.
    * eliminar puliendo = buff out.
    * eliminar una barrera = topple + barrier.
    * eliminar una ecuación de búsqueda = clear + search.
    * eliminar un error = remove + error.
    * eliminar un obstáculo = remove + barrier, sweep away + obstacle.
    * eliminar un problema = sweep away + problem, work out + kink.
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    1)
    a) < obstáculo> to remove; < párrafo> to delete, remove
    b) < candidato> to eliminate; (Dep) to eliminate, knock out
    c) (euf) ( matar) to eliminate (euph), to get rid of (euph)
    d) < residuos> to dispose of
    2) <toxinas/grasas> to eliminate
    3) (Mat) < incógnita> to eliminate
    * * *
    = abort, cut off, delete, detach, disband, discard, dispose of, do away with, eliminate, eradicate, erase, erode, kill, obviate, purge, remove, rid, suppress, take out, withdraw, screen out, retire, squeeze out, decrement, dispel, weed out, axe [ax, -USA], abolish, pare out, chop off, excise, obliterate, scrap, take off, expunge, cut out, put to + rest, sweep away, root out, nix, drive out, deselect, strip away, roll back, efface, cashier, clear out, weed, sunset, stomp + Nombre + out, zap, take + Nombre + out.

    Ex: It is important to know what police or fire responses are triggered by alarms and how that reaction can be aborted and the alarm silenced.

    Ex: The only way to solve these problems is either to revise your catalog in its totality or to cut it off.
    Ex: Expressive notation is generally easier to truncate, that is, delete final characters to create the notation for a more general subject.
    Ex: The words from the deleted abstract in the abstract word file will be detached when DOBIS/LIBIS is not busy with other work.
    Ex: With the completion of the draft in 1983, the Working Group on an International Authority System was officially disbanded.
    Ex: The dates should be checked regularly and updated so that old dates are discarded and new ones entered.
    Ex: List and describe the steps involved in withdrawing and disposing of books which are no longer required.
    Ex: DOBIS/LIBIS does away with the multiplicity of files and catalogs.
    Ex: Obviously, computers and the use of notation in computerised systems may place additional constraints upon the nature of the notation, or may eliminate the need to consider some of the characteristics below.
    Ex: In this instance links would be insufficient to eradicate the false drop.
    Ex: Pressing the delete key erases a characters without leaving a blank space.
    Ex: These arrangements should also erode price differentials between Europe and the US, and permit each country to support its own online services.
    Ex: He was looking for the book 'Flowers and Bullets and Freedom to kill' = Estaba buscando el libro "Flores, balas y libertad para matar".
    Ex: The intercalation of (41-4) after 329 obviates this function.
    Ex: The system requests the number of the borrower and then purges that borrower's name and number from its files.
    Ex: Folders allow a set of papers to be kept together when a set on a given topic is removed from the file.
    Ex: This function can be used to rid access-point files of unused entries.
    Ex: It is possible to suppress references and to omit steps in a hierarchy.
    Ex: A scheme should allow reduction, to take out subjects and their subdivisions which are no longer used.
    Ex: Thus, all cards corresponding to documents covering 'Curricula' are withdrawn from the pack.
    Ex: Most journals rely for a substantial part of their income on advertisements; how would advertisers view the prospect of being selectively screened out by readers?.
    Ex: This article stresses the importance for libraries of making current informationav ailable on AIDS, and of retiring out-of-date information on the subject.
    Ex: Subjects not in the core of major employment areas are likely to be squeezed out of the standard curriculum.
    Ex: Document terms absent from the original query were decremented.
    Ex: But years and experience do not always dispel the sense of unease.
    Ex: Information services administrators expect library schools to uphold admission standards and weed out unsuitable candidates.
    Ex: 'He's been trying to cover up his tracks; those engineers who got axed were his scapegoats'.
    Ex: Who knows? If we can abolish the card catalogue and replace it with some form more acceptable to library users, they may even begin to use library catalogues!.
    Ex: Because the assumption in this method is that none of the preceding years' operations are worth continuing unless they can be shown to be necessary, zero-based budgeting (ZZB) can be useful for paring out the deadwood of obsolete or uselessly extravagant programs.
    Ex: Others chop off old records to remain within the limits of 680 MB.
    Ex: Once a new digitized system has been introduced irrelevancies and redundant features can more easily be seen and excised.
    Ex: Typing errors cannot be obliterated with a normal erasing fluid as this would print and appear as a blotch on the copies.
    Ex: There have even been rumours of plans to scrap most of the industrial side of its work and disperse key elements, such as the work on regional and industrial aid, to the provinces.
    Ex: Meek took her glasses off and twiddled them as her supervisor related the following incident.
    Ex: This article examines the controversial issue about whether to expunge books about satanism from the library shelves.
    Ex: In order to support a core acquistions programme of essential materials for its users, a library will more readily cut out material on the fringe of its needs if such material can be obtained by a good document supply system.
    Ex: Careful investigation by the library board of the possibilities inherent in system membership usually puts to rest preconceived fears.
    Ex: Librarians should ensure that the principles they stand for are not swept away on a tide of technological jingoism.
    Ex: Libraries should root out unproductive and obsolete activities.
    Ex: This play was nixed by school officials on the grounds that the subject of sweatshops was not appropriate for that age group.
    Ex: The development of user-friendly interfaces to data bases may drive out the unspecialised information broker in the long run.
    Ex: There is a need to provide public access to the Internet and to develop guidelines for selecting and deselecting appropriate resources.
    Ex: Like its predecessor, it wants to strip away the sentimentality surrounding male-female relationships and reveal the ugly, unvarnished truth.
    Ex: Some Russia specialists say President Putin is rolling back liberal economic and political reforms ushered in by his predecessor.
    Ex: The beauty, the aliveness, the creativity, the passion that made her lovable and gave her life meaning has been effaced.
    Ex: His case was referred to the next session, and in the following May he was cashiered.
    Ex: Pockets of resistance still remain in Fallujah, but the vast majority of insurgents have been cleared out.
    Ex: It seems to me that the electronic catalog provides the ability to build a file that can, in fact, be easily weeded.
    Ex: It's instructive to remember just how passionately the media hyped the dangers of ' sunsetting' the ban.
    Ex: Like I said, no wonder racism won't die, it takes BOTH sides to stomp it out, not just one!.
    Ex: This electric fly swatter will zap any fly or mosquito with 1500 volts.
    Ex: My lasting image of Omar is of him crouched in the rubble waiting for U.S. troops to get close enough so he could take one of them out.
    * ayudar a eliminar obstáculos = clear + the path, clear + the way.
    * eliminar al intermediario = cut out + the middleman.
    * eliminar ambigüedades = disambiguate.
    * eliminar barreras = flatten + barriers, tackle + barriers, erase + boundaries.
    * eliminar de un golpe = eliminate + at a stroke.
    * eliminar de un texto = redact out, redact.
    * eliminar diferencias = flatten out + differences.
    * eliminar el hielo = de-ice [deice].
    * eliminar el sarro = descale.
    * eliminar gases = pass + gas, break + wind, pass + wind.
    * eliminar la necesidad de = remove + the need for.
    * eliminar las barreras = break down + barriers.
    * eliminar las diferencias = iron out + differences.
    * eliminar los duplicados = deduplicate.
    * eliminar + Nombre = clear of + Nombre.
    * eliminar obstáculos = clear + the path, clear + the way.
    * eliminar por etapas = phase out.
    * eliminar progresivamente = phase out.
    * eliminar puestos de trabajo = shed + jobs, axe + jobs, cut + jobs.
    * eliminar puliendo = buff out.
    * eliminar una barrera = topple + barrier.
    * eliminar una ecuación de búsqueda = clear + search.
    * eliminar un error = remove + error.
    * eliminar un obstáculo = remove + barrier, sweep away + obstacle.
    * eliminar un problema = sweep away + problem, work out + kink.

    * * *
    eliminar [A1 ]
    vt
    A
    1 ‹obstáculo› to remove; ‹párrafo› to delete, remove
    para eliminar las cucarachas to get rid of o exterminate o kill cockroaches
    2 ‹equipo/candidato› to eliminate
    fueron eliminados del torneo they were knocked out of o eliminated from the tournament
    3 ( euf) (matar) to eliminate ( euph), to get rid of ( euph)
    B ‹toxinas/grasas› to eliminate
    C ( Mat) ‹incógnita› to eliminate
    * * *

     

    eliminar ( conjugate eliminar) verbo transitivo

    ‹ párrafo› to delete, remove

    (Dep) to eliminate, knock out
    c) (euf) ( matar) to eliminate (euph), to get rid of (euph)


    e) ‹toxinas/grasas› to eliminate

    eliminar verbo transitivo to eliminate
    ' eliminar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acabar
    - cortar
    - descalificar
    - michelín
    - quitar
    - sonda
    - terminar
    - tranquilizar
    English:
    cut out
    - debug
    - eliminate
    - face
    - hit list
    - knock out
    - liquidate
    - obliterate
    - remove
    - weed
    - cut
    - delete
    - do
    - knock
    - take
    - zap
    * * *
    1. [en juego, deporte, concurso] to eliminate (de from);
    el que menos puntos consiga queda eliminado the person who scores the lowest number of points is eliminated;
    lo eliminaron en la segunda ronda he was eliminated o knocked out in the second round
    2. [acabar con] [contaminación] to eliminate;
    [grasas, toxinas] to eliminate, to get rid of; [residuos] to dispose of; [manchas] to remove, to get rid of; [fronteras, obstáculos] to remove, to eliminate;
    eliminó algunos trozos de su discurso he cut out some parts of his speech
    3. Mat [incógnita] to eliminate
    4. Euf [matar] to eliminate, to get rid of
    * * *
    v/t
    1 eliminate
    2 desperdicios dispose of
    3 INFOR delete
    * * *
    1) : to eliminate, to remove
    2) : to do in, to kill
    * * *
    1. (en general) to eliminate
    2. (manchas) to remove

    Spanish-English dictionary > eliminar

  • 6 réseau

    réseau (plural réseaux) [ʀezo]
    masculine noun
       a. network
    • réseau routier/ferroviaire/téléphonique road/rail/telephone network
    • réseau de communication/d'information/ de distribution communications/information/distribution network
    • réseau commercial or de vente sales network
    • les abonnés du réseau sont avisés que... (Telecommunications) telephone subscribers are advised that...
    • être en réseau [personnes, entreprises] to be on the network
       b. [de prostitution, trafiquants, terroristes] ring
    • réseau d'espionnage/de résistants spy/resistance network
    * * *
    pl réseaux ʀezo nom masculin
    1) Technologie (de fils, conduits, routes) network

    les abonnés du réseau — Télécommunications telephone customers

    2) ( de personnes) network

    réseau d'espions/de trafiquants de drogue — spy/drugs ring

    3) Informatique network
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    ʀezo
    réseaux pl nm

    mettre en réseau [ordinateurs] — to network

    * * *
    réseau, pl réseaux nm
    1 Tech (de fils, conduits, routes) network; réseau câblé/routier/de communications/de vente/électrique cable/road/communications/sales/electricity network; réseau de transport transport system; réseau hydrographique river system; sur l'ensemble du réseau throughout the network; les abonnés du réseau Télécom telephone customers;
    2 ( de personnes) network; réseau d'espions/de trafiquants de drogue spy/drugs ring;
    3 Ordinat network; réseau local local area network;
    4 Phys réseau cristallin crystal lattice; réseau de diffraction diffraction grating;
    5 Zool reticulum.
    réseau express régional, RER rapid-transit rail system; réseau numérique à intégration de services, RNIS Integrated Services Digital Network, ISDN.
    ⓘ RER The rapid-transit rail network in the Paris area, run by the RATP and SNCF, and linked to the métro.
    ( pluriel réseaux) [rezo] nom masculin
    réseau aérien/ferroviaire/routier air/rail/road network
    2. TÉLÉCOMMUNICATIONS & TÉLÉVISION network
    3. [organisation] network
    développer un réseau commercial to develop ou to expand a sales network
    réseau d'espionnage spy ring, network of spies
    réseau étoilé/maillé star/mesh network

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > réseau

  • 7 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 8 линия

    arc, branch ж.-д., circuit, strip line, line, pin
    * * *
    ли́ния ж.
    line; ( на графике) curve
    по ли́нии — in the line of …
    располага́ться на одно́й ли́нии — be in line [be lined up] with one another
    ли́нии расхо́дятся — lines diverge
    ли́нии схо́дятся — lines converge
    абоне́нтская ли́ния — subscriber's [individual, exchange] line, subscriber's loop
    абоне́нтская ли́ния заво́дится в многокра́тное по́ле [в по́ле остальны́х коммута́торов] — each subscriber's line appears in multiple at several operator's positions
    абоне́нтская, возду́шная ли́ния — customer open wire line, open wire loop
    абоне́нтская, индивидуа́льная ли́ния — individual [direct exchange] line, one-party telephone
    ли́ния а́бриса картогр. — planimetric line
    ли́ния АВ ( электрокаротаж) — energizing [current, power] line
    автомати́ческая ли́ния маш. — (automatic) transfer line, transfer machine
    автомати́ческая, жестяноба́ночная ли́ния — automatic can-making line
    автомати́ческая, ко́мплексная ли́ния маш. — integrated transfer line; integrated manufacturing system
    автомати́ческая, перенала́живаемая ли́ния маш. — versatile transfer line
    автомати́ческая, n [m2]-позици́онная ли́ния маш. — n -station transfer line
    автомати́ческая, прямолине́йная ли́ния маш. — in-line transfer machine
    автомати́ческая ли́ния с ги́бкой свя́зью маш. — non-synchronous transfer line
    автомати́ческая ли́ния с жё́сткой свя́зью маш. — synchronous transfer line
    автомати́ческая ли́ния со спу́тниками маш. — pallet type transfer line
    автомати́ческая, стано́чная ли́ния — transfer line
    автомати́ческая ли́ния с управле́нием от ЭВМ маш. — computer-controlled transfer line
    агони́ческая ли́ния геод. — zero [agonic] line
    ли́ния а́зимута — azimuth line
    акусти́ческая ли́ния — acoustic line
    антисто́ксова ли́ния — anti-Stokes line
    ли́ния апси́д астр. — line of apsides
    атмосфе́рная ли́ния тепл. — air evacuation line
    ба́зисная ли́ния
    1. мат. reference line
    2. опт. base-line
    бесконе́чная ли́ния
    1. мат. line at infinity
    2. эл. infinite line
    ва́куумная (отка́чная) ли́ния — vacuum pump line
    ли́ния вало́в — line of shafting
    ли́ния верши́н зу́бьев шестерни́ — face line of teeth
    ли́ния взлё́тно-поса́дочной полосы́, осева́я — runway centre line
    ли́ния ви́димого горизо́нта — sky-line, horizon line
    ли́ния ви́димого ко́нтура ( на чертеже) — object line
    визи́рная ли́ния ( логарифмической линейки) — hair-line, indicator hair-line
    ли́ния визи́рования геод. — axis [line] of sight, observing [sight(ing) ] line
    винтова́я ли́ния — helical line, helix, spiral
    дви́гаться по винтово́й ли́нии — move in a helix [in a spiral]
    винтова́я, кони́ческая ли́ния — conical helix
    вихрева́я ли́ния мат. — vortex [whirl] line
    вихрева́я, за́мкнутая ли́ния мат. — closed vortex line
    ли́ния влия́ния — influence line
    ли́ния вну́тренней свя́зи — inland circuit
    ли́ния возмуще́ний — Mach line
    ли́ния впа́дин шестерни́ — line of dents [dedendum line] of a gear
    ли́ния вса́сывания — suction line
    входна́я ли́ния вчт. — input line
    ли́ния входя́щей свя́зи — incoming [inward] line
    ли́ния вы́борки вчт. — select (ion) line
    выносна́я ли́ния ( на чертеже) — extension line
    выпускна́я ли́ния — exhaust line
    ли́ния выру́ливания ( со стоянки) ав. — lead-off line
    ли́ния вы́ходов горн. — outcrop line
    га́зовая ли́ния — gas line
    ли́ния генера́ции ( лазера) — lasing line
    геодези́ческая ли́ния — geodetic [geodesic] line
    ли́ния горизо́нта — sky-line, horizon line
    горизонта́льная ли́ния — level [horizontal] line
    горлова́я ли́ния мат. — striction line, line of striction (of a ruled surface)
    гребе́нчатая ли́ния элк. — comb (transmission) line
    ли́ния давле́ния — pressure line
    ли́ния да́льности рлк. — range line
    ли́ния движе́ния (частиц, электрона и т. п.) — trajectory
    ли́ния двоя́кой кривизны́ — line of double curvature, double-curved line
    ли́ния действи́тельного горизо́нта — true-horizon line
    ли́ния де́йствия — line of action
    ли́ния де́йствия си́лы — line of action of a force
    ли́ния де́йствия си́лы тя́жести — gravitational vertical
    ли́ния де́йствия тя́ги — thrust line, axis of thrust
    ли́ния де́йствующих забо́ев — line of active faces
    диагра́ммная ли́ния — (X-ray) diagram line
    ли́ния дислока́ций — dislocation line
    ли́ния дислока́ций выхо́дит на пове́рхность криста́лла — the dislocation line terminates at the surface of the crystal
    дифракцио́нная ли́ния — diffraction [diffracted] line
    дрена́жная ли́ния ( на самолёте) — vent line
    ли́ния ду́плекса, бала́нсная свз. — duplex artificial line
    железнодоро́жная, грузонапряжё́нная ли́ния — heavy-traffic line
    железнодоро́жная, двухпу́тная ли́ния — double-track railway line
    железнодоро́жная, однопу́тная ли́ния — single-track railway line
    ли́ния жё́сткой тя́ги — pipe-line
    жи́рная ли́ния — heavy [heavily drawn] line
    ли́ния забо́ев — faces line
    ли́ния забо́ев, дугообра́зная — arched line of faces, arched faces line
    ли́ния забо́ев, искривлё́нная — bowed faces line
    ли́ния загоризо́нтной свя́зи — beyond-the-horizon [over-the-horizon] communication link
    ли́ния за́данного пути́ [ЛЗП] ав. — брит. required [intended] track, track required, Tr. Req.; амер. course (line)
    ли́ния заде́ржки — delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, акусти́ческая — acoustic [sonic] delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки без поте́рь — dissipationless delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, водяна́я — water delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, герметизи́рованная — potted delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, иску́сственная — artificial delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, ка́бельная — cable delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, ква́рцевая — quartz delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, компенси́рованная — equalized delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, магнитострикцио́нная — magnetostrictive delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, многокра́тная — multiple delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, ни́келевая — nickel delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, поло́сковая — strip delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, про́волочная — wire delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, регули́руемая — variable delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, рту́тная — mercury delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, спира́льная — helical [spiral] delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки с распределё́нными пара́метрами — distributed-constant delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки с сосредото́ченными пара́метрами — lumped-constant delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, твердоте́льная — solid-state (delay) line, solid delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, ультразвукова́я — ultrasonic delay line
    ли́ния заде́ржки, электромагни́тная — electromagnetic delay line
    ли́ния заказна́я ли́ния тлф. — record operator's line, record circuit
    ли́ния залё́та топ. — flight line
    ли́ния запасны́х забо́ев — line of reserved faces
    запрещё́нная ли́ния — forbidden line
    ли́ния зару́ливания ( на стоянку) ав. — lead-in line
    заря́женная ли́ния — line of charge
    ли́ния застро́йки — building line
    ли́ния зацепле́ния голо́вок — head-line of contact, top line of action
    ли́ния зацепле́ния но́жек зу́бьев — dedendum line of contact
    зна́ковая ли́ния мат. — directed line
    золоспускна́я ли́ния — sluice discharge pipe-line
    ли́ния зубча́того зацепле́ния — line of action
    ли́ния изги́ба ж.-д. — curvature line
    ли́ния излуче́ния ла́зера — laser emission line
    измери́тельная ли́ния элк. — slotted [measuring] line, standing-wave meter
    и́мпульсная ли́ния ( в гидравлических и пневматических системах) — impulse line
    ли́ния инфильтра́ции — line of percolation
    ли́ния искажё́нных масшта́бов — zero line
    иску́сственная ли́ния эл. — artificial line
    ли́ния исходя́щей свя́зи тлф. — outward [outgoing] line
    ли́ния кали́бра, нейтра́льная прок. — neutral line of a groove
    ли́ния каса́ния — line of contact
    ли́ния каче́ния — line of rolling contact
    коаксиа́льная ли́ния — coaxial line
    коаксиа́льная, жё́сткая ли́ния — rigid coaxial line
    ли́ния кольцева́ния ав. — cross-feed line
    кома́ндная ли́ния рлк. — command link
    кома́ндная, проводна́я ли́ния рлк. — wire command link
    конверсио́нная ли́ния — conversion line
    конта́ктная ли́ния эл. — contact-wire line
    контро́льная ли́ния геод. — check(ing) [control, test] line
    ко́нтурная ли́ния (напр. на карте) — contour line
    ли́ния концентра́ции возмуще́ния — Mach line
    короткоза́мкнутая ли́ния — short-circuited line
    котида́льная ли́ния навиг. — co-tidal line
    ли́ния крити́ческих то́чек аргд. — stagnation line
    ли́ния ку́рса ав. — брит. course (line); амер. heading
    ли́ния ку́рса курсово́го маяка́ — localizer course
    курсова́я ли́ния ав. — heading line
    ла́зерная ли́ния — laser line
    ло́маная ли́ния — open polygon, broken [polygonal] line
    ли́ния Лю́дерса метал. — Lьder(s) [slip] line
    магистра́льная ли́ния — trunk [main] line
    ли́ния магни́тной инду́кции — line of magnetic flux, magnetic line of flux
    ма́зерная ли́ния — maser line
    ли́ния Ма́ки кфт. — Mackie line
    меридиа́нная ли́ния — meridian line
    ме́рная ли́ния мор. — trial course
    ли́ния метео́рной свя́зи — meteor-burst [meteor-scatter] link
    ли́ния нагнета́ния — discharge [delivery] line
    нагру́женная ли́ния эл., радио — loaded line
    назе́мная ли́ния — land [ground] line
    ли́ния наибо́льшего ска́та мат. — line of maximum inclination, steepest line (in a plane), line of greatest declivity
    ли́ния наиме́ньшего сопротивле́ния — line of least resistance
    ли́ния напла́вки — line of fusion
    ли́ния направле́ния съё́мки афс. — course of flight
    направля́ющая ли́ния — directrix
    ли́ния насыще́ния — saturation line
    ли́ния нача́ла отсчё́та — fiducial (reference, zero, datum) line
    ли́ния неви́димого ко́нтура ( на чертеже) — invisible [hidden] line
    недиагра́ммная ли́ния — non-diagram (X-ray) line, X-ray satellite
    нейтра́льная ли́ния — neutral line
    неодноро́дная ли́ния свз. — non-uniform [heterogeneous] line
    непересека́ющаяся ли́ния — skew line
    неразрешё́нная ли́ния физ. — unresolved peak
    несимметри́чная ли́ния свз. — unbalanced line
    несо́бственная ли́ния мат. — ideal line
    нивели́руемая ли́ния — line of levels
    нулева́я ли́ния — zero [null] line
    ли́ния нулево́го склоне́ния геод. — zero [agonic] line
    ли́ния нулевы́х значе́ний геод. — zero [agonic] line
    ли́ния обмета́ния ( гребного винта) — sweep line
    ли́ния обруше́ния горн. — line of caving
    ли́ния обтека́ния — streamline
    одноро́дная ли́ния свз. — uniform line
    осева́я ли́ния — axis, centre line
    ли́ния основа́ния зу́бьев ( шестерни) — bottom line of teeth
    ли́ния основа́ния карти́ны топ. — axis of homology, axis of perspective, perspective axis, ground line
    осно́вная ли́ния мор. — base-line
    ли́ния отве́са геод. — plumb (bob) line
    отве́сная ли́ния — tire vertical (line)
    отве́сная ли́ния задаё́тся отве́сом — the vertical [line] is assumed as a plumb-line
    ли́ния отде́лочных клете́й прок. — finishing mill train
    ли́ния отко́са — shoulder [slope] line
    ли́ния отсчё́та — reference [dation] line
    ли́ния паде́ния горн. — line of dip
    ли́ния па́лубы ( на теоретическом чертеже) — deck line, (на боковой проекции теоретического чертежа) sheer line
    ли́ния пе́ленга — bearing line, line of bearing
    ли́ния переда́чи эл., радио — (transmission) line
    включа́ть ли́нию (переда́чи) на, напр. согласо́ванную нагру́зку — terminate a (transmission) line into, e. g., a matched load
    закора́чивать ли́нию переда́чи — short-circuit a (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи излуча́ет эне́ргию — a (transmission) line radiates
    ли́ния переда́чи без поте́рь — loss-free [lossless] line
    ли́ния переда́чи да́нных вчт. — data line
    ли́ния переда́чи, дли́нная — long (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, закры́тая — close (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, коаксиа́льная — coaxial (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, многопроводна́я — multiwire (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, опти́ческая — optical transmission line
    ли́ния переда́чи, откры́тая — open (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, печа́тная элк. — printed line
    ли́ния переда́чи, пневмати́ческая — airpressure line
    ли́ния переда́чи, поло́сковая — strip (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, поло́сковая несимметри́чная — microstrip (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, поло́сковая, симметри́чная — strip (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, полуволно́вая — half wave (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, разо́мкнутая на конце́ — open-ended (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи с больши́м затуха́нием — lossy line
    ли́ния переда́чи, сверхпроводя́щая — superconducting (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи с поте́рями — lossy line
    ли́ния переда́чи, трё́хпластинчатая — tri-plate line
    ли́ния переда́чи, узкополо́сная — narrowband (transmission) line
    ли́ния переда́чи, широкопо́лосная — wideband (transmission) line
    ли́ния перели́ва — overflow line
    ли́ния пересече́ния — line of intersection
    ли́ния перспекти́вы топ. — perspective line, perspective ray
    ли́ния пита́ния — supply [power] line
    пита́ющая ли́ния — incoming transmission line, feeder
    ли́ния погруже́ния, преде́льная мор. — margin line
    подводя́щая ли́ния ( в гидравлических и пневматических системах) — feeding line
    ли́ния полё́та — flight path
    ли́ния положе́ния [ЛП] навиг. — line of position, position line, LP
    выходи́ть на ли́нию положе́ния — arrive at [strike] an LP
    оцифро́вывать ли́нию положе́ния коли́чеством микросеку́нд ра́зности вре́мени — identify a position line by its time-difference in ms
    ли́ния положе́ния, высо́тная — Sumner (position) line
    ли́ния положе́ния самолё́та [ЛПС] — aircraft-position line, APL
    полу́денная ли́ния геод. — magnetic north [meridian] line
    ли́ния по́ля — line of force, field line, line of field
    ли́ния постоя́нной интенси́вности ви́хрей — isocurlus
    ли́ния постоя́нной ско́рости — isovel
    пото́чная ли́ния — (continuous) production [flow] line
    сходи́ть с пото́чной ли́нии ( с конвейера) — roll off a production [flow] line
    по́ясная ли́ния ( кузова мобиля) — waistline
    ли́ния проги́ба — deflection [bending] line
    ли́ния прока́тки — rolling [mill] train
    ли́ния промежу́точного перегре́ва, горя́чая тепл. — hot reheat line
    ли́ния промежу́точного перегре́ва, холо́дная тепл. — cold reheat line
    ли́ния промерза́ния стр. — frost line
    ли́ния простира́ния горн. — strike line
    пряма́я ли́ния — straight line
    дви́гаться по прямы́м ли́ниям — move [travel] in straight lines
    ли́ния прямо́й ви́димости — line-of-sight
    пункти́рная ли́ния — dotted line
    ли́ния пути́ — track line, course line (Примечание. на практике в английской литературе наблюдается смешение track с course.)
    рабо́чая ли́ния проце́сса хим. — operating line
    ли́ния ра́вного потенциа́ла — co-potential line
    ли́ния равноде́нствия — equinoctial line
    ли́ния ра́вных высо́т геод. — line of equal elevation
    ли́ния ра́вных пе́ленгов самолё́та [ЛРПС] — line of bearings
    получа́ть ли́нии ра́вных пе́ленгов самолё́та — develop lines of bearings
    ли́ния ра́вных скоросте́й — isotach
    радиопроводна́я ли́ния — combined radio and wire link
    ли́ния радиосвя́зи — radio link, radio circuit
    ли́ния радиосвя́зи, реле́йная — microwave line-of-signal, radio link
    ли́ния радиосвя́зи, реле́йная бли́жняя — short-haul radio link
    ли́ния радиосвя́зи, реле́йная да́льняя — long-haul radio link
    радиотелеметри́ческая ли́ния — radio-telemetry link
    ли́ния радиотелефо́нной свя́зи — radiotelephone circuit
    ли́ния развё́ртки рлк., тлв. — beam trace, sweep-trace, scan(ning) trace
    ли́ния разде́ла — boundary (line)
    разме́рная ли́ния ( на чертеже) — dimension line
    ли́ния разре́за ( на чертеже) — cutting line
    разрешё́нная ли́ния
    1. resolved peak
    2. permissible [allowed] line
    ли́ния разъё́ма моде́ли литейн. — parting [joint] line of a pattern
    ли́ния разъё́ма фо́рмы литейн. — parting [joint] line of a mould
    ли́ния разъё́ма шта́мпа — die [flash] line
    распада́ющаяся ли́ния мат. — decomposed line
    ли́ния распростране́ния — line of propagation
    расто́почная ли́ния тепл. — start-up line
    ли́ния расшире́ния — expansion line
    реги́стровая ли́ния свз. — sender link
    ли́ния регре́ссии — regression line, line of regression
    ли́ния ре́зания горн. — cutting line, cutting horizon
    резона́нсная ли́ния — resonance line
    ре́перная ли́ния — datum line
    ли́ния рециркуля́ции тепл. — recirculation line
    ли́ния сбро́са горн. — fault line
    ли́ния сверхрешё́тки крист. — superlattice line
    сверхструкту́рная ли́ния — superstructure line
    ли́ния свя́зи — communication line, communication link
    демонти́ровать ли́нию свя́зи — dismantle a (communication) line
    освобожда́ть ли́нию свя́зи ( об абоненте) — get off [clear] the (communication) line
    передава́ть ли́нию свя́зи в эксплуата́цию — open a [the] (communication) line [circuit] for traffic
    посыла́ть (сигна́л) в ли́нию свя́зи — transmit to a (communication) line
    ли́ния свя́зи испо́льзуется для, напр. телефони́и — the (communication) line carries, e. g., telephony
    уплотня́ть ли́нию свя́зи — use a (communication) line for multichannel operation
    уплотня́ть ли́нию свя́зи, напр. 10 кана́лами — multiplex [derive], e. g., 10 channels on a (communication) line
    уплотня́ть ли́нию свя́зи с вре́менным разделе́нием сигна́лов — time-multiplex a (communication) line, use a line for time-division multiplex
    уплотня́ть ли́нию свя́зи с часто́тным разделе́нием сигна́лов — frequency-multiplex a (communication) line, use a line for frequency-division multiplex
    уплотня́ть ли́нию свя́зи фанто́мной це́лью — phantom a (communication) line, set up [derive] a phantom circuit on a (communication) line
    ли́ния свя́зи, возду́шная — aerial line
    ли́ния связи́, двухпроводна́я — two-wire line, two-wire circuit
    ли́ния свя́зи, двухце́пная — double-circuit line
    ли́ния свя́зи, ка́бельная — cable line
    ли́ния свя́зи, комбини́рованная — composite communication link
    ли́ния свя́зи, ме́стная — local circuit
    ли́ния свя́зи, объединя́ющая тлф., телегр. — concentration line
    ли́ния свя́зи, однопроводна́я — single-wire circuit, single-wire line
    ли́ния свя́зи, одноцепна́я — single-circuit line
    ли́ния свя́зи, отходя́щая — offgoing line
    ли́ния свя́зи, при́городная тлф., телегр. — suburban line, short-haul toll circuit
    ли́ния свя́зи, пупинизи́рованная — coil-loaded line
    ли́ния свя́зи, радиореле́йная — microwave relay [radio-relay] link
    ли́ния свя́зи, ретрансляцио́нная — relay link
    ли́ния свя́зи, служе́бная — order circuit, engineers order wire
    ли́ния свя́зи, спа́ренная — two-party line
    ли́ния свя́зи, спу́тниковая — satellite communication link
    ли́ния свя́зи, столбова́я — pole line
    ли́ния свя́зи, тропосфе́рная — troposcatter [tropospheric-scatter] link
    ли́ния свя́зи, уплотнё́нная — multiplexed [multichannel] line
    ли́ния сгора́ния — combustion [ignition] line
    секу́щая ли́ния — secant
    ли́ния се́тки координа́т — grid line
    ли́ния сжа́тия — compression line
    силова́я ли́ния — line of force, field line, line of field
    силова́я, магни́тная ли́ния — magnetic line of force
    ли́ния скачка́ уплотне́ния — shock line
    ли́ния скольже́ния
    1. glide line
    2. метал. slip line
    сливна́я ли́ния — drain line
    слоева́я ли́ния крист. — layer line
    сма́зочная ли́ния — lubrication line
    ли́ния сме́ны дат — date line
    ли́ния смеще́ния — displacement line
    соедини́тельная ли́ния ( между коммутационными узлами) тлф. — брит. junction (route), (inter-exchange) junction circuit; амер. trunk
    назнача́ть соедини́тельную ли́нию — allot a junction (route), assign a trunk
    соедини́тельная, входя́щая ли́ния тлф. — incoming junction (route)
    соедини́тельная, исходя́щая ли́ния тлф. — outgoing junction (route)
    соедини́тельная, транзи́тная ли́ния тлф. — through-traffic junction (route), tandem [built-up] trunk
    ли́ния сопротивле́ния, расчё́тная — calculated line of resistance
    спектра́льная ли́ния — spectral [spectrum] line
    выделя́ть спектра́льную, ли́нию — isolate a spectral line
    спектра́льная ли́ния раздва́ивается — the spectral line splits
    спектра́льные ли́нии сближа́ются — (the) spectral lines crowd together
    спектра́льные ли́нии сгуща́ются — (the) spectral lines crowd together
    спектра́льные ли́нии характеризу́ют [позволя́ют определя́ть] веще́ства — substances are identified by spectral lines
    спектра́льная, враща́тельная ли́ния — rotational spectral line
    спектра́льная, интенси́вная ли́ния — strong spectral line
    спектра́льная, колеба́тельная ли́ния — vibrational spectral line
    спектра́льная, ло́жная ли́ния — ghost spectral line
    спектра́льная ли́ния поглоще́ния — absorption spectral line
    спектра́льная, размы́тая ли́ния — diffuse spectral line
    спектра́льная, рентге́новская ли́ния — X-ray spectral line
    спектра́льная, сла́бая ли́ния — faint spectral line
    спира́льная ли́ния — spiral (line), helix
    ли́ния сплавле́ния — (weld-)fusion line
    сплошна́я ли́ния ( на чертеже) — full [solid] line
    спра́вочная ли́ния тлф. — information [inquiry] circuit
    сре́дняя ли́ния валко́в прок. — roll parting line
    сре́дняя ли́ния про́филя прок. — camber line
    сре́дняя ли́ния трапе́ции — median of a trapezoid
    ли́ния степене́й то́чности — line of precision
    сто́ксова ли́ния ( спектра) — Stokes line
    стрикцио́нная ли́ния — gorge [striction] line, line of striction
    ли́ния сходи́мости — convergence line
    ли́ния теку́чести — flow line
    телеметри́ческая ли́ния — telemetry link
    телефо́нная ли́ния — ( совокупность технических устройств) telephone line; ( в переносном значении) connection
    занима́ть (телефо́нную) ли́нию — hold the connection
    освободи́ть (телефо́нную) ли́нию — clear the line
    прове́рить (телефо́нную) ли́нию на за́нятость — test a line for the engaged condition
    (телефо́нная) ли́ния занята́ ( ответ оператора) — the line is busy [engaged]
    теорети́ческая ли́ния мор. — moulded line
    технологи́ческая ли́ния — production line
    ли́ния то́ка
    1. аргд. stream-line
    визуализи́ровать [де́лать ви́димой] ли́нию то́ка — visualize the stream-line
    ли́ния то́ка, визуализи́рованная — traced stream-line
    ли́ния то́ка в крити́ческой то́чке — stagnation stream-line
    ли́ния то́ка, крити́ческая — stagnation stream-line
    ли́ния то́ка, раздели́тельная — discriminating [dividing] stream-line
    то́лстая ли́ния ( на чертеже) — heavy line
    трансмиссио́нная ли́ния — transmission line, continuous line of shafting
    ли́ния труб — run of pipes
    ли́ния тя́ги — draft line
    ли́ния уда́ра — line of impact
    узлова́я ли́ния — nodal line
    уравни́тельная ли́ния тепл. — equalizing line
    ли́ния у́ровня мат. — contour [level] line, level curve
    ли́ния факти́ческого пути́ ав. — брит. track made good, TMG; амер. track
    фока́льная ли́ния — focal line
    ли́ния фо́кусов аргд. — aerodynamic centre line
    форва́куумная ли́ния — roughing-down line
    ли́ния форм релье́фа геод. — form [landform] line
    фраунго́феровы ли́нии — Fraunhofer-lines
    характеристи́ческая ли́ния — characteristic line
    ходова́я ли́ния геод., топ. — computation course, computation line, route
    холоста́я ли́ния эл. — unloaded line
    ли́ния хо́рды ав. — chord line
    ли́ния це́нтров — line of centres, centre line
    ли́ния це́нтров давле́ния — centre-of-pressure line
    цепна́я ли́ния мат. — catenary, catenary curve, catenary line
    ли́ния четырёхвалко́вых клете́й прок. — quarto train
    чистова́я петлева́я ли́ния прок. — looping finishing train
    ли́ния широты́ навиг. — line of latitude
    ли́ния шри́фта — type line
    ли́ния шри́фта, ве́рхняя — top line of type face
    ли́ния шри́фта, ни́жняя — bottom line of type face
    штрихпункти́рная ли́ния — dash-dot line
    эквипотенциа́льная ли́ния — equipotential line
    ли́ния электропереда́чи [ЛЭП] — (electric) power line
    меня́ть ли́нию электропереда́чи — re-string a power line
    наве́шивать ли́нию электропереда́чи — string a (power) line
    осуществля́ть высокочасто́тную обрабо́тку ли́нии электропереда́чи — install carrier-frequency trapping and coupling equipment on a power line
    ли́ния электропереда́чи (нахо́дится) под напряже́нием — the power line is hot [live]
    ли́ния электропереда́чи, возду́шная — aerial power line
    ли́ния электропереда́чи высо́кого напряже́ния — high-voltage power lire
    ли́ния электропереда́чи, грозоупо́рная — lightning-resistant power line
    ли́ния электропереда́чи, ка́бельная — cable power line
    ли́ния электропереда́чи, подзе́мная — underground [buried] power line
    этало́нная ли́ния — standard line
    ли́ния этало́нной заде́ржки — standard delay line

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > линия

  • 9 Resistenz

    Re·sis·tenz <-, -en> [rezɪsʼtɛnts] f
    resistance no pl;
    eine \Resistenz gegen etw entwickeln to develop a resistance to sth

    Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch für Studenten > Resistenz

  • 10 создавать

    •

    The magnetic moment produces a diamagnetic effect.

    •

    It is this reaction which builds up the reservoir of activated molecules.

    •

    Displacing a particle in one direction brings about a force in the opposite direction.

    •

    To build up (or produce) sufficient pressure so as to ensure...

    •

    If the rotor is given the shape of a polygon, the lines of force exert the desired torque.

    •

    The heat generated by magnetization...

    •

    The feedback generates parasitic laser oscillations.

    •

    The resistance element generates precision voltages.

    •

    The pump produces a vacuum of 0.1 mm.

    •

    When a current passes through a wire, it sets up a magnetic field around the wire.

    •

    The magnetic field sets up a magnetomotive force.

    •

    The flywheels set up in the spring-mounted screen a motion which...

    •

    The heating of the coils sets up a ventilating draught.

    •

    The object of the experiment is to build up a high current of charged particles.

    •

    The gradient of viscous shear stresses establishes a steady-state concentration gradient.

    •

    These energy transitions give rise to pockets of photons.

    •

    This brings with it acute problems of electrical interference.

    •

    In the past 20 years the electronics industry has generated many completely new technological systems.

    •

    The media bring into existence and cultivate a new form of common consciousness.

    II
    •

    The research staffs are evolving workable designs.

    •

    The engineers have come up with an improved technique for...

    •

    He originated the projection method.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > создавать

  • 11 colaborar

    v.
    1 to collaborate.
    2 to contribute.
    3 to collaborate with.
    Le colaboró a ella He collaborated with her.
    * * *
    1 to collaborate ( con, with)
    2 (prensa) to contribute (en, to)
    * * *

    te necesitamos ¡colabora! — we need you, come and join us!

    • colaborar a algo — to contribute to sth

    • colaborar con algo, colaboramos con los movimientos pacifistas — we are collaborating with the peace groups

    • colaborar en algo, nuestra empresa colaborará en el proyecto — our company is to collaborate on the project

    colaborar en un periódico — to contribute to a newspaper, write for a newspaper

    * * *
    verbo intransitivo

    colaborar con alguien/algo — to collaborate with somebody/something

    colabore con nosotros, mantenga limpia la ciudad — help us keep the city clean

    colaborar en algo — en proyecto to collaborate on something

    * * *
    = collaborate, cooperate [co-operate], join + forces, play + ball, team, partner, pull + Posesivo + (own) weight, lend + a (helping) hand, pull together, put + Posesivo + shoulder to the wheel, set + Posesivo + shoulder to the wheel, muck in, pitch in.
    Ex. A joint author is a person who collaborates with one or more other persons to produce a work in relation to which the collaborators perform the same function.
    Ex. By 1960 a draft code had been produced, and from this time on, British and American Committees co-operated closely.
    Ex. Therefore, school librarians need to find ways of joining forces with publishers, booksellers and other librarians.
    Ex. She then said: 'If you want to fare reasonably well, you better play ball with me'.
    Ex. Information Today, Inc. and I are teaming to create a series of articles to be published in Computers in Libraries which will provide user ratings of library automation software.
    Ex. The article 'Let's partner as patriots' maintains that in recent years some people have begun to view the public library as an anachronism.
    Ex. Sometimes one person is left with all the work because their partner doesn't pull their weight.
    Ex. In a small shop the master would lend a hand with the work, certainly as a corrector and often as a compositor as well.
    Ex. She tells a story of courage in which the crew and the mission control pull together to work the problem through.
    Ex. They've all been putting their shoulder to the wheel and it's paid off.
    Ex. The Bolsheviks have manfully set their shoulders to the wheel undaunted by this staggering catastrophe.
    Ex. All our neighbours, relatives, friends, we all mucked in and helped each other -- they were mostly all women because all the men had gone to war.
    Ex. It's up to everyone to pitch in and help those who find themselves lacking the most basic of necessities -- food.
    ----
    * colaborando estrechamente = in close collaboration.
    * colaborar con = team up (with), partner with, become + engaged (in/with), engage with, consort with.
    * colaborar conjuntamente = work + cooperatively.
    * * *
    verbo intransitivo

    colaborar con alguien/algo — to collaborate with somebody/something

    colabore con nosotros, mantenga limpia la ciudad — help us keep the city clean

    colaborar en algo — en proyecto to collaborate on something

    * * *
    colaborar (con)
    (v.) = team up (with), partner with, become + engaged (in/with), engage with, consort with

    Ex: Blackwells, for example, has teamed up with the highly successful CARL Uncover service in the US.

    Ex: To what extent and in what manner should public libraries partner with local businesses to provide the resources needed for economic development?.
    Ex: There is a strong demand for information about Asia as Australia becomes engaged with countries of the Asia-Pacific region.
    Ex: In order to overcome isolation and develop a community oriented approach, libraries will need to engage with people.
    Ex: It is time the USA took a lead in consorting with other Western nations in mounting the 1st Annual international conference on information interchange.

    = collaborate, cooperate [co-operate], join + forces, play + ball, team, partner, pull + Posesivo + (own) weight, lend + a (helping) hand, pull together, put + Posesivo + shoulder to the wheel, set + Posesivo + shoulder to the wheel, muck in, pitch in.

    Ex: A joint author is a person who collaborates with one or more other persons to produce a work in relation to which the collaborators perform the same function.

    Ex: By 1960 a draft code had been produced, and from this time on, British and American Committees co-operated closely.
    Ex: Therefore, school librarians need to find ways of joining forces with publishers, booksellers and other librarians.
    Ex: She then said: 'If you want to fare reasonably well, you better play ball with me'.
    Ex: Information Today, Inc. and I are teaming to create a series of articles to be published in Computers in Libraries which will provide user ratings of library automation software.
    Ex: The article 'Let's partner as patriots' maintains that in recent years some people have begun to view the public library as an anachronism.
    Ex: Sometimes one person is left with all the work because their partner doesn't pull their weight.
    Ex: In a small shop the master would lend a hand with the work, certainly as a corrector and often as a compositor as well.
    Ex: She tells a story of courage in which the crew and the mission control pull together to work the problem through.
    Ex: They've all been putting their shoulder to the wheel and it's paid off.
    Ex: The Bolsheviks have manfully set their shoulders to the wheel undaunted by this staggering catastrophe.
    Ex: All our neighbours, relatives, friends, we all mucked in and helped each other -- they were mostly all women because all the men had gone to war.
    Ex: It's up to everyone to pitch in and help those who find themselves lacking the most basic of necessities -- food.
    * colaborando estrechamente = in close collaboration.
    * colaborar con = team up (with), partner with, become + engaged (in/with), engage with, consort with.
    * colaborar conjuntamente = work + cooperatively.

    * * *
    colaborar [A1 ]
    vi
    1 (en una tarea, un libro) to work, collaborate
    colaboró con nosotros en el proyecto he collaborated o worked with us on this project
    colabore con nosotros, mantenga limpia la ciudad help us keep the city clean
    colaborar EN algo:
    colaboró activamente en la resistencia she was active in the resistance
    colabora en una revista de fotografía he contributes to a photography magazine
    2 (contribuir) colaborar A algo to contribute TO sth, help sth
    el deporte colabora al desarrollo físico del niño sport contributes to o helps a child's physical development
    el nuevo reglamento ha colaborado a mejorar la situacion the new legislation has helped to improve the situation o has contributed to an improvement in the situation
    * * *

     

    colaborar ( conjugate colaborar) verbo intransitivo
    to collaborate;
    colaborar con algn to collaborate with sb;

    colaborar en algo ‹en proyecto/tarea› to collaborate on sth;

    ‹ en revista› to contribute to sth
    colaborar verbo intransitivo to collaborate, cooperate
    ' colaborar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    negación
    English:
    collaborate
    - cooperate
    - write
    - well
    * * *
    1. [cooperar] to collaborate ( con with);
    algunos maridos se niegan a colaborar en las tareas domésticas some husbands refuse to help with the housework;
    muchas personas colaboraron en el rescate many people helped in the rescue;
    que cada uno colabore con lo que pueda let everyone contribute what they can;
    colaboró en la campaña con un donativo de 3 millones she made a donation of 3 million to the campaign
    2. [en prensa]
    colaborar en o [m5] con to write for, to work for
    3. [contribuir] to contribute;
    una dieta que colabora a controlar el nivel colesterol a diet which helps to control cholesterol levels;
    los robots colaboran a incrementar la productividad robots help to increase productivity, robots contribute to increased productivity
    * * *
    v/i collaborate
    * * *
    : to collaborate
    * * *
    colaborar vb to cooperate

    Spanish-English dictionary > colaborar

  • 12 darse

    pron.v.
    1 to yield, to cease resistance, to give in.
    Darse a with noun or infinitive, to execute quickly or repeatedly the action of the verb
    2 to give oneself up to virtue or vice.
    3 darse a la vela.
    4 to surrender at discretion, in hunting (pájaros), to halt fatigued. (Military)
    5 to concern, to interest.
    Darse maña to manage one's affairs in an able manner; to contrive
    Darse prisa to make haste, to hasten, to accelerate
    Darse una panzada (Coll.) to be fed to satiety and sickness
    Darse una vuelta to scrutinize one's own conduct, to find out one's own faults
    * * *
    1 (entregarse) to give in, surrender
    2 (suceder, existir) to happen, occur
    ■ se da el caso que... the thing is that...
    3 (crecer) to grow; (cultivarse) to be found, grow
    4 darse a (consagrarse) to devote oneself to; (a un vicio) to take to, abandon oneself to
    5 darse con/contra (chocar) to crash (contra/con, into)
    * * *
    VERBO PRONOMINAL
    1) (=entregarse) to give in
    2) (=golpearse) to hit o.s.

    ¿dónde te has dado? — where did you hit yourself?

    • darse con o contra — to bump into

    nariz 2)
    3) (=ocurrir) [suceso] to happen
    4) (=crecer) to grow
    5) [seguido de preposición]
    darse a to take to

    darse a la bebida — to take to drink, start drinking

    darse de sí [cuero, tela] to give, stretch dárselas de to make o.s. out to be

    ¡no te las des de listo! — stop acting clever!

    darse por

    darse por perdido — to give o.s. up for lost

    me doy por vencido — I give up, I give in

    dársele mal a algn
    7)
    - no se me da un higo o bledo o rábano
    - dársela con queso a algn
    * * *
    (v.) = appear, occur
    Ex. The statement of authorship is also transcribed and it appears in the work.
    Ex. In DOBIS/LIBIS, this occurs only when entering multiple surnames.
    * * *
    (v.) = appear, occur

    Ex: The statement of authorship is also transcribed and it appears in the work.

    Ex: In DOBIS/LIBIS, this occurs only when entering multiple surnames.

    * * *

     

    ■darse verbo reflexivo
    1 (producirse, tener lugar) esa enfermedad se da en el norte de Europa, that disease is common in the North of Europe
    se dieron una serie de coincidencias, a series of coincidences occurred
    los frutales se dan muy bien en Levante, fruit trees grow really well in Levante
    2 (hallarse) to be found, exist
    3 (aplicarse) devote oneself
    4 (causar cierta impresión) me doy lástima, I feel sorry for myself
    5 (tener habilidad para algo) se le dan bien las matemáticas, he's good at maths 5 darse a, (entregarse, abandonarse) to take to: se dio a la bebida, he took to drink 6 darse con o contra, to bump o crash into
    ♦ Locuciones: darse por satisfecho, to feel satisfied
    darse por vencido, to give in
    dárselas de, to boast about: se las da de culto, he pretends to be very refined
    ' darse' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    advertir
    - aludida
    - aludido
    - apurarse
    - baja
    - baño
    - bofetada
    - bombo
    - borrarse
    - bruces
    - canto
    - conocer
    - contentarse
    - correr
    - cuenta
    - espabilar
    - espabilarse
    - importancia
    - ínfula
    - leche
    - lote
    - nariz
    - notar
    - padre
    - pisto
    - postín
    - prisa
    - reparar
    - satisfecha
    - satisfecho
    - tono
    - tute
    - ubicarse
    - abundancia
    - acelerar
    - aire
    - apurar
    - caer
    - carrera
    - chapuzón
    - comprender
    - comprobar
    - dar
    - ducha
    - enterado
    - fijar
    - girar
    - golpe
    - haber
    - impulso
    English:
    aware
    - buck up
    - catch on
    - come on
    - develop
    - dip
    - feast
    - feel
    - flight
    - give in
    - give up
    - give up on
    - have
    - hint
    - hit
    - hurry
    - indulge
    - move
    - name
    - notice
    - pass by
    - personally
    - pose
    - realize
    - shake
    - speed up
    - spoil
    - swim
    - take to
    - thrust forward
    - unawares
    - unwitting
    - unwittingly
    - walk into
    - appreciate
    - bang
    - bath
    - belly
    - bump
    - come
    - count
    - exchange
    - flourish
    - knock
    - latch
    - life
    - live
    - message
    - occur
    - plunge
    * * *
    vpr
    1. [suceder] to occur, to happen;
    se da pocas veces it rarely happens;
    se dio la circunstancia de que un médico pasaba por allí en ese momento it so happened that a doctor was passing that way at the time;
    este fenómeno se da en regiones tropicales this phenomenon occurs o is seen in tropical regions;
    si se diera el caso, ven en taxi if necessary o if need be, get a taxi
    2. [entregarse]
    darse a la bebida to take to drink;
    se ha dado a cuidar niños abandonados she has devoted herself to caring for abandoned children
    3. [golpearse]
    darse contra o [m5] con to hit;
    se dieron contra una farola they crashed into o hit a lamppost;
    se dio de narices en la puerta she bumped o walked into the door
    4. [tener aptitud]
    se me da bien/mal el latín I'm good/bad at Latin;
    se me da muy bien jugar al baloncesto I'm good at basketball;
    ¿qué tal se te da la química? are you any good at chemistry?, how are you at chemistry?
    5. [considerarse]
    darse por to consider oneself (to be);
    darse por vencido to give in;
    me doy por satisfecho con tu disculpa I'm satisfied with your apology;
    me doy por satisfecho con que acabemos entre los tres primeros I'll be satisfied o happy if we finish in the first three;
    con estos resultados me doy por contento I'm quite happy with these results, I'll settle for these results;
    nos dirigíamos a él, pero no se dio por enterado our remarks were aimed at him, but he pretended not to notice
    6. [uso recíproco]
    se dieron los regalos they exchanged presents, they gave each other their presents;
    se dieron de puñetazos a la salida del bar they had a fight outside the bar
    7. [uso reflexivo]
    darse una ducha/un baño to have a shower/bath;
    date prisa, que no llegamos hurry up, we're late
    8. RP [tratarse]
    no se da con sus primos he doesn't have much to do with his cousins
    9. Comp
    Esp Fam
    dársela a alguien: tiene buenos modales y cara de inocente, pero a mí no me la da she's well-mannered and has an innocent face, but she can't fool me;
    dárselas de algo: se las da de intelectual/elegante he fancies himself as an intellectual/a dandy;
    se las da de listo he makes out (that) he's clever;
    se las da de interesante, pero es aburridísimo he reckons he's interesting, but he's actually really boring
    * * *
    v/r
    1 de situación arise
    2
    :
    darse a algo take to sth
    3
    :
    esto se me da bien I’m good at this
    4
    :
    dárselas de algo make o.s. out to be sth, claim to be sth
    5
    :
    a mí no me las das fam you don’t fool me
    * * *
    vr
    1) : to give in, to surrender
    2) : to occur, to arise
    3) : to grow, to come up
    4)
    darse contra : to hit oneself against
    5)
    dárselas de : to boast about
    se las da de muy listo: he thinks he's very smart
    * * *
    darse vb
    1. (ocurrir) to happen / to occur
    2. (actividad, asignatura) to be
    3. (golpearse) to hit [pt. & pp. hit] / to bang
    4. (tomarse) to have

    Spanish-English dictionary > darse

  • 13 изработя

    вж. изработвам
    * * *
    израбо̀тя,
    израбо̀твам гл.
    1. make, produce, manufacture; ( съставям) work out, draw up, elaborate; contrive, sl. dope out; ( извършвам) do, perform; изработил съм своята част I’ve done my share of the work;
    3. ( развивам, създавам, култивирам) develop, form, cultivate; \изработя резистентност build up a resistance; \изработя си мнение form an opinion; \изработя си стил cultivate o.’s style;
    4. ( спечелвам) earn, make; • добре изработен гол спорт. a well engineered goal.
    * * *
    вж. изработвам

    Български-английски речник > изработя

  • 14 момент

    instance, moment, ( времени) point
    * * *
    моме́нт м.
    1. физ., мех. moment
    моме́нт возника́ет в, напр. пло́скости — moment occurs in, e. g., a plane
    моме́нт возника́ет в, напр. сече́нии — moment occurs in [at], e. g., a cross-section
    затя́гивать (болт, гайку) [m2]с моме́нтом … кг м — torque (a nut, bolt) to … kg m
    моме́нт, напр. ли́нии или пове́рхности относи́тельно оси́ — moment, e. g., of a line or surface with respect to an axis
    моме́нт относи́тельно, напр. це́нтра или оси́ — a moment about, e. g., the origin or axis
    прикла́дывать моме́нт к оси́ — apply a torque about an axis
    развива́ть (враща́ющий) моме́нт — develop a torque
    уравнове́шивать моме́нт — balance a moment
    уравнове́шивать моме́нты — place moments in equilibrium
    2. ( время) moment, instant, time
    абсолю́тный моме́нт — absolute moment
    аэродинами́ческий моме́нт — aerodynamic [air] moment
    ба́лочный моме́нт — girder moment
    ветрово́й моме́нт — wind moment
    моме́нт в коло́нне — column moment
    возмуща́ющий моме́нт — disturbing [exciting] moment
    восстана́вливающий моме́нт — restoring [righting, stabilizing] moment
    моме́нт в пролё́те — moment of span
    враща́ющий моме́нт — torque
    моме́нт вре́мени, нача́льный — zero time
    моме́нт выгора́ния то́плива — burn-out time
    моме́нт вы́зова тлф. — call moment
    моме́нт выключе́ния дви́гателя — cut-off time
    гироскопи́ческий моме́нт — gyroscopic moment
    демпфи́рующий моме́нт — damping moment
    дестабилизи́рующий моме́нт — destabilizing [disturbing] moment
    дипо́льный моме́нт — dipole moment
    дифференту́ющий моме́нт — trimming moment
    дополни́тельный моме́нт — excess torque
    моме́нт жё́сткости — moment of stiffness
    моме́нт зажига́ния двс. — firing point, firing position
    замедля́ющий моме́нт — retarding moment
    моме́нт затуха́ния — damping moment
    моме́нт затя́жки (напр. винта, гайки) — tightening torque
    изгиба́ющий моме́нт — bending moment
    изгиба́ющий моме́нт в консо́ли — cantilever bending moment
    изгиба́ющий, волново́й моме́нт — wave bending moment
    изгиба́ющий моме́нт на ти́хой воде́ — still water bending moment
    изгиба́ющий, приведё́нный моме́нт — equivalent bending moment
    моме́нт и́мпульса — angular momentum, moment of momentum
    моме́нт ине́рции — moment of inertia
    моме́нт ине́рции, гла́вный — principal moment of inertia
    моме́нт ине́рции, осево́й — centroidal moment of inertia
    моме́нт ине́рции относи́тельно норма́льной оси́ — directional moment of inertia, inertia yawing moment
    моме́нт ине́рции относи́тельно попере́чной оси́ — longitudinal moment of inertia, inertia pitching moment
    моме́нт ине́рции относи́тельно продо́льной оси́ — lateral moment of inertia, inertia rolling moment
    моме́нт ине́рции, поля́рный — polar moment of inertia
    моме́нт ине́рции, приведё́нный — equivalent moment of inertia
    моме́нт ине́рции, сме́шанный — product of inertia
    моме́нт ине́рции, центробе́жный — product of inertia
    квадрупо́льный моме́нт — quadrupole moment
    кинети́ческий моме́нт — angular momentum, moment of momentum
    моме́нт коли́чества движе́ния — angular momentum, moment of momentum
    моме́нт коли́чества движе́ния, со́бственный — intrinsic angular momentum, spin
    концево́й моме́нт — end moment
    моме́нт корре́кции ( в гироскопических приборах) — slaving torque
    моме́нт кре́на ав. — roll(ing) moment
    креня́щий моме́нт мор. — heeling moment
    крити́ческий моме́нт — critical moment
    крутя́щий моме́нт — torque
    крутя́щий моме́нт дви́гателя — engine torque
    крутя́щий моме́нт несу́щего винта́ ав. — rotor torque
    крутя́щий, пи́ковый моме́нт — maximum [peak] torque
    крутя́щий, пусково́й моме́нт — starting torque
    моме́нт круче́ния — torsional moment
    моме́нт крыла́ — wing moment
    магни́тный моме́нт — magnetic moment
    моме́нт нагру́зки — load moment, load torque
    неуравнове́шенный моме́нт — unbalanced [unstable] moment
    обра́тный моме́нт — back moment
    одноо́сный моме́нт — single-axis torque
    опо́рный моме́нт — moment of a support
    опроки́дывающий моме́нт
    1. tilting [overturning] moment; pull-out torque
    2. мор. capsizing [overturning] moment
    3. ав. disturbing moment
    орбита́льный моме́нт — orbital moment
    моме́нт осто́йчивости — stability moment
    моме́нт осто́йчивости ма́ссы — weight-stability moment
    моме́нт осто́йчивости фо́рмы — form-stability moment
    моме́нт относи́тельно пере́дней кро́мки ав. — leading-edge moment
    моме́нт относи́тельно середи́ны хо́рды ав. — half-chord moment
    моме́нт отпира́ния — запира́ния ( в функциональных преобразователях) вчт., элк. — breakpoint
    моме́нт от постоя́нной нагру́зки — dead-load moment
    моме́нт отсе́чки дви́гателя косм. — cut-off time
    моме́нт от со́бственного ве́са — dead-load moment
    моме́нт отце́пки косм. — time of release
    моме́нт па́ры сил — moment of a couple (of forces)
    перехо́дный моме́нт — transient torque
    моме́нт пло́щади, стати́ческий — area-moment ratio
    моме́нт по што́пору ав. — prospin(ning) moment
    моме́нт прока́тки — rolling torque
    противоде́йствующий моме́нт — countertorque, restoring torque
    моме́нт про́тив што́пора ав. — antispin(ning) moment
    пусково́й моме́нт — starting torque
    разруша́ющий моме́нт — breaking moment, moment of rupture
    моме́нт распределе́ния вероя́тности — moment of a frequency distribution
    расчё́тный моме́нт — design moment
    реакти́вный моме́нт — reactive moment; reactive torque
    результи́рующий моме́нт — net [resulting] moment
    моме́нт руля́ высоты́ — elevator moment
    моме́нт руля́ направле́ния — rudder moment
    моме́нт ры́скания ав. — yawing moment
    сва́ливающий моме́нт ав. — stalling moment
    моме́нт си́лы — moment of force
    синхронизи́рующий моме́нт — synchronizing torque
    скру́чивающий моме́нт — twisting moment
    сме́шанный моме́нт ( в теории вероятностей) — product moment
    моме́нт сно́са ав. — drifting moment
    со́бственный моме́нт — intrinsic moment
    моме́нт сопротивле́ния — moment of resistance
    моме́нт сопротивле́ния враще́нию — antitorque moment
    моме́нт сопротивле́ния попере́чного сече́ния — section modulus
    спи́новый магни́тный моме́нт — spin magnetic moment
    моме́нт сре́за — moment of shearing
    моме́нт сры́ва — break-away torque
    стабилизи́рующий моме́нт — stabilizing moment
    стати́ческий моме́нт — static moment
    моме́нт стра́гивания на ли́нии ста́рта ав. — starting point
    моме́нт тангажа́ — pitching moment
    моме́нт те́ла, магни́тный — magnetic moment of a body
    моме́нт те́ла, электри́ческий — electric moment of a body
    тормозно́й моме́нт — braking [drag, retarding] torque
    моме́нт тре́ния — friction(al) torque
    моме́нт тро́гания ( электродвигателя) — break-away torque, жарг. kick-off torque
    моме́нт тя́ги — thrust moment
    моме́нт упру́гости — moment of elasticity
    ускоря́ющий моме́нт — accelerating moment
    моме́нт успокое́ния — damping torque
    моме́нт усто́йчивости — moment of stability
    моме́нт центробе́жной па́ры — centrifugal couple moment
    моме́нт центробе́жной си́лы — centrifugal moment
    шарни́рный моме́нт — hinge moment
    электри́ческий моме́нт — electric (dipole) moment
    моме́нт ядра́ — nuclear spin; nuclear magnetic moment

    Русско-английский политехнический словарь > момент

  • 15 F55

    рус Злоупотребление веществами, не вызывающими зависимость
    eng Abuse of non-dependence-producing substances. A wide variety of medicaments and folk remedies may be involved, but the particularly important groups are: (a) psychotropic drugs that do not produce dependence, such as antidepressants, (b) laxatives, and (c) analgesics that may be purchased without medical prescription, such as aspirin and paracetamol. Persistent use of these substances often involves unnecessary contacts with medical professionals or supporting staff, and is sometimes accompanied by harmful physical effects of the substances. Attempts to dissuade or forbid the use of the substance are often met with resistance; for laxatives and analgesics this may be in spite of warnings about (or even the development of) physical harm such as renal dysfunction or electrolyte disturbances. Although it is usually clear that the patient has a strong motivation to take the substance, dependence or withdrawal symptoms do not develop as in the case of the psychoactive substances specified in F10-F19. Abuse of: ant

    Classification of Diseases (English-Russian) > F55

  • 16 F55.9

    рус Злоупотребление веществами, не вызывающими зависимость
    eng Abuse of non-dependence-producing substances. A wide variety of medicaments and folk remedies may be involved, but the particularly important groups are: (a) psychotropic drugs that do not produce dependence, such as antidepressants, (b) laxatives, and (c) analgesics that may be purchased without medical prescription, such as aspirin and paracetamol. Persistent use of these substances often involves unnecessary contacts with medical professionals or supporting staff, and is sometimes accompanied by harmful physical effects of the substances. Attempts to dissuade or forbid the use of the substance are often met with resistance; for laxatives and analgesics this may be in spite of warnings about (or even the development of) physical harm such as renal dysfunction or electrolyte disturbances. Although it is usually clear that the patient has a strong motivation to take the substance, dependence or withdrawal symptoms do not develop as in the case of the psychoactive substances specified in F10-F19. Abuse of: ant

    Classification of Diseases (English-Russian) > F55.9

  • 17 сила

    ж.
    1) физ., тех. force

    си́ла тя́ги — tractive force

    си́ла сцепле́ния — cohesive [kəʊ-] force, cohesion [kəʊ-]

    си́ла тя́жести — gravity

    си́ла тяготе́ния — attraction, gravity

    си́ла сопротивле́ния — resistance

    подъёмная си́ла — carrying capacity / power; авиа lift

    си́ла зву́ка — sound intensity

    си́ла ве́тра — strength of wind

    си́ла то́ка — current strength / intensity

    уда́рная си́ла — striking / hitting power; impact

    2) (степень проявления, интенсивность чего-л) power, force

    уда́р большо́й си́лы — powerful / strong / forceful blow

    си́ла взры́ва — explosive power / force

    землетрясе́ние си́лой 5 ба́ллов — 5-point earthquake

    ве́тер си́лой 6 ба́ллов — wind force 6

    развива́ть си́лу — develop strength

    набира́ть си́лу — gain strength, become stronger

    уда́рить с си́лой — deal a forceful / powerful blow

    4) мн. (способность действовать, энергия) power(s) (pl), strength sg

    собира́ться с си́лами — collect one's strength, gather oneself up

    по́лный сил — full of strength

    испы́тывать чьи-л си́лы — test smb's strength

    приложи́ть все си́лы — do everything in one's power

    выбива́ться из сил — strain oneself to the utmost, lead oneself to exhaustion

    вы́биться из сил, быть без сил — be exhausted [drained; worn out; played out]

    набира́ться сил — gather strength

    быть ещё в си́лах — be still vigorous enough

    си́лы оста́вили / поки́нули его́ книжн. — his strength failed him

    5) (крепость, стойкость - о человеческих качествах) power

    си́ла во́ли — willpower

    си́ла ду́ха / хара́ктера — strength of mind, fortitude

    6) (мощное воздействие, влияние) force; power

    си́ла обстоя́тельств — the force of circumstances

    си́ла его́ аргуме́нтов — the force of his arguments

    си́ла привы́чки — the force of habit

    зна́ние - си́ла — knowledge is power

    си́ла красоты́ — the power of beauty

    си́ла её актёрского мастерства́ — the force of her acting

    когда́ мы вме́сте, мы - си́ла — we are strong when we are together

    7) ( мощь) strength

    вое́нная си́ла госуда́рства — the military strength of a nation

    8) ( власть) powerfulness, power

    он в большо́й си́ле — he is very powerful

    си́лой ору́жия — by force of arms

    без примене́ния си́лы — without the use of force

    с по́мощью гру́бой си́лы — by brute force

    поли́тика с пози́ции си́лы — position-of-strength / power policy

    10) юр. ( действенность по закону) force, effect; validity

    си́ла зако́на — validity / force of the law

    входи́ть / вступа́ть в си́лу — come into force, take effect

    обра́тная си́ла зако́на — retroactive effect of the law

    име́ющий си́лу — valid

    остава́ться в си́ле — remain valid, hold good / true; (о судебном решении, приговоре) remain in force

    оставля́ть в си́ле (вн.; о решении, приговоре) — confirm (d)

    утра́тить си́лу — lose validity, become invalid

    11) уст. и высок. ( войско) force, army

    собрала́сь огро́мная си́ла — a huge army was formed

    12) мн. воен. forces

    вооружённые си́лы — armed forces

    вое́нно-возду́шные си́лы — air force(s)

    морские́ си́лы — naval forces

    сухопу́тные си́лы — land forces

    гла́вные си́лы — main body sg

    накопле́ние сил — build-up

    13) мн. (люди, общественные группы) forces

    консервати́вные си́лы — conservative forces

    тво́рческие си́лы — creative talent sg

    14) мн. рел. ( чин ангелов) virtues ( an order of angels)

    си́лы небе́сные / беспло́тные — angels; hosts

    15) (в мистических учениях - одна из субстанций, способствующих или мешающих действиям человека) power
    ••

    си́лы небе́сные! в знач. межд. уст. — good heavens!, goodness gracious!

    в си́лу (рд.) в знач. предл. — because of, on account of, owing to, by virtue (of)

    в си́лу э́того — on that ground, accordingly

    в си́лу обстоя́тельств — owing to the force of circumstances

    в си́лу зако́на — by / in virtue of the law

    в си́лу привы́чки — by force of habit, from sheer force of habit

    все́ми си́лами — in every way possible, as hard as one can, with all one's might

    жива́я си́ла воен. — manpower

    изо всех си́л, что есть си́лы — with all one's strength / might

    бежа́ть изо всех си́л — run as fast / quickly as one can

    крича́ть изо всех си́л — cry at the top of one's voice

    лошади́ная си́ла тех. — horsepower (сокр. HP, h.p.)

    не в си́лах (+ инф.) — unable (+ to inf)

    нечи́стая си́ла — см. нечистый

    никаки́ми си́лами (не + инф. или буд. вр.) — no power on earth can (+ inf)

    о́бщими си́лами — with combined forces / effort

    от си́лы — at the very most; maximum

    рабо́чая си́ла — labour force, manpower

    сверх / свы́ше сил, не по си́лам, не под си́лу кому́-л — beyond smb's power(s)

    свои́ми си́лами — without outside help

    сил (бо́льше) нет (+ инф.) — I can't bear (+ to inf)

    сил нет, как хо́чется (+ инф.) — I'm dying (+ to inf)

    с на́ми кре́стная си́ла! как межд. — may the Lord God protect us!, heaven help us!

    со стра́шной си́лой (очень) — terribly; like hell

    э́то в на́ших си́лах — it is within our power; it is quite possible

    че́рез си́лу — 1) ( с трудом) with difficulty; barely 2) ( без желания) unwillingly

    ходи́ть че́рез си́лу — be hardly able to walk

    есть че́рез си́лу — force oneself to eat

    Христо́с в си́ле рел., иск. — Christ [kraɪst] in glory

    Новый большой русско-английский словарь > сила

  • 18 устойчивость


    stability
    (самолета)
    способность самолета самостоятельно уменьшать разности между возникшим под действием возмущения отклонением и предшествующим ему движением. — the property of an aircraft to maintain its attitude or to resist displacement, and, if displaced, to develop forces and moments tending to restore the original condition.
    -, аэродинамическая — aerodynamic stability
    -, боковая (поперечная) — lateral stability
    -, боковая (динамическая) — lateral-directional stability
    способность самолета самостоятельно устранять возникающие под действием возмущения боковые движения (скольжение, крен, рыскание). — the stability of those motions (side-slipping, rolling and yawing) which occur out of the plane of symmetry.
    -, боковая статическая способность самолета сохранять или восстанавливать равновесие статич. моментов крена и рыскания. — static lateral-directional stability
    -, динамическая — dynamic stability
    способность самолета после отклонения от исходного установившегося прямолинейного режима полета, вызванного действием возмущения, демпфировать колебания восстанавливающих моментов и плавно возвращаться к исходному положению. — the characteristics of an aircraft that causes it, when disturbed from an original state of steady flight or motion, to damp the oscillations set up by restoring moments and gradually return to its original state.
    -, коррозионная — corrosion resistance
    -, курсовая — directional stability
    - на водной поверхности — water stability
    -, нейтральная — neutral stability
    способность самолета, находящегося в к-л режиме установившегося движения, легко переходить в другой режим также установившегося движения (не возвращаясь к исходному без вмешательства летчика). — the property of an aircraft in steady flight, to readily accomplish transition to another steady flight condition (not returning to the original state with the pilot not interferring with the aircraft control).
    -, ограниченная — limited stability
    - пограничного слоя — boundary layer stability
    - пo крену — rolling stability
    -, поперечная — lateral stability
    устойчивость в полете к возмущениям относительно продольной оси, т.е. возмущениям, вызывающим крен или боковое скольжение. — stability with reference to disturbances about the longitudinal axis of an aircraft, i.e. disturbances involving rolling or side-slipping.
    - поперечная (по крену) — rolling stability
    - поперечная статическая — static lateral stability
    способность самолета при нейтральном положении элеронов автоматически устранять возникший при скольжении крен, или крениться в сторону, противоположную скольжению. — the static lateral stability is shown by the aircraft tendency to raise the low wing in а side-slip with the aileron controls free (or neutral).
    - по рысканию — yaw stability
    - по скорости — speed stability
    - по тангажу — pitch stability
    - потока — flow stability
    - пo углу атаки — angle-of-attack stability
    - при скольжении — side-slipping stability
    -, продольная — longitudinal stability
    способность самолета самостоятельно устранять возникающие под действием возмущения продольные движения в вертикальной плоскости. — the stability of those motions (vertical and forward motions and pitching) in the plane of symmetry.
    -, продольная статическая — static longitudinal stability
    -, путевая — directional stability
    способность самолета восстанавливать устойчивое путевое равновесие моментов рыскания, бокового скольжения. — the property of an aircraft to restore itself from a yawing or side-slipping condition.
    -, путевая статическая — static directional stability
    способность самолета с освобожденным или зажатым рулем направления сохранять устойчивое путевое равновесие. — the static directional stability (as shown by the tendency to recover from a skid with the rudder free) must be positive for any landing gear and flap position and symmetrical power condition.
    -, собственная — inherent stability
    -, статическая — static stability
    способность самолета восстанавливать нарушенное равновесие под действием стабилизирующих (восстанавливающих) аэродинамических моментов. — if the static margin is positive, the aircraft possesses static stability, and in general will not diverge when disturbed from a trimmed speed.
    -, флюгерная — weathercock stability
    изолированная путевая статическая устойчивость самолета, т.е. способность самолета сохранять или восстанавливать путевое равновесие (моментов рыскания). — the tendency to turn into the relative wind as determined by the change in aerodynamic moment about the center of gravity with change in wind direction, used for motion either in pitch or yaw.
    потеря у. (ла) — loss of stability
    потеря у. (конструкции, работающей на сжатие) — buckling
    обладать у. — possess stability
    повышать у. — improve stability

    Русско-английский сборник авиационно-технических терминов > устойчивость

  • 19 Brinell, Johann August

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 1849 Småland, Sweden
    d. 17 November 1925 Stockholm, Sweden
    [br]
    Swedish metallurgist, inventor of the well-known method of hardness measurement which uses a steel-ball indenter.
    [br]
    Brinell graduated as an engineer from Boräs Technical School, and his interest in metallurgy began to develop in 1875 when he became an engineer at the ironworks of Lesjöfors and came under the influence of Gustaf Ekman. In 1882 he was appointed Chief Engineer at the Fagersta Ironworks, where he became one of Sweden's leading experts in the manufacture and heat treatment of tool steels.
    His reputation in this field was established in 1885 when he published a paper on the structural changes which occurred in steels when they were heated and cooled, and he was among the first to recognize and define the critical points of steel and their importance in heat treatment. Some of these preliminary findings were first exhibited at Stockholm in 1897. His exhibit at the World Exhibition at Paris in 1900 was far more detailed and there he displayed for the first time his method of hardness determination using a steel-ball indenter. For these contributions he was awarded the French Grand Prix and also the Polhem Prize of the Swedish Technical Society.
    He was later concerned with evaluating and developing the iron-ore deposits of north Sweden and was one of the pioneers of the electric blast-furnace. In 1903 he became Chief Engineer of the Jernkontoret and remained there until 1914. In this capacity and as Editor of the Jernkontorets Annaler he made significant contributions to Swedish metallurgy. His pioneer work on abrasion resistance, undertaken long before the term tribology had been invented, gained him the Rinman Medal, awarded by the Jernkontoret in 1920.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member of the Swedish Academy of Science 1902. Dr Honoris Causa, University of Upsala 1907. French Grand Prix, Paris World Exhibition 1900; Swedish Technical Society Polhem Prize 1900; Iron and Steel Institute Bessemer Medal 1907; Jernkontorets Rinman Medal 1920.
    Further Reading
    Axel Wahlberg, 1901, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 59:243 (the first English-language description of the Brinell Hardness Test).
    Machinery's Encyclopedia, 1917, Vol. III, New York: Industrial Press, pp. 527–40 (a very readable account of the Brinell test in relation to the other hardness tests available at the beginning of the twentieth century).
    Hardness Test Research Committee, 1916, Bibliography on hardness testing, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Brinell, Johann August

  • 20 Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 31 December 1888 Thizy, Rhône, France
    d. 15 August 1960 Fontenoy-aux-Roses, France
    [br]
    French metallurgist, inventor of the alloys Elinvar and Platinite and of the method of strengthening nickel-chromium alloys by a precipitate ofNi3Al which provided the basis of all later super-alloy development.
    [br]
    Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.
    By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.
    During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.
    Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.
    In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Société de Physique. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.
    Bibliography
    1929, Analyse dilatométrique des matériaux, with a preface be C.E.Guillaume, Paris: Dunod (still regarded as the definitive work on this subject).
    The Dictionary of Scientific Biography lists around thirty of his more important publications between 1914 and 1943.
    Further Reading
    "Chevenard, a great French metallurgist", 1960, Acier Fins (Spec.) 36:92–100.
    L.Valluz, 1961, "Notice sur les travaux de Pierre Chevenard, 1888–1960", Paris: Institut de France, Académie des Sciences.
    ASD

    Biographical history of technology > Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre

Страницы
  • 1
  • 2

См. также в других словарях:

  • Resistance: Fall of Man — European box art Developer(s) Insomniac Games Publisher(s) Sony Computer Entertainment …   Wikipedia

  • Resistance training — has two different, sometimes confused meanings a more broad meaning that refers to any training that uses a resistance to the force of muscular contraction (better termed strength training), and elastic or hydraulic resistance, which refers to a… …   Wikipedia

  • Resistance (V TV series) — This is a list of the known members of the Resistance, a fictional worldwide movement comprised of a large number of groups dedicated to fighting the Visitors in the Science Fiction television series V. The Atkins Ellen Baker is the younger… …   Wikipedia

  • resistance — noun 1 trying to stop sth ADJECTIVE ▪ considerable, great, massive, stiff, strong, substantial ▪ determined, fierce, heroic …   Collocations dictionary

  • resistance — re|sis|tance [ rı zıstəns ] noun *** ▸ 1 not being affected ▸ 2 refusal of something new ▸ 3 opposition to someone/something ▸ 4 force slowing something moving ▸ 5 stopping electric flow ▸ + PHRASES 1. ) singular or uncount resistance to the… …   Usage of the words and phrases in modern English

  • resistance */*/*/ — UK [rɪˈzɪst(ə)ns] / US [rɪˈzɪstəns] noun 1) a) [singular/uncountable] the ability not to be affected or harmed by something, especially a disease or a drug resistance to: Vitamin C helps build resistance to infection. Tumour cells can develop a… …   English dictionary

  • develop — verb Develop is used with these nouns as the subject: ↑argument, ↑bud, ↑cell, ↑child, ↑complication, ↑crack, ↑culture, ↑developer, ↑disease, ↑economy, ↑embryo, ↑ …   Collocations dictionary

  • Resistance — Opposition to something, or the ability to withstand it. For example, some forms of staphylococcus are resistant to treatment with antibiotics. * * * 1. A force exerted in opposition to an active force. 2. The opposition in a conductor to the… …   Medical dictionary

  • resistance training — physical training that utilizes isometric, isotonic, or isokinetic exercise to strengthen or develop the muscles. [1980 85] * * * …   Universalium

  • resistance training — physical training that utilizes isometric, isotonic, or isokinetic exercise to strengthen or develop the muscles. [1980 85] …   Useful english dictionary

  • Pesticide resistance — is the adaptation of pest species targeted by a pesticide resulting in decreased susceptibility to that chemical. In other words, pests develop a resistance to a chemical through artificial selection; after they are exposed to a pesticide for a… …   Wikipedia

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»