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21 technique
2) технология; (технологический) приём3) алгоритм4) оборудование; технические средства; техника•-
active neutron technique
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Afmag technique
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airborne technique
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air-conditioning technique
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alignment technique
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alloy-diffusion technique
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anchoring technique
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angled-lapping technique
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angle-lapping technique
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angled-lap technique
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angle-lap technique
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apertured-detector technique
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arc-melting technique
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assembly technique
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audio record cutting technique
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audio-frequency magnetic technique
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batch-fabrication technique
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batch technique
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beam-lead microcircuit technique
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birefringent coating technique
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bonding technique
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brittle coating technique
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broadside technique
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BTR technique
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carbon extraction technique
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cementing technique
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check summation technique
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check sum technique
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chemiluminescence technique
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cine technique
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circuit technique
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CM technique
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collector-diffusion isolation technique
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computer simulation techniques
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computing technique
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conformable masking technique
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coring technique
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cryogenic technique
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crystal growth technique
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crystal-pulling technique
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curing technique
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curve-fitting technique
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Czochralski growth technique
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Czochralski technique
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decoration technique
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design technique
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destructive inspection technique
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diffusion technique
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direct writing technique
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diversity technique
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doping technique
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dot-and-dash technique
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double-specimen technique
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double-theodolite technique
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drilling technique
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dry etching technique
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dry etch technique
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echo-sounding technique
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editing technique
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electrodeless technique
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electron channeling technique
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electron-ion storage technique
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electroplating technique
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encapsulation technique
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energy conservation technique
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energy conversion technique
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epitaxial growth technique
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epitaxial technique
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etching technique
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etch technique
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evaporation technique
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expanding-spread technique
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fabrication technique
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face-down technique
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Fane knit technique
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figure-of-eight technique
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film technique
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film-carrier technique
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fine-line technique
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fixed-abrasive machining technique
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flip-chip technique
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floating-zone technique
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float-zone technique
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floating-charge technique
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flood routing technique
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fluidization technique
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folded-spectrum technique
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forecasting technique
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fracture replica technique
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freezing technique
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gamma-ray technique
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geomagnetic induction technique
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graphical design technique
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gravity anchoring technique
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growing technique
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head space technique
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heat pulse technique
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heuristic technique
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high-speed motion-picture technique
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high-tech machining technique
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high-vacuum technique
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high-voltage technique
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high-voltage testing technique
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high-voltage test technique
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holographic technique
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horizontal stacking technique
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hyperflow technique
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imaging technique
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in-cycle gaging technique
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infrared nondestructive technique
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in-process gaging technique
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integrated-circuit technique
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integrated technique
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interconnection technique
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interference technique
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ion implantation technique
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ion-exchange technique
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isolation technique
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isotope correlation technique
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job setting technique
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junction isolation technique
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ladle-degassing technique
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layout technique
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lift-off technique
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lithographic technique
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long-hole technique
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loose-abrasive machining technique
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manufacturing technique
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mask technique
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masking technique
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mass-flow technique
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mass-spectrometric technique
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matrix technique
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microalloy technique
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microelectronic technique
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microfabrication technique
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microprobe technique
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microscopic technique
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microstructure fabrication technique
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microstructure technique
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mid-depth tow technique
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motion-picture technique
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mounting technique
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multicamera technique
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multichip bonding technique
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multiple seismometer technique
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multiple-access technique
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near-bottom tow technique
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nondestructive inspection technique
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normal-freezing technique
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observing technique
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optimizing technique
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ordered elimination technique
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overlay technique
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packaging technique
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parallel-line technique
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parts classification technique
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pattern recognition technique
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pattern-defining technique
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phase separation and leaching technique
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photoelastic technique
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photofinishing technique
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photographic technique
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photolithographic technique
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photoprocessing technique
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photoresist-processing technique
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piled anchoring technique
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piled/gravity anchoring technique
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pilot technique
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potential-drop-ratio technique
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preferential etching technique
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preferential etch technique
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printed-circuit technique
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probe technique
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processing technique
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production technique
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program production technique
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programming technique
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projection technique
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pulse-echo technique
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pyrometric technique
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radioactive tracer technique
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radio-echo technique
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ramp assisted toil casting technique
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refrigeration technique
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registration technique
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reocasting technique
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replica technique
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river-basin simulation technique
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robotic handling techniques
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roll-and-scroll technique
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roll technique
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round-robin technique
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screen-printing technique
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selective ion etching technique
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selective ion etch technique
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self-synchronization technique
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side-wall neutron technique
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silk-screening technique
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simulation technique
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spill-cleaning technique
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spin-on technique
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sputtering technique
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stimulation technique
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strain anneal technique
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structural arrest technique
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suction anchoring technique
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surface passivation technique
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tape-automated-bonding technique
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technique of directional crystallization
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technique of mold reciprocation
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television production technique
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television technique
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testing technique
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thermocompression technique
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through-flow line servicing technique
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time-lapse technique
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touch trigger probing technique
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tribometric technique
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two-point technique
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ultrahigh-vacuum technique
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unmanned production technique
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vacuum technique
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vapor-phase epitaxial technique
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vertical crystal pulling technique
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vertical pulling technique
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video tape editing technique
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voltage balancing technique
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water allocation technique
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water injection-fume exhaustion technique
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water-system optimization technique
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wet etching technique
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wet etch technique
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wire-line technique
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zone-melting technique -
22 technique
n1) техніка; умінняtechnique of fire — військ. техніка ведення вогню
2) технічний прийом (спосіб, метод); методика* * *[tek'niːk]n1) техніка; технічне оснащення або устаткування; апаратура2) техніка, технічна майстерність, володіння спеціальними прийомами; умінняtechnique of fire — вiйcьк. техніка ведення вогню; спосіб виконання ( чогось)
watercolour technique — акварельна техніка, техніка акварелі
3) технічний прийом; спосіб, метод; методикаmeditation techniques — прийоми /способи/ медитації
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23 technique
[tek'niːk]n1) техніка; технічне оснащення або устаткування; апаратура2) техніка, технічна майстерність, володіння спеціальними прийомами; умінняtechnique of fire — вiйcьк. техніка ведення вогню; спосіб виконання ( чогось)
watercolour technique — акварельна техніка, техніка акварелі
3) технічний прийом; спосіб, метод; методикаmeditation techniques — прийоми /способи/ медитації
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24 management
(a) (action) (of company, factory, project) gestion f, direction f; (of economy, money, resources, shop, hotel) gestion;∎ all their problems are due to bad management tous leurs problèmes sont dus à une mauvaise gestion;∎ under Gordon's management sales have increased significantly depuis que c'est Gordon qui s'en occupe, les ventes ont considérablement augmentémanagement accountant contrôleur m de gestion;management accounting comptabilité f de gestion;management accounts comptes m de gestion;management audit contrôle de gestion;management auditor contrôleur m de gestion;management chart graphique de gestion, tableau m de bord;management committee comité m ou conseil m de direction;management company société f de gestion;management consultancy report audit m social;management consultant conseiller(ère) m, f en gestion;management control contrôle de gestion;management error erreur f de gestion;management by exception direction par exceptions;American management expenses frais m pl de gestion;management expert expert m en gestion;management fees frais de gestion;COMPUTING management information system système m intégré de gestion;management by objectives gestion par objectifs;management operating system système intégré de gestion;management report rapport m de gestion;management science science f de la gestion;management skills qualités f pl de gestionnaire;management studies études f pl de gestion;management style mode m de gestion;management system système de direction;management team équipe f de direction, équipe dirigeante;management techniques techniques f pl de gestion;management theory théorie f de la gestion de l'entreprise;management tool outil m de gestion;management training formation f des cadres(b) (managers, employers) administration f, direction f;∎ negotiations between management and unions have broken down les négociations entre le patronat et les syndicats ont échouémanagement buy-in apport m de gestion;management buy-out rachat m d'une société par la direction;∎ as a result of a management buy-out, the footwear manufacturing business was rescued suite à son rachat par la direction, l'entreprise de fabrication de chaussures a été sauvée;management team équipe f dirigeante ou de direction -
25 marketing
(study, theory) marketing m, mercatique f; (of product) commercialisation fmarketing agreement accord m de commercialisation;marketing analyst analyste m f mercaticien(enne);marketing approach démarche f marketing;marketing audit audit m marketing;marketing auditor audit marketing, auditeur(trice) m, f marketing;marketing budget budget m marketing;marketing campaign campagne f de marketing;marketing channel circuit m de commercialisation ou de distribution;marketing communications channel canal m de communication commerciale;marketing company entreprise f de marketing;marketing concept concept m de marketing;marketing consultancy (service, activity) conseil m en marketing; (company) société f de conseil en marketing;marketing consultant conseiller(ere) m, f commercial(e);marketing costs frais m pl de commercialisation;marketing department service m du marketing;marketing efficiency efficacité f du marketing;marketing efficiency study contrôle m d'efficacité du marketing;marketing environment environnement m commercial ou marketing;marketing executive responsable m f du marketing;marketing expert mercaticien(enne) m, f;marketing fit ajustement m stratégique;marketing implementation mise f en place marketing;COMPUTING marketing information system système m d'information marketing;marketing intelligence intelligence f marketing;marketing intelligence system système d'intelligence marketing;marketing management gestion f du marketing;marketing manager directeur(trice) m, f du marketing;marketing mix marchéage m, marketing mix m;marketing myopia myopie f marketing;marketing network réseau m de commercialisation;marketing orientation optique f marketing;marketing plan plan m marketing;marketing planner responsable m f de planification marketing;marketing planning planification f marketing;marketing policy politique f de commercialisation;marketing questionnaire questionnaire f d'étude de marché;marketing research recherche f commerciale;marketing spectrum marchéage;marketing spend dépenses f pl de marketing;marketing strategy stratégie f marketing;marketing study étude f commerciale ou marketing;marketing subsidiary filiale f de distribution;marketing target cible f commerciale;marketing team équipe f commerciale;marketing techniques techniques f pl commerciales;marketing tool outil m de marketing -
26 technique
tekˈni:k сущ.
1) техника, технические приемы to acquire, develop, work out a technique ≈ приобретать, нарабатывать технику to apply a technique ≈ применять какой-либо технический прием to perfect a technique ≈ оттачивать технику dance technique ≈ искусство танца relaxation techniques ≈ техника расслабления acting technique
2) метод;
методика, способ Syn: method, means техника;
техническое оснащение или оборудование;
аппаратура - computing * вычислительная техника - operative * хзирургическое оборудование техника, техническое мастерство, владение специальными приемами;
умение - mountaineering * альпинистская техника - * of fire (военное) техника ведения огня - the pianist's * is excellent техника пианиста безупречна способ выполнения (чего-л.) - watercolour * акварельная техника, техника акварели технический прием;
способ, метод;
методика - meditation *s приемы медитации - biological *s биологические методы - modern irrigation *s современные методы ирригации - general *s of optimization общие методы оптимизации - to use the simplest *s использовать простейшие приемы approximation ~ методика приближенных вычислений computational ~ методика вычислений computer ~ методы вычислений diary ~ реклама в программе телевизионных передач extrapolation ~ методика экстраполяции insurance ~ способ страхования interpolation ~ методика интерполяции iteration ~ итерационный метод iterative ~ итерационный метод linearization ~ метод линеаризации marketing ~ метод обеспечения сбыта minimization ~ метод минимизации mnemonic ~ мнемонический метод modeling ~ техника моделирования monte carlo ~ метод Монте-Карло numerical ~s численные методы optimization ~ метод оптимизации parametric ~ параметрический метод perturbation ~ вчт. способ устранения зацикливания sales ~ метод продаж simplex ~ симплексный метод solution ~ метод решения spline surface ~ аппроксимация поверхностей сплайнами technique метод;
способ ~ метод ~ методика ~ процедура ~ способ ~ техника, технические приемы ~ техника ~ технический прием ~ технология ~ of legal documentation техника ведения правовой документации ~ of random sampling метод случайного выбора trial-and-error ~ метод проб и ошибок variational ~ вариационный методБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > technique
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27 PACT
1) Общая лексика: Production Assistance for Cellular Therapy-содействие в производстве клеточных препаратов (название услуги, которую предоставляет Национальный Институт Сердца, Легких и Крови, США, будучи в данном случае контрольной инс2) Спорт: Palmetto Achievement Challenge Test3) Военный термин: project for the advancement of coding techniques4) Техника: portable automatic/calibration tracker6) Юридический термин: Partnership Against Car Theft, Police Agency Combined Testing, Police And Children Together, Police And Community Together, Prosecute Animal Cruelty Together7) Грубое выражение: People Against Crappy Tensioners8) Университет: Program For Academic Creative Talents9) Вычислительная техника: Production Analyses Control Technique, Partnership in Advanced Computing Technologies (organization UK)10) Деловая лексика: Positioning, Advertising, Copy, Testing11) Образование: Personal Academic Counseling Team, Placing Assessment and Counseling Team, Positive Alternative Choices Today, Pregnant Adolescent Childcare Training, Program For Academic And Creative Talent12) Сетевые технологии: pay actual computer time, оплата за фактически использованное время ЭВМ, система оплаты за фактически использованное рабочее время13) Программное обеспечение: Portable Application Code Toolkit -
28 pACT
1) Общая лексика: Production Assistance for Cellular Therapy-содействие в производстве клеточных препаратов (название услуги, которую предоставляет Национальный Институт Сердца, Легких и Крови, США, будучи в данном случае контрольной инс2) Спорт: Palmetto Achievement Challenge Test3) Военный термин: project for the advancement of coding techniques4) Техника: portable automatic/calibration tracker6) Юридический термин: Partnership Against Car Theft, Police Agency Combined Testing, Police And Children Together, Police And Community Together, Prosecute Animal Cruelty Together7) Грубое выражение: People Against Crappy Tensioners8) Университет: Program For Academic Creative Talents9) Вычислительная техника: Production Analyses Control Technique, Partnership in Advanced Computing Technologies (organization UK)10) Деловая лексика: Positioning, Advertising, Copy, Testing11) Образование: Personal Academic Counseling Team, Placing Assessment and Counseling Team, Positive Alternative Choices Today, Pregnant Adolescent Childcare Training, Program For Academic And Creative Talent12) Сетевые технологии: pay actual computer time, оплата за фактически использованное время ЭВМ, система оплаты за фактически использованное рабочее время13) Программное обеспечение: Portable Application Code Toolkit -
29 pact
1) Общая лексика: Production Assistance for Cellular Therapy-содействие в производстве клеточных препаратов (название услуги, которую предоставляет Национальный Институт Сердца, Легких и Крови, США, будучи в данном случае контрольной инс2) Спорт: Palmetto Achievement Challenge Test3) Военный термин: project for the advancement of coding techniques4) Техника: portable automatic/calibration tracker6) Юридический термин: Partnership Against Car Theft, Police Agency Combined Testing, Police And Children Together, Police And Community Together, Prosecute Animal Cruelty Together7) Грубое выражение: People Against Crappy Tensioners8) Университет: Program For Academic Creative Talents9) Вычислительная техника: Production Analyses Control Technique, Partnership in Advanced Computing Technologies (organization UK)10) Деловая лексика: Positioning, Advertising, Copy, Testing11) Образование: Personal Academic Counseling Team, Placing Assessment and Counseling Team, Positive Alternative Choices Today, Pregnant Adolescent Childcare Training, Program For Academic And Creative Talent12) Сетевые технологии: pay actual computer time, оплата за фактически использованное время ЭВМ, система оплаты за фактически использованное рабочее время13) Программное обеспечение: Portable Application Code Toolkit -
30 technique
{tek'ni:k}
n изк. техника, технически похвати/умение, сръчност* * *{tek'ni:k} n изк. техника, технически похвати/ умение; сръч* * *техника;* * *n изк. техника, технически похвати/умение, сръчност* * *technique[tek´ni:k] n изк. техника, технически похвати; метод, способ, начин; carrier \technique ядр. метод на носителите; catheter \technique мед. катетеризация; computing \technique мат. метод за изчисления; counting \technique ядр. техника за броене на импулси; echo \technique акустичен метод за измерване на разстояния; digital \technique цифров метод; цифрова техника; electron-diffraction \technique електронография; fundamental \technique основна технология; matrix \technique мат. матричен метод; polarographic \technique полярографски метод; полярографска методика; programming \techniques методи за програмиране; методология на програмиране; pulse(d) \technique импулсен метод; random sampling \technique стат. метод на случайната подборка; simulation \technique техника на моделиране; studio \technique студийна техника; surgical \technique мед. оперативна (хирургична) техника; x-ray \technique рентгенологично изследване. -
31 knowledge
knowledge [ˈnɒlɪdʒ]1. nouna. ( = understanding, awareness) connaissance f• it has come to my knowledge that... j'ai appris que...• it's common knowledge that... il est de notoriété publique que...2. compounds* * *['nɒlɪdʒ]1) ( awareness) connaissance fto my certain knowledge he... — je sais de façon certaine qu'il...
2) ( factual wisdom) gen connaissances fpl; ( of specific field) connaissance f -
32 hard
∎ to give sb the hard sell forcer qn à acheter;∎ to give sth the hard sell promouvoir qch de façon agressive;hard sell techniques méthode f de vente agressivehard loan prêt m aux conditions du marchéhard currency devise f ou monnaie f fortehard disk disque m dur;hard drive unité f de disque dur;hard return saut m de ligne manuel -
33 technical
techniquetechnical adviser conseiller(ère) m, f technique;technical analysis analyse f sur graphiques;technical assistance, technical backup assistance f technique;STOCK EXCHANGE technical correction correction f d'un cours en Bourse;technical department service m technique;technical director directeur(trice) m, f des services techniques;technical equipment capital m technique;technical handbook, technical instructions notice f technique;technical manager directeur(trice) technique;technical skill compétence f technique;technical standard norme f technique;COMPUTING technical support support m technique -
34 knowledge
1 ( awareness) connaissance f ; to bring sth to sb's knowledge porter qch à la connaissance de qn ; it has come to our knowledge that il a été porté à notre connaissance que fml, nous avons appris que ; to my/your knowledge à ma/ta connaissance ; with the full knowledge of sb au vu et au su de qn ; to have knowledge of avoir connaissance de ; he has no knowledge of what happened il ne sait pas ce qui s'est passé ; to my certain knowledge he… je sais de façon certaine qu'il… ; without sb's knowledge à l'insu de qn ;2 ( factual wisdom) gen connaissances fpl ; ( of specific field) connaissance f ; knowledge of the subject connaissance du sujet ; human/technical knowledge connaissances humaines/techniques ; a thirst for knowledge une soif de connaissances ; knowledge of computing/Monet's work connaissance de l'informatique/des œuvres de Monet ; all branches of knowledge toutes les branches de la connaissance. -
35 specification
specification [‚spesɪfɪ'keɪʃən](a) (often pl) (in contract → of machine, building materials etc) spécifications fpl; (→ for technical project, including work schedule) cahier m des charges;∎ made (according) to specification construit en fonction de spécifications techniques;∎ the builder didn't follow the architect's specifications le constructeur n'a pas respecté le cahier des charges rédigé par l'architecte;∎ standard specifications normes fpl de qualité(b) (stipulation) spécification f, précision f;∎ there was no specification as to age l'âge n'était pas précisé►► Commerce specification buying achats mpl spécifiésUn panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > specification
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36 technical
technical ['teknɪkəl]∎ don't get technical n'emploie pas de termes trop techniques(b) (according to rules) technique;∎ for technical reasons pour des raisons d'ordre technique;∎ Law the judgment was quashed on a technical point le jugement a été cassé pour vice de forme ou de procédure;∎ figurative it's a purely technical point ce n'est qu'un point de détail►► Football technical area banc m de touche;technical college ≃ IUT m;Stock Exchange technical correction correction f d'un cours en Bourse;technical drawing dessin m industriel;technical education enseignement m technique;Sport technical foul faute f technique;British technical hitch incident m technique;Law technical irregularity vice m de forme ou de procédure;Boxing technical knockout knock-out m inv technique;Law technical offence quasi-délit m;technical school ≃ collège m technique, ≃ lycée m d'enseignement professionnel;Computing technical support support m technique;technical term terme m technique;technical writing rédaction f technique -
37 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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