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central+conclusion

  • 21 Geschäft

    Geschäft n 1. GEN business, trading, dealing, commerce (Handel, Kommerz); deal, transaction; bargain (Abschluss); business, concern, enterprise, operation (Firma, Unternehmen); (BE) shop, (AE) store (Laden); (infrml) office (Büro); 2. V&M sale aus einem Geschäft aussteigen BÖRSE, GEN back out, opt out (of a deal) das Geschäft hat einen Tiefststand erreicht GEN business is at a low ebb das Geschäft ist ruhig GEN business is slack das Geschäft perfekt machen GEN swing the deal das Geschäft schließen GEN shut up shop ein Geschäft abschließen GEN strike a deal, strike a bargain, do a deal with sb, do business with sb ein Geschäft aufmachen GEN start in business, open a business, set up shop, launch a business, set up in business ein Geschäft betreiben GEN run a business ein Geschäft durchführen GEN conclude a transaction, settle a transaction ein Geschäft unter Dach und Fach bringen GEN swing the deal ein Geschäft zum Abschluss führen GEN task closure mit dem Geschäft geht es aufwärts GEN business is improving sich vom Geschäft zurückziehen GEN retire from business über das Geschäft reden GEN talk business, talk shop von Geschäft zu Geschäft GEN business to business
    * * *
    n 1. < Geschäft> Handel, Kommerz business, trading, dealing, commerce Abschluss deal, transaction, bargain, Firma business, concern, enterprise, operation, Laden shop (BE), store (AE), infrml, Büro office; 2. <V&M> sale ■ aus einem Geschäft aussteigen < Börse> back out, opt out (of a deal) ■ das Geschäft hat einen Tiefststand erreicht < Geschäft> business is at a low ebb ■ das Geschäft ist ruhig < Geschäft> business is slack ■ das Geschäft perfekt machen < Geschäft> swing the deal ■ das Geschäft schließen < Geschäft> shut up shop ■ ein Geschäft abschließen < Geschäft> strike a deal, strike a bargain, do a deal with sb, do business with sb ■ ein Geschäft aufmachen < Geschäft> start in business, open a business, set up shop, launch a business, set up in business ■ ein Geschäft betreiben < Geschäft> run a business ■ ein Geschäft durchführen < Geschäft> conclude a transaction, settle a transaction ■ ein Geschäft unter Dach und Fach bringen < Geschäft> swing the deal ■ ein Geschäft zum Abschluss führen < Geschäft> task closure ■ sich vom Geschäft zurückziehen < Geschäft> retire from business ■ über das Geschäft reden < Geschäft> talk business, talk shop ■ von Geschäft zu Geschäft < Geschäft> business to business
    * * *
    Geschäft
    (Arbeit) work, (Beruf) vocation, occupation, business, (Börse) trading, (Branche) trade, business, line, (Büro) office, (Firma) enterprise, commercial house, firm, concern, establishment, undertaking, company, (Geschäftsabschluss) bargain, deal[ing], transaction, operation, (Geschäftslokal) [business] premises, shop, (Gewerbe) occupation, trade, job, business, calling, employment, (Handel) commerce, trade, market (US), (Laden) shop (Br.), store (US), (Sache) affair, matter, (Spekulationen) venture, (Vorschlag) proposition (coll.);
    in Geschäften on (engaged in) business;
    in ein anrüchiges Geschäft verwickelt entangled in a shady business;
    voller Geschäfte shoppy;
    Geschäfte dealings, transactions, interests, operations;
    abgeschlossenes Geschäft business transacted, deal, completed (executed) transaction;
    hohe Gewinne abwerfendes Geschäft [business] bonanza;
    sich glatt abwickelndes Geschäft swimming market;
    altrenommiertes Geschäft well-established firm;
    angesehenes Geschäft respectable firm;
    anrüchiges Geschäft hole-and-corner (shady) business;
    anziehendes Geschäft improvement in business;
    von Anfang an schlecht aufgezogenes Geschäft business muddled at the start;
    ausgedehntes Geschäft extensive trade;
    bankfremdes Geschäft non-banking business (activity);
    in Betrieb befindliches Geschäft going concern;
    in Liquidation befindliches Geschäft firm in liquidation;
    betreffendes Geschäft business in question;
    im Großen betriebenes Geschäft business transacted at large;
    auf gemeinschaftliche Rechnung betriebenes Geschäft joint-purse arrangement;
    betriebseigenes Geschäft captive shop (US), company store (US);
    blühendes Geschäft flourishing trade, thriving business;
    dickes Geschäft big deal;
    dringende Geschäfte pressing business, pressure of business;
    dunkles Geschäft shady deal (business), funny business, dubious dealing, racket (sl.);
    nicht durchgebuchte Geschäfte off-the-book transactions;
    effektives Geschäft actual business;
    einbringliches Geschäft lucrative business;
    gut eingeführtes Geschäft well-established business;
    einschlägiges Geschäft stockist (Br.), one-line shop (store), speciality shop, limited-line retailer (US);
    einträgliches Geschäft remunerative (lucrative, profitable, paying) business, paying concern;
    nicht ganz einwandfreies Geschäft shady transaction;
    erstklassiges Geschäft first-rate (-class) firm;
    euro-freundliche Geschäfte euro-friendly business[es];
    faires Geschäft square deal;
    unter Konkursanfechtung fallende Geschäfte protected transactions;
    faules Geschäft shady (hole-and-corner) business, queer transaction;
    weitgehend mit Fremdmitteln finanziertes Geschäft transaction financed largely with borrowing;
    fingiertes Geschäft bogus (sham, fictitious) transaction;
    florierendes Geschäft rattling trade, thriving business;
    flottes (flott gehendes) Geschäft rattling trade, land-office business (US coll.);
    fragwürdiges Geschäft shady business,equivocal transaction;
    führendes Geschäft leading firm;
    gut fundiertes Geschäft sound business [firm];
    glänzend gehendes (glänzendes) Geschäft booming (roaring) business, gold mine, [business] bonanza;
    dem Betrieb gehöriges Geschäft captive shop (US), company store (US);
    in der Hauptgeschäftsgegend (im Stadtzentrum) gelegenes Geschäft central area shop, downtown (inner-city) store (US);
    gewagtes Geschäft risky undertaking, speculation, speculative enterprise;
    Gewinn bringendes Geschäft profitable enterprise (business),paying business;
    glattes Geschäft (Börse) swimming market;
    grenzüberschreitende Geschäfte cross-border transactions;
    große Geschäfte (Börse) large trade;
    gutes Geschäft pennyworth, [good] bargain, good [stroke of] business, big (good) deal;
    leidlich gute Geschäfte fair business;
    gut gehendes Geschäft flourishing business (trade), going concern (firm), business bonanza (US);
    illegale Geschäfte illegal transactions;
    stark konjunkturbedingtes Geschäft highly cyclical business;
    konjunkturempfindliches Geschäft highly cyclical business;
    konzerneigene Geschäfte interassociation transactions (US);
    laufende Geschäfte regular (day-to-day, current, daily, pending) business, current transactions;
    lebhaftes Geschäft (Börse) brisk trading (business);
    zugrunde liegendes Geschäft underlying transaction;
    lohnendes Geschäft paying (remunerative, lucrative) business;
    lukratives Geschäft lucrative transaction (business);
    mattes Geschäft dull business;
    mittelgroßes Geschäft medium-sized store (US);
    nachbörsliches Geschäft interoffice deal, afterhours dealing (Br.), business in the street (Br.);
    nutzbringendes Geschäft profitable business;
    preisgünstiges Geschäft economy-priced shop, cheap-Jack (-John) (coll.);
    reelles Geschäft fair dealing firm;
    renommiertes Geschäft well-reputed firm;
    rentables Geschäft paying concern (business, enterprise), profitable business (enterprise), lucrative business (transaction), (Einzelgeschäft) paying transaction;
    riskantes Geschäft touch-and-go business;
    ruhiges Geschäft slack business;
    schlechtes Geschäft bad (losing) bargain, poor business, no catch;
    schmutziges Geschäft dirty business;
    schrumpfendes Geschäft contracting business;
    schwaches Geschäft little doing;
    seriöses Geschäft sound business house;
    sicheres Geschäft safe business;
    sittenwidriges Geschäft transaction contrary to the policy of the law;
    solides Geschäft solid enterprise (firm), substantial house, (Einzelgeschäft) sound business;
    stagnierendes Geschäft stagnating business;
    steuerbegünstigtes Geschäft tax-shelter deal;
    steuerpflichtiges Geschäft taxable transaction;
    stilles Geschäft slack business;
    sich selbst tragendes Geschäft self-promoter;
    überseeisches Geschäft overseas business;
    unbedeutendes Geschäft picayune business;
    undurchsichtige Geschäfte hole-and-corner dealings;
    unreelles Geschäft dishonest business;
    unrentables Geschäft business that does not pay, not a paying business, white elephant;
    unsaubere Geschäfte underhand dealings;
    unsittliches Geschäft unconscionable bargain (transaction);
    unvollständiges Geschäft uncompleted transaction;
    unvorteilhaftes Geschäft losing bargain;
    väterliches Geschäft father’s business;
    verbandseigene Geschäfte interassociation transactions (US);
    verbotene Geschäfte illegal sales;
    verdächtiges Geschäft queer transaction;
    Verlust bringendes Geschäft losing business;
    vorteilhaftes Geschäft bargain, deal, paying (profitable) business, catch, good deal (US);
    wenig Geschäfte (Börse) little trade (doing);
    wichtiges Geschäft serious business;
    zunehmendes Geschäft improvement in trade;
    an Bedeutung zunehmendes Geschäft wax job;
    zweideutige Geschäfte funny business;
    zweifelhaftes Geschäft shady transaction (business);
    zwielichtiges Geschäft shady deal;
    Geschäfte mit dem Ausland foreign trade;
    Geschäft mit erstklassiger Bedienung high-class service store (US);
    Geschäft in dem nur mit Devisen eingekauft werden kann hard-currency shop;
    Geschäft in kleinen Effektenabschnitten odd business (US);
    Geschäfte mit illegalen Einwanderern illegal-alien trafficking;
    Geschäft auf Geben und Nehmen put and call;
    Geschäft im Großen business transacted at large;
    Geschäft mit Industriekundschaft industrial outlet;
    Geschäfte auf Kommissionsbasis commission dealings, transactions for third account;
    Geschäft mit erstklassigem Kundenkreis business with first-rate connections;
    Geschäft unter dem Ladentisch under-the-counter trading;
    Geschäft in guter Lage well situated business;
    Geschäft auf feste Lieferung time bargain;
    Geschäft mit kleiner Marge tight bargain;
    Geschäft um jeden Preis hard-nosed business;
    Geschäft mit Produkten des täglichen Bedarfs neighbo(u)rhood shop;
    Geschäft für eigene Rechnung transaction for own account;
    Geschäfte für fremde Rechnung transaction on third account;
    Geschäfte auf laufende Rechnung dealings for the account;
    Geschäft im Stadtzentrum central area shop, downtown store (US);
    Geschäfte im großen Stil business transacted at large;
    Geschäfte nach etw. abklappern to go from shop to shop looking for s. th.;
    Geschäft um jeden Preis abnehmen to steal business at any price;
    Geschäft absagen to call off a deal;
    Geschäft abschließen to drive (strike, close, conclude, enter into) a bargain, to conclude (settle, transact) a business, to enter into a transaction;
    Geschäft mit Gewinn abschließen to make a profit out of a transaction;
    Geschäft abtreten to give up one’s business
    Geschäft abwickeln to settle a business, (liquidieren) to wind up [one’s affairs], to straighten one’s affairs, to regulate disordered finances;
    umfangreiche Geschäfte abwickeln to trade in a large way;
    Geschäft schwarz abwickeln to conduct business off the books;
    seine Geschäfte in ausländischen Währungen abwickeln to carry out one’s trade in offshore currencies;
    Geschäft ankurbeln to drum up business;
    in einem Geschäft anlegen to invest in a business;
    wieder im Geschäft anlegen to plough (plow, US) back into the business;
    j. für das Geschäft anlernen to train s. o. to business;
    Geschäft annullieren to vitiate a transaction;
    Geschäft anregen to enliven a business;
    Geschäft aufgeben to go out of (give up one’s, discontinue a, cut) business, to get out, to give up (leave off) trade, to shut up shop (US), to wind (fold) up, (sich zur Ruhe setzen) to retire from business;
    sein Geschäft auflösen to liquidate a business, to give up one’s business, to wind (shut) up (US);
    Geschäft aufmachen to set up shop (a business);
    Geschäft großzügig aufziehen to open a business on a large scale;
    sein Geschäft ausdehnen to expand one’s business;
    sich überhaupt nicht mehr im Geschäft auskennen to be out of the whole business;
    aus dem Geschäft ausscheiden to retire from business;
    aus einem Geschäft aussteigen to go out of business, to fold up (US);
    Geschäft beeinträchtigen to affect business;
    Geschäft begründen to settle down [in business], to establish o. s.;
    sein Geschäft besorgen to ply one’s trade;
    jds. Geschäfte besorgen to look after s. one’s affairs;
    bankmäßige Geschäfte besorgen to supply banking facilities;
    j. an einem Geschäft beteiligen to give s. o. a financial interest in a business;
    sich an einem Geschäft beteiligen to have a share in a venture;
    Geschäft betreiben to conduct (operate) a business, to run a shop, to carry on (ply) a trade;
    Geschäfte betreiben to do business;
    eigenes Geschäft betreiben to operate one’s own business, to be one’s own master;
    seine Geschäfte freizügig betreiben to deal at arm’s length;
    Geschäfte mit geliehenem Kapital betreiben to trade on the equity (US);
    Geschäfte in großem Maßstab betreiben to carry on business on a large scale;
    Geschäft zu Kreditauskunftszwecken beurteilen to rate a business;
    im Geschäft tätig bleiben to remain active (stay) in business;
    Geschäft zu einem erfolgreichen Abschluss bringen to put through a business deal, to bring a business to a successful conclusion;
    vorteilhaftes Geschäft zum Abschluss bringen to drive a good bargain;
    Geschäft auf die Beine bringen to set a business on foot;
    Geschäft wieder in die Höhe bringen to put a business back on its feet again;
    Geschäft zustande bringen to secure a business;
    immer (ganze Zeit stets) nur ans Geschäft denken to always have an eye to business, to be businessman all the time;
    j. aus dem Geschäft drängen to squeeze (force) s. o. out of business;
    Geschäfte weiterführen dürfen to remain in possession of the business;
    ins Geschäft einbringen to bring into business;
    sich [erneut] auf ein Geschäft einlassen to embark [again] upon a business;
    sich auf gewagte Geschäfte einlassen to dabble in speculative concerns;
    Geschäft einleiten to initiate a deal;
    Geschäft einrichten to fit out a shop;
    seinem Sohn ein Geschäft einrichten to set up a son in trade;
    in ein Geschäft einsteigen to start a business;
    in ein gut gehendes Geschäft einsteigen to get on the bandwaggon;
    j. in sein Geschäft einstellen to give s. o. a job;
    Geschäft erledigen to dispatch a business;
    Geschäfte aller Art erledigen to handle any sort of business;
    laufende Geschäfte erledigen to deal with current business;
    Geschäft eröffnen to open a trade (business), to set up shop, to start a business;
    Geschäft wieder eröffnen to resume business;
    Geschäft errichten to set up (start) in business, to establish o. s. (in business);
    sein Geschäft erweitern to expand one’s business;
    Geschäft mit der gesamten Ausstattung erwerben to buy a shop with all fixtures;
    j. im Geschäft etablieren to set s. o. up in business;
    Geschäft finanzieren to finance a business;
    Geschäft fortführen to continue a business;
    Geschäft des Gemeinschuldners (Konkursschuldners) fortführen to carry on the bankrupt’s business;
    Geschäft im eigenen Interesse fortführen to continue a business for one’s own ends;
    Geschäft bis zur Liquidierung fortführen to continue the business for the purpose of winding up;
    Geschäft eines Verstorbenen fortführen to continue a deceased’s business;
    Geschäft führen to carry on (conduct) a business, to carry on a trade, to manage the concern, to run (manage) a shop;
    Geschäft unter seinem Namen führen to carry on the business under one’s name;
    ins (in sein) Geschäft gehen to go to the office;
    Geschäft rentabel gestalten to put business on a payable basis;
    Geschäft gründen to set up shop [for o. s.], to establish (start) a business;
    neues Geschäft gründen to launch a new business enterprise;
    Geschäfte mit jem. haben to have business with s. o.;
    bedeutendes Geschäft haben to be in a large way of business;
    sein eigenes Geschäft haben to be in business on one’s own account;
    gut gehendes Geschäft haben to drive a good trade;
    kleines Geschäft haben to be in a small way of business;
    Nase für [gute] Geschäfte haben to have a keen eye for a bargain;
    Geschäft offen halten to keep a shop open;
    aus dem Geschäft herausdrängen to squeeze out of business;
    Geschäft hochbringen to work up a business;
    j. für ein Geschäft interessieren to enlist s. o. in an enterprise;
    sich nur für sein Geschäft interessieren to be intent on one’s business, to be businessman all the time, to be all business;
    Geschäft in Bausch und Bogen kaufen to buy the whole stock [of a business];
    Geschäft von der Pike auf kennen to know the business inside out;
    sich nur um sein Geschäft kümmern to be intent on one’s (attend strictly to) business;
    sich nicht um sein Geschäft kümmern to neglect one’s business;
    sich bei einem Geschäft registrieren lassen (für Marken) to register with a tradesman;
    Geschäft leiten to be at the head of the business;
    Geschäft liquidieren to wind up one’s affairs (a business company);
    Geschäfte machen to transact (do) business, to merchandise, to deal, to monger;
    gewagte Geschäfte machen to speculate;
    glänzende Geschäfte machen to drive a roaring trade;
    große Geschäfte machen to do a large business;
    gutes Geschäft machen to strike a bargain (it rich, US), to get in on a good deal, to find s. th. a good pennyworth, to get (secure) a purchase;
    gute Geschäfte machen to have a good run (be in a good way) of business, to have a good season;
    reißende Geschäfte machen to do a roaring trade;
    Geschäft rückgängig machen to set aside a transaction, to break off an engagement;
    schlechtes Geschäft machen to bring one’s eggs (hogs) to the wrong market, to do badly, to be in a bad way of business;
    unerlaubte Geschäfte machen to indulge in illicit transactions;
    seinen Geschäften nachgehen to attend to (go about) one’s business;
    ungesetzlichen Geschäften nachgehen to carry on an illegal transaction;
    bei einem Geschäft profitieren to profit by a bargain;
    mit einem guten Geschäft rechnen to calculate on a good trade;
    von Geschäften reden to talk shop (about business);
    sein Geschäft schließen to close down a shop, to put up the shutters, to shut up shop (US);
    an einem Geschäft beteiligt sein to have an interest (a share) in a business;
    nach dem Krieg groß ins Geschäft gekommen sein to boom after the war;
    in Geschäften großzügig sein to be liberal in business;
    hinter seinen Geschäften her sein to be a keen businessman;
    einen Tag nicht im Geschäft sein to get away from the office for a day;
    in Geschäften unterwegs sein to be on one’s tour (away, out), to travel on business;
    in Geschäften zuverlässig sein to be exact in business, to pass for as good as one’s word;
    im Geschäft stecken to be invested in a business;
    Geld in ein Geschäft stecken to invest money in a business, to put money into an undertaking, to embark capital in a trade;
    gutes Geschäft tätigen to make a good deal by, to get a purchase;
    im laufenden Monat keine Geschäfte mehr tätigen to write no new business for the next month;
    Geschäft übernehmen to take over (succeed to) a business;
    Geschäft voll übernehmen to purchase the sole interest in a business;
    Geschäft auf seinen Sohn übertragen to make over the business to one’s son;
    j. bei einem Geschäft übervorteilen to jockey s. o. in a transaction;
    kleines Geschäft unterhalten to carry on business in a small way;
    Geschäfte einer Gesellschaft der Revision unterziehen to investigate the affairs of a company;
    bei seinen Geschäften verdienen to gain by one’s business;
    an einem Geschäft groß verdienen to be a great gainer by a bargain;
    grenzüberschreitende Geschäfte vereinfachen to simplify cross-border business[es];
    sein Geschäft vergrößern to expand one’s business;
    sein Geschäft verkaufen to sell out one’s business;
    Geschäft um die Hälfte verkleinern to reduce a business one half;
    Geschäft vermitteln to broker a deal;
    seine Geschäfte vernachlässigen to neglect (shirk) one’s business;
    sein Geschäft verstehen to know one’s business (trade, how to turn a penny);
    sein Geschäft aus dem Effeff verstehen to have the whole business at one’s fingertips;
    Geschäfte über das Internet vornehmen to execute securities transactions on (through) the Internet;
    Geschäfte wegschnappen to grab business;
    laufende Geschäfte weiterführen to deal with current business;
    Geschäft nicht weiterführen to cease to carry on business;
    sich seinen Geschäften widmen to attend to (go about) one’s business;
    gute Geschäfte machen wollen to carry pigs to market;
    Geschäft rückgängig machen wollen to rue a bargain;
    von einem Geschäft zurücktreten to rescind a bargain;
    sich vom (aus dem) Geschäft zurückziehen to give up one’s (withdraw from, quit) business;
    sich von einem Geschäft zurückziehen to declare a bargain off, to back out (fam.);
    sein Geld aus einem Geschäft zurückziehen to withdraw one’s money from a business;
    sich wieder seinen Geschäften zuwenden to turn one’s thoughts to business again;
    die Geschäfte gehen schlecht there is very little doing.

    Business german-english dictionary > Geschäft

  • 22 theorem

    теорема

    altitude theorem
    Arzela-Ascoli theorem
    azygetic theorem
    binomial theorem
    compensation theorem
    conclusion of theorem
    conductor-ramification theorem
    converse of theorem
    deduction theorem
    distortion theorem
    duality theorem
    embedding theorem
    existence theorem
    expansion theorem
    gap theorem
    Karhunen-Loeve theorem
    localization theorem
    mean-value theorem
    minimax theorem
    Nagy-Faias theorem
    Nikodym theorem
    Plancherel theorem
    preparation theorem
    remainder theorem
    reverse-flow theorem
    sampling theorem
    sewing theorem
    shift theorem
    similarity theorem
    theorem os sines
    Theveni's theorem
    transference theorem
    uniqueness theorem
    Van Cittert-Zernike theorem
    Wiener-Paley theorem

    Cauchy residue theoremтеорема Коши о вычетах


    central limit theorem — теорема о центральном пределе, теорема предельная центральная, центральная предельная теорема


    construct proof of theoremдоказывать теорему


    equal probability theoremтеорема равновероятности


    Fermat's last theorem — Ферма великая теорема, последняя теорема Ферма


    fundamental theorem of algebraосновная теорема алгебры


    homotopy addition theoremгомотопическая теорема сложения


    implicit function theoremтеорема о неявных функциях


    inverse transform theoremтеорема обращения


    mean value theoremтеорема о среднем


    Nyquist-Kotelnikov-Shannon sampling theorem<math.> теорема отсчетов Шеннона-Котельникова


    theorem of corresponding statesтеорема соответственных состояний


    work-kinetic energy theoremтеорема живых сил

    Англо-русский технический словарь > theorem

  • 23 пример

    example, instance, model
    Безусловно, это пример (чего-л). - This is, of course, an example of...
    Более интригующим примером является... - A more intriguing example is...
    Более сложный пример доставляется (из рассмотрения и т. п.)... - A more complex example is afforded by...
    Будет полезен другой пример. - Another example will be helpful.
    Было бы легко привести значительно больше примеров... - It would be easy to give many more examples of...
    В [2] приводятся несколько примеров. - Several examples are given in [2].
    В данном параграфе мы обсуждаем некоторые простые свойства и примеры (чего-л). - In this section we discuss some simple properties and examples of...
    В каждом из этих примеров рассматривается... - Each of these examples is concerned with...
    В качестве другого примера мы можем проверить... - As a further example we may examine...
    В качестве последнего примера в этой главе рассмотрим... - As a final example in this chapter we consider...
    В качестве последнего примера мы возьмем... - As a last example, we take...
    В качестве практически важного примера рассмотрим... - As an example of practical importance we consider...
    В качестве примера описанного выше метода мы показываем, что... - As an example of the method described above we show that...
    В качестве примера рассмотрим теперь... - By way of example, let us now consider...
    В качестве слегка более сложного примера мы докажем, что... - As a slightly harder example we prove that...
    В качестве специального примера предположим... - As a specific illustration, suppose that...
    В качестве тривиального примера рассмотрим... - As a trivial example of this, consider...
    В качестве частного примера рассмотрим следующий. - As a particular example take the following.
    В нескольких следующих примерах мы будем предполагать для удобства, что... - In the next few examples we will assume for convenience that...
    В следующем параграфе мы обсудим примеры... - In the next section we discuss examples of...
    В следующем примере мы используем этот метод, чтобы определить... - In the following examples we use this method to determine...
    В этих примерах получается, что... - In these examples it happens that...
    В этом примере мы имеем дело с... - In this example we work with...
    Важно отметить, что этот пример указывает на
    (
    что-л)... - It is important to note from this example that...
    Возможно, основной урок, который мы извлекаем из этих трех примеров, состоит в том, что... - Probably the main lesson to be gained from these three examples is that...
    Вышесказанное является хорошим примером... - The foregoing is a good example of...
    Главной характерной чертой предыдущего примера является... - A central feature of the previous example is...
    Давайте рассмотрим этот вопрос, используя специальные примеры. - Let us approach this question by means of specific examples.
    Данные примеры должны прояснить... - These examples should make it clear that...
    Данный пример имеет некоторый интерес в связи с... - This example is of some interest in connection with...
    Данный пример является типичным во многих (случаях и т. п.)... - This example is typical of many...
    Данный процесс может быть проиллюстрирован несколькими примерами. - The process may be illustrated by a few examples.
    Действительный смысл этого примера состоит в том, что... - The real point of this illustration is that...
    Другие примеры... упоминаются во втором параграфе. - Other examples of... are mentioned in Section 2.
    Другой важный пример этого принципа встречается, когда... - Another important example of this principle occurs when...
    Другой пример мог бы быть взят из... - Another example might be taken from...
    Еще более удивительным является обнаруженный/предложенный Смитом пример [11], который показывает, что... - Even more startling is an example due to Smith [11], which shows that...
    Заключение, вытекающее из следующих двух примеров, состоит в том, что... - The conclusion to be drawn from these two examples is that...
    Здесь мы описываем некоторые ранние примеры... - Here we describe some early examples of...
    Здесь мы приводим другой пример (чего-л). - We give here another example of...
    (
    чем-л/где-л)... - Familiar examples are provided by...
    Из этого частного примера мы можем заключить, что... - We may infer from this particular example that...
    Имеется много других примеров, иллюстрирующих основную идею (чего-л). - There are many other examples which illustrate the basic idea of...
    История изобилует примерами (чего-л)... - The history of... provides many examples of cases where...; The history of... abounds in cases where...
    К примеру, давайте рассмотрим взаимодействие... - Let us, for example, consider the interaction of...
    К примеру, можно было бы предположить, что... - It might, for example, be conjectured that...
    К примеру, оценивается, что... - It is estimated, for example, that...
    К примеру, предположим, что... - For instance, suppose that...
    К примеру, это особенно верно в случае... - This is particularly so, for example, in the case of...
    Как показывает следующий пример, это не обязательно выполнено. - This is not necessarily the case, as the following example illustrates.
    Легко понятный, но все еще не слишком тривиальный пример - это... - An easily understood, yet not too trivial, example is that of...
    Менее тривиальным примером является... - A less trivial example is...
    Мы заключаем (наше изложение и т. п.) примером, иллюстрирующим... - We conclude by giving an example to illustrate...
    Мы заключаем этот пример замечанием, что... - We conclude this example with the observation that...
    Мы могли бы, к примеру, решить, что... - We might, for example, decide that...
    Мы можем показать это на простом примере. - We can demonstrate this with a simple example.
    Мы начинаем с рассмотрения трех конкретных примеров. - We begin by looking at three concrete examples.
    Мы увидим, что это пример (чего-л). - We shall see that this is an example of...
    Наиболее значимые примеры должны быть найдены (в)... - The most conspicuous examples are to be found in...
    Наиболее значимой чертой этого примера является то, что... - The most significant feature of this example is that...
    Наиболее известными примерами являются... - The most familiar examples are...
    Наш простой пример показывает, что... - Our simple example demonstrates that...
    Более сложный пример предоставляется... - A more difficult example is provided by...
    Несколько решенных примеров представлены в следующем параграфе. - Several worked out examples are presented in the next section.
    Ниже приводится пример, который иллюстрирует... - An example is used below to illustrate...
    Нижеследующее является хорошим примером (чего-л). - The following is a good example of...
    Нижеследующий пример показывает, что... - The following example shows that...
    Объяснить это наилучшим образом можно с помощью примеров. - This is best made clear by means of examples.
    Один из наиболее впечатляющих примеров это... - One of the most striking examples is...
    Одна интересная вариация последнего примера вытекает из... - An interesting variation on the last example is provided by...
    Однако имеет смысл проиллюстрировать данную технику следующим примером. - It is, however, worthwhile to illustrate the technique by the following example.
    Однако, как указывает Смит [1], безусловно существуют примеры... - But, as Smith [1] points out, there are certainly examples of...
    Перед тем, как продолжить давать примеры, мы приведем важное замечание, что... - Before proceeding to give examples, we make the important observation that...
    Поучительно решить этот пример, используя... - It is instructive to solve this example by means of...
    Предыдущие примеры иллюстрируют общий факт, что... - The preceding examples illustrate the general fact that...
    Предыдущий пример демонстрирует, что много проще... - The above problems show that it is much easier to...
    Прежде чем представить больше примеров, давайте... - Before presenting more examples, let us...
    Приведем пример, как это происходит. - Let us see how that works in an example.
    Приведем теперь пример, в котором... - We now give an example in which...
    Приведенный выше пример 2 показывает, что... - Example 2 above shows that...
    Пример 3 иллюстрирует основной принцип, что... - Example 3 illustrates the general principle that...
    Пример должен разъяснить это. - An example should make this clear.
    Пример его использования уже приведен в главе 2. - An example of its use has already been given in Chapter 2.
    Пример послужит для демонстрации выполнения этого вычисления. - An example will serve to show how the calculation is carried out.
    Пример такой структуры можно встретить (в)... - An example of such a structure occurs in...
    Примеры будут найдены в стандартных описаниях... - Examples will be found in standard accounts of...
    Проиллюстрируем это с помощью численного примера. - A numerical example will illustrate this.
    Простейший пример (для) этого дается... - The simplest example of this is given by...
    Простейший пример предоставляется (чем-л). - The simplest example is afforded by...; The simplest example is furnished by...
    Простейший пример такой ситуации дается специальным случаем... - The simplest example of such a situation is the special case of...
    Простейшим примером подобной операции является... - The simplest example of such an operation is...
    Рассмотрим численный пример. - Let us take a numerical example.
    Руководствуясь более ранним примером, полученным нами, мы... - Guided by our earlier example, we...
    С помощью этого примера становится очевидно, что... - On the basis of this example, it is evident that...
    Сейчас мы построим некоторые примеры, чтобы проиллюстрировать... - We now work out some examples to illustrate...
    Следующая серия примеров (= иллюстраций) показывает... - The following series of illustrations shows...
    Следующий пример дает иллюстрацию этой техники. - The following example illustrates the technique.
    Следующий пример демонстрирует этот тип решения. - The next example demonstrates this type of solution.
    Следующий пример может помочь объяснению этого момента (= пункта). - The following example may help to clarify this point.
    Следующий пример может сделать это утверждение яснее. - The following example may make this point clearer.
    Следующий пример показывает недостаток этой схемы. - A shortcoming of this scheme is shown by the following example.
    Следующий пример предоставляет введение (в)... - The following example provides an introduction to...
    Смит [1] приводит убедительный пример существования... - Smith [l] makes a persuasive case for the existence of...
    Сначала рассмотрим (один) пример. - First we consider an example.
    Совершенно другого типа пример предоставляется (чем-л). - An example of an entirely different kind is provided by...
    Существует много примеров... - There are many examples of...
    Таким образом, мы пришли к первому примеру (чего-л). - Thus we arrive at our first instance of...
    Теперь мы возвращаемся к примеру, рассмотренному во втором параграфе. - We now return to the example treated in Section 2.
    Теперь мы обратимся к некоторым примерам... - We now turn to some examples of...
    Теперь приведем несколько конкретных примеров. - A few concrete examples are in order.
    Только что приведенный пример является специальным случаем... - The example just given is a special case of...
    Следующие три примера иллюстрируют эту возможность. - The next three examples illustrate this possibility
    У нас есть здесь другой пример... - We have here another example of...
    Часто упоминаемым простым примером является случай... - A simple example, often quoted, is the case of...
    Численный пример проиллюстрирует относительную важность... - A numerical example will illustrate the relative importance of...
    Читатель должен тщательно изучить этот пример. - The reader should study this example carefully.
    Чтобы..., мы ограничимся лишь простым примером. - We restrict ourselves to a simple example in order to...
    Чтобы привести еще более простой пример, мы можем рассмотреть... - То take an even simpler example, we can consider...
    Чтобы проиллюстрировать это наиболее простым примером, предположим, что... - То take the simplest possible illustration, suppose that...
    Эта техника иллюстрируется следующим примером. - The technique is illustrated in the next example.
    Эта точка зрения будет объяснена примерами при изучении метода... - This point will be clarified by examples when we study the method of...
    Эти два примера иллюстрируют некоторые из проблем... - These two examples illustrate some of the problems of...
    Эти и другие примеры показывают, что... - These and many other examples show that...
    Эти примеры предназначены в качестве (некоторого) руководства для... - These examples are intended as a guide for...
    Эти примеры типичные, но не исчерпывающие. - These examples are typical but not exhaustive.
    Эти соотношения можно было бы приложить, к примеру, к... - These expressions may be applied, for example, to... ,
    Это было достаточно хорошо проиллюстрировано предыдущими примерами. - This has been sufficiently illustrated in the preceding examples.
    Это другой пример (чего-л). - This is another example of...
    Это еще один пример... - This is a further example of...
    Это можно лучше всего понять, используя специальный пример. - This is best understood through a specific example.
    Это пример того, что называется... - This is an example of what is called...
    Это хороший пример (чего-л). - This is a good example of...
    Этот метод лучше всего иллюстрируется примером. - The procedure is best illustrated by an example.
    Этот очень простой пример типичен для... - This very simple example is typical of...
    Этот пример демонстрирует один способ... - This example demonstrates one way of...
    Этот пример иллюстрирует общий факт, что... - This example illustrates the general fact that...
    Этот пример интересен в связи с... - This example is of interest in connection with...
    Этот пример показывает, что может быть необходимым... - This example shows that it may be necessary to...
    Этот пример представляет лишь академический интерес. - This example is of academic interest only.
    Этот случай дает прекрасный пример (чего-л). - This case provides an excellent example of...

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > пример

  • 24 work

    [wɜːk] 1. сущ.
    1) работа; труд; занятие; дело

    exhausting / tiring work — утомительный труд

    shoddy / slipshod / sloppy work — недобросовестный труд, плохо выполненная работа, халтура

    to be at work upon smth. — быть занятым чем-л.

    to begin work — начать работу, приступить к работе

    to set / get to work — приняться за дело

    to set smb. to work — дать кому-л. работу, засадить кого-л. за работу

    to quit / stop work — окончить, завершить работу

    They quit work at one o'clock. — Они заканчивают работу в час дня.

    They never do any work. — Они всегда бездельничают.

    - hard work
    - paper work
    - physical work
    - social work
    - undercover work
    Syn:
    2) место работы; занятие; должность

    at work — на работе, за работой

    out of work — без работы, безработный

    to go to work — пойти на работу, начать работать

    They are still at work. — Они всё ещё на работе.

    Many people travel to work by car. — Многие едут на работу на машине.

    Syn:
    job II 1.
    3) действие, поступок

    dirty work — грязный, низкий поступок

    4)
    а) результат труда, изделие, продукт

    delicate / meticulous / precise work — тонкая, изящная работа

    It can help to have an impartial third party look over your work. — Будет полезно, если бы Вашу работу осмотрел кто-нибудь незаинтересованный.

    That's a beautiful piece of work. — Это прекрасная работа.

    б) продукт, эффект, результат (от работы какого-л. механизма, структуры)
    в) произведение, работа, сочинение, (письменный) труд (научного, политического или художественного характера)

    to exhibit / hang smb.'s works — выставлять чьи-л. полотна (в картинной галерее, в выставочном зале)

    In my opinion, this is Rembrandt's greatest work. — Я думаю, это самое значительное произведение Рембрандта.

    Under his arm, there was a book which looked like the complete works of Shakespeare. — Он нёс под мышкой том размером с полное собрание сочинений Шекспира.

    - published works
    - selected works
    5) ( works) преим. брит.; употр. с гл. в ед. предприятие, завод, фабрика
    Syn:
    6)
    а) воен. фортификационные сооружения, укрепления, оборонительные сооружения
    б) ( works) инженерно-технические сооружения
    7) ( works) механизм (работающие или движущиеся части какого-л. механизма)
    8) мастерство, умение, искусство выполнения, обработка
    Syn:
    9) вышивание, рукоделие, шитьё
    Syn:
    10) брожение, ферментация
    Syn:
    11) физ. работа
    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]work[/ref]
    ••

    to have one's work cut out (for one) — иметь трудную задачу, трудное дело

    to make short work — быстро разобраться, расправиться с чем-л.

    2. прил.
    1) рабочий, используемый для работы

    work clothes — рабочая одежда; спецодежда

    3. гл.; прош. вр., прич. прош. вр. worked, уст. wrought
    1) работать, заниматься

    to work hard / strenuously — работать усердно, усиленно

    to work like a horse / dog / beaver / navvy / nigger / slave — работать как лошадь, как негр (на плантации)

    to work one's tail off, to work double tides — работать не покладая рук, работать день и ночь

    They were working on a new book. — Они работали над новой книгой.

    Tasso had been working at his epic poem. — Тассо работал над своей эпической поэмой.

    You have to work at being friendlier with people. — Тебе нужно учиться быть дружелюбнее в общении с людьми

    2) работать, служить; быть занятым (каким-л.) постоянным делом

    She works for a large firm. — Она работает в большой фирме.

    to work side by side with smb. — тесно сотрудничать с кем-л.

    I worked to a man called Duncan. — Я работал на человека по имени Дункан.

    They work for a farmer. — Они работают у фермера.

    3)

    He worked them nearly to death. — Он заставлял их работать до полного изнеможения.

    Richard said that he would work his fingers to the bone for Ada. — Ричард сказал, что ради Ады он будет работать не покладая рук.

    б) эксплуатировать, использовать (чей-л. труд, функциональность какого-л. аппарата)
    Syn:
    4) функционировать, действовать; быть эффективным

    His plan didn't work. — Его план не сработал.

    The pump will not work. — Насос не работает.

    Syn:
    5) приводить в действие (что-л.); управлять, осуществлять управление (чем-л.)

    This computer is worked from a central server. — Управление этим компьютером осуществляется с центрального сервера.

    Syn:
    6) приводить, доводить (до какого-л. состояния); приводить себя в какое-л. состояние

    She worked herself into a rage. — Она пришла в ярость.

    It would take some time for the trade to work itself right. — Потребуется определённое время, чтобы торговля стала успешной.

    7) быть в постоянном движении; быть в состоянии волнения; метаться, кипеть, бурлить

    His face worked with emotion. — Его лицо подёргивалось от волнения.

    While thoughts like these were working in the minds of many Dissenters. — В то время как подобные мысли метались в головах многих диссентеров.

    Syn:
    8)
    а) воздействовать, влиять, убеждать, склонять (особенно тонкими, хитрыми способами); приводить в (какое-л.) настроение

    I have been working him even now to abandon her. — Я продолжал даже теперь убеждать его оставить её.

    Syn:
    б) = work up волновать, возбуждать; провоцировать, подстрекать
    Syn:
    10) амер. обманывать, вымогать, добиваться (чего-л.) обманным путём
    Syn:
    practise on, hoax, cheat
    11) прош. вр., прич. прош. вр. worked, wrought
    а) обрабатывать, возделывать (землю, почву); культивировать, выращивать (какое-л. растение)
    Syn:
    б) разрабатывать (жилу, карьер, каменоломню и т. п.)
    в) взбивать, месить, мешать (тесто, масло и т. п.)
    Syn:
    г) выделывать, вытёсывать, выковывать, придавать определённую форму (камню, металлу или другому твёрдому веществу)

    The wood is easily worked. — Дерево легко поддаётся обработке.

    12) = work off, = work out оплачивать трудом, отрабатывать

    One of the greatest bores in packing is choosing which shoes to take. They are heavy and do not really work their passage. — Самое трудное при упаковке вещей - это выбор обуви. Обувь тяжёлая и не оправдывает затраченных на её транспортировку усилий.

    13)
    а) прош. вр., прич. прош. вр. worked, wrought осуществлять, выполнять, вызывать

    The beer had wrought no bad effect upon his appetite. (Ch. Dickens) — Пиво не перебило ему аппетит.

    the destruction wrought by the sea — разрушения, произведённые волнами

    Syn:
    б) разг. организовывать, устраивать

    If you can possibly work it meet me somewhere tomorrow. — Если тебе удастся это устроить, то давай где-нибудь завтра встретимся.

    Uncle Fred, did you work this? — Дядя Фред, это ты устроил?

    He can work it so that you can take your vacation. — Он может устроить всё так, что ты сможешь взять отпуск.

    Syn:
    14) шить, вышивать, вязать, заниматься рукоделием
    Syn:
    15) уст.; прош. вр., прич. прош. вр. worked, wrought
    а) делать (нечто плохое, губительное); совершать (грех, преступление и т. п.)
    б) соблюдать, осуществлять (обряды, ритуалы и т. п.)

    the 26th degree known as Prince of Mercy (not worked in England) — 26-ая ступень, известная как Принц Милосердия (не соблюдаемая в Англии)

    16) прош. вр., прич. прош. вр. worked, wrought делать, выполнять, совершать (деяние, ряд действий, работу, задачу и т. п.)

    to work wonders — делать, демонстрировать чудеса

    The special work which he undertook, and the rich ability with which he wrought it. — Особая работа, за которую он взялся и с которой он замечательно справился.

    17)
    Syn:
    18)
    а) производить, изготовлять

    The flint instruments of oval shape have been mostly worked by gentle blows. — Кремневые инструменты овальной формы в основном обрабатывались лёгкими ударами.

    б) уст. создавать ( о Боге)
    в) уст. строить (дома, церкви, мосты и т. п.)

    forty-six noble columns, some wrought in granite and some in marble — сорок шесть величественных колонн, часть из них построена из гранита, часть - из мрамора

    19) разг. передвигаться, перемещаться, выполняя обязанности, работу, какие-л. действия (о разносчиках, агентах, нищих, ворах и т. п.)

    a professional beggar who "works" seventy or eighty streets in a few hours — профессиональный нищий, который "отрабатывает" семьдесят или восемьдесят улиц за несколько часов

    The night being comparatively young, Billy decided to work the trams. — Так как ночь только начиналась, Билли решил заняться трамваями.

    He had been a fur thief working the big department stores. — Он был вором по мехам и работал в больших универмагах.

    20) исследовать, систематически изучать

    There are very many forms and when worked they will doubtless yield interesting results. — Существует много форм, и если их систематически изучать, то они раскроют много интересного.

    21) двигать, передвигать

    In vain I shifted my aching legs and worked my benumbed hands. — Напрасно я двигал ногами, которые очень болели, и разминал окоченевшие руки.

    A neighbouring battery of guns were being worked into position. — Соседняя артиллерийская батарея выдвигалась на позицию.

    22) идти, складываться

    Our family life does not work any more. — Наша семейная жизнь разладилась.

    It won't work. — Этот номер не пройдёт.

    23) пробираться, продвигаться; перемещаться

    The women worked themselves into the centre of the crowd. — Женщины протиснулись в центр толпы.

    Mrs. Trafford worked her way round to Major Lovelace. — Миссис Трэффорд прокладывала себе путь к майору Лавлейсу.

    He gradually wrought his way against the usual obstacles which a poor artist must always encounter. — Постепенно он преодолевал препятствия, которые всегда возникают на пути бедного артиста.

    The dog worked round and round him, as if undecided at what particular point to go in for the assault. — Собака медленно кружила вокруг него, как будто в нерешительности, в какое конкретно место вцепиться.

    A new conversation starts up every hour, and debateable points acquire a fresh interest because there is never time to work to a conclusion. — Каждый час возникает новый разговор, и дискуссионные темы вызывают новый интерес, так как никогда не хватает времени дойти до какого-либо решения.

    24) производить, делать с помощью длительного применения какой-л. силы

    He works holes in the seat of his trousers. — Он протирает себе дырки на штанах.

    25)
    а) вставлять, всовывать; включать

    She worked a few jokes into her speech. — Она вставила несколько шуток в свою речь.

    Syn:
    26) = work out вычислять, решать (пример и т. п.)

    The sum comes to the same figures, worked either way. — Сумма оказывается одной и той же, как бы её ни вычисляли.

    - work off
    - work out
    - work over
    - work up
    ••

    to work one's will upon smb. — заставлять кого-л. делать по-своему

    Англо-русский современный словарь > work

  • 25 negotiation

    переговоры, обсуждение условий; ведение переговоров
    - bring smb. into negotiations
    - enter into negotiations with smb. for smth.

    English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > negotiation

  • 26 idea

    [aɪ'dɪə]
    n
    1) мысль, идея

    We are all for the idea. — Мы все за эту идею.

    A good idea came to my mind. — Мне в голову пришла хорошая идея.

    An idea crossed my mind. — У меня промелькнула мысль.

    The idea never occurred to me. /The idea never entered my head/mind. — Мне такая мысль никогда не приходила в голову.

    It is a poor idea. — Это неудачный план.

    What is the big/great idea? — Это еще зачем? /Что это вам взбрело в голову?

    Once this key idea had been found the plan was rapidly developed. — План получил быстрое развитие, как только была определена ключевая идея.

    They caught up the idea of the club. — Они подхватили идею создания клуба.

    After the European war the idea of a League of Nations was born. — Идея об организации Лиги Наций родилась после войны.

    - good idea
    - brilliant idea
    - foolish idea
    - not a bad idea
    - vague ideas
    - sound idea
    - gloomy idea
    - absurd idea
    - excellent idea
    - fleeting idea
    - borrowed ideas
    - same idea
    - main idea of the book
    - idea of becoming an engineer
    - idea at the back of her mind
    - idea of going into the mountains
    - very idea of a possible accident
    - exchange of ideas
    - chain of ideas
    - man of one idea
    - man of ideas
    - based on the idea
    - under the influence of a fixed idea
    - understand the idea
    - strike up of a bright idea
    - carry big ideas to a successful conclusion
    - assimilate easily the ideas of others
    - convey one's ideas
    - learn to express one's ideas clearly
    - express one's ideas in writing
    - put one's ideas into writing
    - collect one's ideas
    - put one's ideas into practice
    - carry out one's long-cherished idea
    - be dominated by one idea
    - suggest the idea
    - oppose the idea
    - reject the idea
    - assimilate idea
    - absorb idea
    - give up drop the idea
    - discredit idea
    - grasp the idea
    - follow smb's ideas
    - entertain ideas
    - interchange ideas
    - fight for an idea
    - start smb on an idea
    - hit upon an idea
    - grope for an idea
    - turn over an idea in one's mind
    - communicate ideas to one another
    - conform to the idea
    - carry an idea to absurdity
    - lead ideas in another direction
    - dismiss the idea from one's mind
    - owe the idea to smb
    - idea meets with the lively approval
    - idea haunts smb's mind
    - ideas crowded
    - idea gets clearer
    - ideas get confused
    2) представление, понимание, понятие

    Have you any idea of the time? — Знаете ли вы, сколько сейчас времени? /У вас есть представление о том, сколько сейчас времени?

    We have a very different idea of the country. — Мы себе совершенно иначе представляем эту страну.

    That is not my idea of duty. — У меня совсем другое понятие о долге.

    Some idea may be gathered from these facts. — По этим фактам можно составить некоторое представление.

    It does not convey a correct idea. — Это не дает правильного представления/правильной картины.

    - abstract ideas
    - idea of freedom
    - idea of democracy
    - have an idea about smth
    - have no idea about smth
    - have a general idea
    - have an idea where...
    - give an idea of smth
    - give a good idea of smth
    - introduce new ideas
    - give birth to a great number of new ideas
    - have some idea of chemistry
    - have a poor idea of smb's abilities
    - have an exaggerated idea of one's own importance
    - do smth with the idea of becoming an artist
    - form an idea
    - without any idea of the whole matter
    3) (обыкновенно pl) воззрения, мировоззрение, взгляды, концепция, убеждения, теория, мнение

    He was exiled for his political ideas. — Его сослали за его политические взгляды/убеждения.

    I have strict ideas about smoking. — У меня вполне определенное мнение/отношение о курении.

    - leading ideas
    - current ideas on raising children
    - have of progressive ideas
    - have old-fashioned ideas
    - absorb Western ideas
    - have definite ideas on every subject
    - form a complete idea about smth
    - enlarge man's ideas of the universe
    - force one's ideas on smb
    - contradict generally accepted ideas
    - arrange ideas for presentation
    - ideas have spread from West to East
    - man with no ideas about politics
    - tell me your ideas on the subject
    USAGE:
    for idea 1.; See habit, n

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > idea

  • 27 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 28 Computers

       The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)
       It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....
       The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)
       The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)
       In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)
       A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.
       In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....
       It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)
       [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)
       he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)
       t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.
       Further, the effects of those ideas are rapidly compounding, because a computer design is itself just a set of ideas. As we get better at manipulating ideas by building ever better computers, we get better at building even better computers-it's an ever-escalating upward spiral. The early nineteenth century, when the computer's story began, is already so far back that it may as well be the Stone Age. (Rawlins, 1997, p. 19)
       According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)
       What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.
       What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.
       In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Computers

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