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book+of+complaints

  • 61 deluge

    I ['deljuːdʒ]
    nome diluvio m. (anche fig.)
    II ['deljuːdʒ]
    verbo transitivo sommergere ( with di) (anche fig.)
    * * *
    ['delju:‹] 1. noun
    (a great quantity of water: Few people survived the deluge.) diluvio
    2. verb
    (to fill or overwhelm with a great quantity: We've been deluged with orders for our new book.) inondare
    * * *
    deluge /ˈdɛlju:dʒ/
    n.
    1 diluvio ( anche fig.): a deluge of protests [complaints], un diluvio di proteste [reclami]
    2 (relig.) – the Deluge, il diluvio universale.
    (to) deluge /ˈdɛlju:dʒ/
    v. t.
    1 inondare; allagare
    2 (fig.) sommergere; tempestare: The organizers were deluged with offers of help, gli organizzatori sono stati sommersi di offerte d'aiuto.
    * * *
    I ['deljuːdʒ]
    nome diluvio m. (anche fig.)
    II ['deljuːdʒ]
    verbo transitivo sommergere ( with di) (anche fig.)

    English-Italian dictionary > deluge

  • 62 address

    address [əˈdres]
    1. noun
       a. adresse f
       b. ( = speech) discours m
       a. ( = put address on) mettre l'adresse sur ; ( = direct) [+ speech, writing, complaints] adresser (to à)
       b. ( = speak to) s'adresser à
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ✎ The French word adresse has only one d, and ends in -e.
    * * *
    [ə'dres], US ['ædres] 1.
    1) ( place of residence) adresse f
    2) ( speech) discours m (to à)

    form of address (for somebody) — formule f pour s'adresser à quelqu'un

    2.
    1) mettre l'adresse sur [parcel, letter]
    2) ( speak to) s'adresser à [group]
    3) ( aim) adresser [remark, complaint] (to à)
    4) ( tackle) aborder [question]; s'occuper de [problem]

    English-French dictionary > address

  • 63 count

    I.
    count1 [kaʊnt]
    1. noun
       a. compte m ; [of votes at election] dépouillement m
    ► on + counts
       a. ( = add up) compter
    • three more counting Charles trois de plus, en comptant Charles
       b. ( = consider) estimer
       a. compter
    • can he count? est-ce qu'il sait compter ?
       b. ( = be considered) compter
       c. ( = have importance) compter
       a. [+ money] compter pièce par pièce ; [+ small objects] compter
    = count on
    II.
    count2 [kaʊnt]
    ( = nobleman) comte m
    * * *
    [kaʊnt] 1.
    1) ( numerical record) gen décompte m; Politics ( at election) dépouillement m

    to lose count — lit ne plus savoir où on en est dans ses calculs

    2) ( level) taux m
    3) ( figure) chiffre m
    4) Law chef m d'accusation
    5) ( point)
    6) ( in boxing)

    to be out for the count — (colloq) être KO (colloq) also fig

    7) (also Count) ( nobleman) comte m
    2.
    1) ( add up) compter; vérifier [one's change]; énumérer [reasons, causes]

    to count the votes — Politics dépouiller le scrutin; gen compter les votes

    to count the cost of something — fig faire le bilan de quelque chose

    2) ( consider)
    3.
    1) gen, Mathematics compter
    2) ( be of importance) compter
    3) ( be considered) être considéré
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    ••

    English-French dictionary > count

  • 64 lot

    lot [lɒt]
    1. noun
    ► a lot ( = a great deal) beaucoup
    • I'd give a lot to know... je donnerais cher pour savoir...
    • a lot you care! (inf) tu t'en fiches oui ! (inf)
    • quite a lot of [+ people, cars, money] pas mal de
    • such a lot of... tellement de...
    • what a lot of people! que de monde !
       b. ( = destiny) sort m
       c. ( = random selection) by lot par tirage au sort
       d. ( = batch) lot m
    • lot no. 69 is an antique table le lot no 69 est une table ancienne
    • are you coming, you lot? (inf) vous venez, vous autres ? (inf)
    • you rotten lot! (inf) vous êtes vaches ! (inf !)
       e. ► the lot (inf) ( = everything) tout ; ( = all) tous toutes
    • here are the apples, take the lot voici les pommes, prends-les toutes
    • here's some money, just take the lot voici de l'argent, prends tout
    • the whole lot cost me $1 ça m'a coûté un dollar en tout
       f. (US) ( = plot of land) lot m (de terrain)
    • lots better/bigger bien mieux/plus grand
    * * *
    I 1. [lɒt]

    he spent a lot — il a beaucoup dépensé, il a dépensé beaucoup d'argent

    I'd give a lot to... — je donnerais cher pour...

    quite a lot — beaucoup, pas mal (colloq)

    heartburn, cramps, the lot! — des brûlures d'estomac, des crampes, bref tout!

    she's the nicest of the lot — c'est la plus gentille (de tous/toutes)

    that lot — péj ces gens-là pej

    you lot — vous, vous autres

    the best of a bad lot — (colloq) le moins pire (colloq)

    2.

    a lot of money/time — beaucoup d'argent/de temps

    an awful (colloq) lot of — énormément de

    quite a lot of — beaucoup or pas mal (colloq) de

    quite a lot of our support... — une bonne part de notre soutien...

    2) (colloq) ( entire group) tous
    3.
    lots (colloq) quantifier, pronoun

    lots (and lots) of — des tas (colloq) de (+ pl nouns only); beaucoup de (+ any nouns)

    lots of things — des tas (colloq) de choses

    ...and lots more —...et beaucoup d'autres choses

    4.
    lots (colloq) adverb

    lots better — beaucoup or vachement (colloq) mieux

    5.
    a lot adverbial phrase beaucoup

    it would help an awful (colloq) lot — ça aiderait beaucoup

    II [lɒt]
    1) ( destiny) sort m; ( quality of life) condition f
    2) US parcelle f (de terrain)

    vacant lot — terrain m vague

    used car lot — garage m vendant des voitures d'occasion

    3) ( at auction) lot m
    4) ( decision-making process) tirage m au sort

    to draw ou cast lots — tirer au sort

    5) Cinema studio m
    6) ( batch) (of students, tourists) fournée f

    English-French dictionary > lot

  • 65 rush

    rush [rʌ∫]
    1. noun
       a. ( = rapid movement) ruée f ; [of crowd] bousculade f
       b. ( = hurry) hâte f
    • what's all the rush? pourquoi cette urgence ?
    [person] se précipiter ; [car] foncer
    • to rush through [+ book] lire en vitesse ; [+ meal] prendre sur le pouce (inf) ; [+ work] expédier
    • to rush in/out/back entrer/sortir/rentrer précipitamment
       a. ( = do hurriedly) [+ job, task] expédier
    ► rush about, rush around intransitive verb
    * * *
    [rʌʃ] 1.
    1) ( of crowd) ruée f ( to do pour faire)

    to make a rush for something — [crowd] se ruer vers quelque chose; [individual] se précipiter vers quelque chose

    2) ( hurry)
    3) ( peak time) ( during day) heure f de pointe; ( during year) période f de pointe
    4) ( surge) (of liquid, adrenalin) montée f; ( of air) bouffée f; ( of emotion) vague f; ( of complaints) flot m

    a rush of blood to the head — fig un coup de tête

    5) ( plant) jonc m
    2.
    rushes plural noun Cinema rushes mpl, épreuves fpl de tournage
    3.
    2) ( do hastily) expédier [task, speech]
    3) (pressurize, hurry) presser, bousculer [person]
    4) ( charge at) sauter sur [person]; prendre d'assaut [building]
    5) US University essayer de devenir membre de [sorority, fraternity]
    4.
    1) [person] ( make haste) se dépêcher ( to do de faire); ( rush forward) se précipiter ( to do pour faire)

    to rush down the stairs/past — descendre l'escalier/passer à toute vitesse

    2) ( travel)

    to rush along at 120 km/h — filer à 120 km/h

    •
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-French dictionary > rush

  • 66 hear

    [hɪə(r)]
    pt, pp heard, vt
    sound, information słyszeć (usłyszeć perf); lecture, concert słuchać (wysłuchać perf) +gen; orchestra, player słuchać (posłuchać perf) +gen; ( JUR) case rozpoznawać (rozpoznać perf)

    have you heard about …? — (czy) słyszałeś o +loc ?

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    [hiə]
    past tense, past participle - heard; verb
    1) (to (be able to) receive (sounds) by ear: I don't hear very well; Speak louder - I can't hear you; I didn't hear you come in.) słyszeć
    2) (to listen to for some purpose: A judge hears court cases; Part of a manager's job is to hear workers' complaints.) słuchać
    3) (to receive information, news etc, not only by ear: I've heard that story before; I hear that you're leaving; `Have you heard from your sister?' `Yes, I got a letter from her today'; I've never heard of him - who is he? This is the first I've heard of the plan.) dowiadywać się, mieć wiadomości
    •
    - hearing-aid
    - hearsay
    - hear! hear!
    - I
    - he will
    - would not hear of

    English-Polish dictionary > hear

  • 67 long

    1. long [lɒŋ, Am lɑ:ŋ] adj
    1) ( in space) lang;
    ( elongated) lang, länglich; (fam: tall) groß, lang ( fam)
    the rods are 20 cm \long die Stäbe sind 20 cm lang;
    we're still a \long way from the station wir sind noch weit vom Bahnhof entfernt;
    as \long as one's arm ( fig) ellenlang;
    there was a list of complaints as \long as your arm es gab eine ellenlange Liste von Beschwerden;
    \long journey weite Reise;
    to have come a \long way einen weiten Weg zurückgelegt haben, von weit her gekommen sein;
    to go a \long way ( fig) es weit [o zu etwas] bringen;
    to go a \long way toward[s] sth ( fig) eine große Hilfe bei etw dat sein;
    to have a \long way to go ( fig) [noch] einen weiten Weg vor sich dat haben
    2) ( in time) lang;
    ( tedious) lang, langwierig ( pej)
    we go back a \long way wir kennen uns schon seit ewigen Zeiten;
    each session is an hour \long jede Sitzung dauert eine Stunde;
    to draw a \long breath tief Luft holen;
    \long career [jahre]lange Karriere;
    a \long day ein langer [und anstrengender] Tag;
    \long friendship langjährige Freundschaft;
    a \long memory ein gutes Gedächtnis;
    to have a \long memory for sth etw nicht so schnell vergessen;
    \long service jahrelanger Dienst;
    a \long time eine lange Zeit;
    it was a \long time before I received a reply es dauerte lange, bis ich [eine] Antwort bekam;
    to be a \long while since... [schon] eine Weile her sein, seit...;
    to work \long hours einen langen Arbeitstag haben
    3) ( in extent) lang;
    the report is 20 pages \long der Bericht ist 20 Seiten lang;
    a \long book ein dickes Buch;
    a \long list eine lange Liste
    4) pred ( fam);
    to be \long on sth etw reichlich haben;
    to be \long on charm jede Menge Charme besitzen;
    to be \long on wit sehr geistreich sein
    5) ling
    a \long vowel ein langer Vokal
    \long chance geringe Chance;
    \long odds geringe [Gewinn]chancen
    7) fin
    a \long security/ shares eine Versicherung/Aktien fpl mit langer Laufzeit
    PHRASES:
    the \long arm of the law der lange Arm des Gesetzes;
    [not] by a \long chalk bei weitem [nicht];
    in the \long run langfristig gesehen, auf lange Sicht [gesehen];
    \long time, no see ( no see) ( fam) lange nicht gesehen ( fam)
    to be \long in the tooth nicht mehr der Jüngste sein;
    to be \long in the tooth to do sth zu alt sein, [um] etw zu tun;
    to take the \long view [of sth] [etw] auf lange Sicht betrachten n
    1) ( long period) eine lange Zeit;
    have you been waiting for \long? wartest du schon lange?;
    to take \long [to do sth] lange brauchen[, um etw zu tun];
    it won't take \long es wird nicht lange dauern;
    take as \long as you like lass dir Zeit
    2) ( in Morse code) lang;
    one short and three \longs einmal kurz und dreimal lang
    PHRASES:
    the \long and the short of sth kurz gesagt;
    before [very [or too]] \long schon [sehr] bald adv
    1) ( for a long time) lang[e];
    have you been waiting \long? wartest du schon lange?;
    how \long have you lived here? wie lange haben Sie hier gewohnt?;
    the authorities have \long known that... ( form) den Behörden war seit langem bekannt, dass...;
    \long live the king! lang lebe der König!;
    to be \long lange brauchen;
    I won't be \long ( before finishing) ich bin gleich fertig;
    ( before appearing) ich bin gleich da;
    don't be \long beeil dich!
    2) ( at a distant time) lange;
    \long ago vor langer Zeit;
    \long after/before... lange nachdem/bevor...
    I can't wait any \longer to open my presents! ich kann es gar nicht [mehr] erwarten, endlich meine Geschenke auszupacken!
    all day/ night/summer \long den ganzen Tag/die ganze Nacht/den ganzen Sommer [lang]
    PHRASES:
    to be not \long for this world (dated) nicht mehr lange zu leben haben, mit einem Fuß/Bein im Grabe sein ( fam)
    as [or so] \long as... so lange...;
    ( provided that) sofern..., vorausgesetzt, dass...;
    so \long (dated) tschüs, bis dann
    2. long [lɒŋ, Am lɑ:ŋ] vi
    sich akk sehnen;
    to \long for sth sich akk nach etw dat sehnen;
    to \long to do sth sich akk danach sehnen, etw zu tun
    3. long
    4. n geog abbrev of longitude Länge f

    English-German students dictionary > long

  • 68 attend

    1. I
    if you don't attend, you won't understand если вы не будете внимательны /внимательно слушать/, вы не поймете, please attend! внимание!
    2. II 3. III
    1) attend smth. attend a lecture (a course of lectures, a public meeting, etc.) посещать лекцию и т. д, присутствовать на лекции и т. д.; attend a first performance поддеть на премьеру; attend a funeral пойти на похороны; all children over six must attend school все дети, достигшие шестилетнего возраста, должны ходить в школу /должны учиться в школе/
    2) attend smb. attend one's patients (the wounded, the injured, the poor, etc.) a) ухаживать за своими пациентами и т. д.; б) лечить своих пациентов и т. д.', which doctor is attending you? вы у какого врача лечитесь?, кто ваш врач?; I was called to attend a child меня вызвали к ребенку
    3) attend smb. attend customers /clients/ (purchasers, guests, etc.) обслуживать клиентов и т. д.
    4) attend smb. offic. attend an ambassador (a minister, an archbishop, etc.) сопровождать посла и т. д. id may good luck (success) attend you! да сопутствует вам удача /успех/ !
    4. IV
    1) attend smth. in some manner attend smth. frequently (rarely, compulsorily, eagerly, punctually, etc.) часто и т. д. посещать что-л.; I regularly attended his classes я регулярно /аккуратно/ ходил на его занятия; attend smth. at some time attend smth. daily (nightly, etc.) посещать что-л. ежедневно и т. д.; it was the first exhibition I had ever attended это была первая выставка, которую я кого-либо видел
    2) attend smb. in some manner attend smb. patiently (devotedly, professionally, expertly, etc.) терпеливо и т. д. ходить /ухаживать/ за кем-л. /лечить кого-л./; attend smb. for some time doctor Smith has attended our family these twenty years доктор Смит вот уже двадцать лет лечит всю нашу семью
    3) attend smb. in some manner attend smb. cheerfully (properly, casually, etc.) приветливо и т. д. обслуживать кого-л.; attend smb. at some time attend smb. immediately (at once, etc.) обслужить кого-л. немедленно и т. д.
    5. XI
    2) be attended by smb. he was attended by a very good doctor его лечил очень хороший врач, он лечился у очень хорошего врача
    3) be attended by smb. we were attended by three waiters нас обслуживали три официанта; she was attended upon by her own maid ей прислуживала ее собственная горничная
    4) be attended by smb. offic. the Prime Minister was attended by his Cabinet премьер-министра сопровождали /при премьер-министре находились/ члены его кабинета; be attended with /by/ smth. book. be attended with danger (by some risk, by unexpected consequences, etc.) сопровождаться опасностью и т.д.; our plans were attended with great difficulties наши планы были связаны с большими трудностями; the pain was attended with fever боль сопровождалась повышением температуры
    6. XVI
    1) attend to smb., smth. attend to the teacher (to his directions, to smb.'s complaints, etc.) внимательно выслушивать преподавателя и т. д.; I was not attending to the conversation я не следил за беседой
    2) attend to smth. attend to one's studies (to one's duties, to one's business, to one's correspondence, to smb.'s education, to smb.'s needs, to smb. attend comforts, etc.) усердно /прилежно/ заниматься своими уроками и т. д.; you won't succeed unless you attend to your work вы не добьетесь успеха, если [вы] не будете добросовестно работать; I shall attend to it, don't worry не беспокойтесь, я займись этим /позабочусь об этом/
    3) attend to /upon/ smb. attend to a customer (to the guests, upon an ambassador, etc.) обслуживать клиента или посетителя и т. д., is anyone attending to you? вами кто-нибудь занимается?; вас обслуживают?; I shall attend to you in a minute я займусь вами через минуту
    4) attend upon smb. attend upon a patient (upon an invalid, upon an old lady, etc.) лечить больного и т. д.

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > attend

  • 69 spare

    1. I
    often in the negative have no time (no bread, no money, no paper, no room, etc.) to spare не иметь лишнего времени и т.д.; you haven't a moment to spare у вас и минуты свободной нет; every hour I can spare каждый свободный час [своего времени]; I got to the station with five minutes to spare я попал на вокзал /я добрался до вокзала/ за пять минут до отхода поезда; there was plenty of width for that shelf and room to spare по ширине эта полка легко войдет и еще останется место; I have time and to spare времени у меня более чем достаточно; we have enough and to spare у нас всего предостаточно
    2. III
    1) spare smth., smb. usually with can; I can spare a minute (some time, an hour, etc.) я могу уделить минутку и т.д.; I cannot spare the time у меня нет [на это] времени; can you spare a cigarette (a book, a cup of sugar, etc.)? нет ли у вас сигареты и т.д.?, не можете ли вы дать мне сигарету и т.д.?; I cannot spare my horse (my bicycle, my motor car, etc.) я не могу дать [взаймы] /одолжить/ свою лошадь и т.д.; we cannot spare a single worker мы не можем отпустить ни одного рабочего
    2) spare smb. spare oneself (his pupils, his men, one's enemy, etc.) щадить /жалеть/ себя и т.д.; the enemy spared neither young nor old враг не давал пощады ни старикам, ни детям; we walked uphill to spare the horse мы [спешились и] пошли в гору пешком, чтобы облегчить лошади подъем; spare smth. spare an ancient monument (the city, etc.) пощадить /не трогать, не разрушать/ древний памятник и т.д., the fire spared nothing огонь /пожар/ ничего не пощадил, все погибло в огне; spare smb.'s life не лишать кого-л. жизни, пощадить кого-л.; spare smb.'s feelings (по)щадить чьи-л. чувства; I'll try to spare her blushes я постараюсь не заставлять ее краснеть /не вгонять ее в краску/
    3) spare smth. spare words (threats, one's effort, the whipped cream, the butter, etc.) экономить /не расходовать зря/ слова и т.д.; spare your money, this little sum won't help him оставь у себя эти деньги, такая маленькая сумма его не выручит
    3. V
    spare smb. smth.
    1) usually with can; I can spare you some money (a gallon of petrol, a cigarette, a dollar, one of those books, etc.) я могу дать вам немного денег и т.д.; how much time can you spare me? сколько вы мне можете уделить времени?; [willingly (generously, nobly, etc.)] spare smb. smth. [охотно и т.д.] уделять /давать/ что-л. кому-л.
    2) spare you the humiliation of a public exposure (him the painful details, himself the trouble, me this journey, me your complaints, him the trouble, you all the suffering I can, her the pain of hearing the story, etc.) избавить вас от унижения публичного разоблачения и т.д.; we wanted to spare him embarrassment нам не хотелось смущать его
    4. VII
    spare smth. to do smth. usually in the negative spare no time (no trouble, no effort, etc.) to help me не (по)жалеть времени и т.д., чтобы помочь мне; he spared no pains to please me он из кожи вон лез, чтобы угодить мне
    5. VIII
    spare smth. in doing smth. usually in the negative he spared no pains in helping me он мне помогал, не щадя сил; he's spared no expense in building the house он не жалел расходов на строительство дома
    6. XI
    1) be spared he cannot be spared, we need him он нам нужен, мы не можем обойтись без него
    2) his life was spared его пощадили, ему даровали жизнь
    7. XXI1
    spare smth. for smth. usually with can; I can't spare the time for a holiday (a week for a vacation at present, land for a garden, etc.) я не могу выкроить /тратить/ время /у меня нет времени/ на отдых и т.д.; spare your energy for some other work приберегите силы для другой работы; out of his income he spares one tenth for travels он откладывает одну десятую своего заработка на путешествия; spare smth. for smb. spare time for one's friends находить время для друзей; spare smb. for smth. I can spare you for tomorrow (for an hour, etc.) я могу вас отпустить на завтра и т.д., я могу завтра и т.д. обойтись без вас; spare smth. from smth. I cannot spare time from business (from my duties, from my work, etc.) я не могу отрываться от дел и т.д.; he spent nearly all the time he could spare from his duties in study он тратил все свободное от дел время на занятия

    English-Russian dictionary of verb phrases > spare

  • 70 see

    I [siː] гл.; прош. вр. saw; прич. прош. вр. seen
    1)

    Can you see the children playing? — Видишь, как дети играют?

    The window is so dirty that I can't see out. — Окно такое грязное, что ничего не видно.

    In the evening we went to see a movie. — Вечером мы пошли в кино.

    Let me see the book. — Покажите мне эту книгу. / Дайте мне взглянуть на эту книгу.

    Jewels look best seen against a dark background. — Драгоценные камни лучше всего смотрятся на тёмном фоне.

    Syn:
    watch II 2.

    The doctor must see him at once. — Врач должен немедленно осмотреть его.

    May we see around / over the house? — Можно нам осмотреть дом?

    Syn:
    2)
    а) смотреть, справляться (в книге, справочнике)

    See page 11. — Смотрите на стр. 11.

    б) консультироваться, обращаться за консультацией ( к специалисту)

    You ought to see a doctor about that cough. — С таким кашлем вам бы следовало обратиться к доктору.

    3) представить себе, вообразить

    I can clearly see him doing it. — Я легко могу себе представить, как он это делает.

    His colleagues see him as a future director. — Его коллеги видят в нём будущего директора.

    Sales figures are improving, but it's impossible just yet to see beyond the end of the year. — Показатели продаж улучшаются, но невозможно представить себе, что будет к концу года.

    Are you making plans for the future, or can't you see beyond your next pay packet? — Ты строишь планы на будущее или не можешь планировать дальше следующей зарплаты?

    4) испытать, пережить; повидать

    He has seen a great deal in his long life. — Он многое повидал за свою долгую жизнь.

    They saw off three enemy attacks within three days. — За три дня они пережили три атаки врага.

    He saw better days. — Он видел лучшие времена.

    5) быть местом или временем совершения чего-л.

    The year 2005 sees the centenary of Anthony Powell's birth. — В 2005 году исполняется 100 лет со дня рождения Энтони Пауэлла.

    Syn:
    6)

    Guess who I saw at the party last night! — Угадай, с кем я встретился вчера на вечеринке!

    I saw your mother out yesterday; does that mean her leg is better? — Вчера я встретил на улице твою маму; значит ли это, что у неё лучше с ногой?

    б) видеться, встречаться

    see you later / again / soon — до скорой встречи

    to see much / little of smb. — часто / редко видеть кого-л.

    You ought to see more of him. — Вам следует чаще с ним встречаться.

    We have not seen each other for ages. — Мы давно не виделись.

    I'll be seeing you. — Увидимся.

    I don't know his name, but I've seen him around quite a lot. — Я не знаю, как его зовут, но часто встречал его.

    в) повидать(ся); навестить

    They went to see her. — Они пошли к ней в гости.

    7)
    а) провожать, сопровождать

    Mr Freeman will see the visitors around the factory. — Господин Фримен проведёт посетителей по заводу.

    I'll see you up to the director's office on the top floor. — Я провожу вас наверх в кабинет директора, он на верхнем этаже.

    Don't trouble to see me out, I know the way. — Не беспокойтесь, меня провожать не нужно, я знаю дорогу.

    The old man was employed to see the children across the busy street. — Пожилого человека наняли, чтобы он переводил детей через дорогу с оживлённым движением.

    б) принимать, вести приём ( посетителей)

    I am seeing no one today. — Я сегодня никого не принимаю.

    8)
    а) понимать, знать; сознавать

    oh, I see — я понимаю

    Can't you see (that) he's taking advantage of you? — Как вы не понимаете, что он использует вас?

    He cannot see the joke. — Он не понимает этой шутки.

    Now you see what it is to be careless. — Теперь ты видишь, что значит быть неосторожным.

    Syn:
    б) считать, полагать; иметь (определённое) мнение

    I see things differently now. — Сейчас я по-другому смотрю на вещи.

    The way I see it, you have three main problems. — Как мне кажется, у вас есть три основные проблемы.

    9)
    а) выяснять, узнавать; обнаруживать

    It is necessary to see what could be done. — Необходимо выяснить, что следует предпринять.

    "Is he going to get better?" "I don't know, we'll just have to wait and see." — "Он поправится?" - "Не знаю, нужно подождать, и мы всё узнаем".

    Syn:

    The chairman's decision must be seen against the need for long talks and much enquiry. — Решение председательствующего должно быть рассмотрено в связи с необходимостью длительного разбирательства и дополнительного расследования.

    10) ( see about) позаботиться о (чём-л.); проследить за (чем-л.); подумать о (чём-л.)

    I haven't had time to see about a hotel for the night yet. — У меня ещё не было времени, чтобы позаботиться о гостинице на ночь.

    I will see about it. — Я займусь этим.

    11) (see after / to) присматривать, наблюдать за (кем-л. / чем-л.)

    Can you see (to it) that the fax goes this afternoon? — Вы не могли бы проследить, чтобы факс был отправлен сегодня после обеда?

    Please see after the luggage. — Будьте добры, присмотрите за багажом.

    I'll see after the details of the contract. — Я прослежу за деталями контракта.

    Excuse me, I must go and see to the dinner. — Извините, но мне нужно пойти проследить, чтобы подали обед.

    I'll see to the visitors when they arrive. — Я встречу гостей, когда они приедут.

    Syn:
    l observe, watch II 1.
    Ant:
    12) ( see into)
    а) вникать во (что-л.), изучать, разбираться с (чем-л.)

    The police have promised to see into the disappearance of the jewellery. — Полиция обещала разобраться с обстоятельствами пропажи драгоценностей.

    б) всматриваться, проникать взором во (что-л.)

    The old woman claims to be able to see into the future. — Пожилая женщина утверждает, что может предсказывать будущее.

    I wish I had the gift of seeing into people's hearts as you do. — Хотелось бы мне так же читать в людских сердцах, как это делаешь ты.

    13) ( see through) видеть насквозь, ясно разбираться в (чем-л.)

    I see through your little game. — Я вижу все ваши хитрости насквозь.

    He's a poor liar; anyone can see through him. — Он не умеет как следует врать, любой может раскусить его.

    14) карт. уравнивать (ставку соперника, в покере)

    I'll see you and raise you five. — Уравниваю вашу ставку и ставлю пять сверху.

    •
    - see off
    - see out
    - see through
    ••

    to see through / into brick wall — видеть насквозь; обладать необычайной проницательностью

    I'll see you damned / blowed first разг. — как бы не так!, держи карман шире!, и не подумаю!

    - see eye to eye with smb.
    - see the back of smb.
    - see scarlet
    - see the red light
    - see service
    - see visions     II [siː] сущ.; книжн.

    Holy See — папский престол, святейший престол, Ватикан

    2) епархия, диоцез
    Syn:

    Англо-русский современный словарь > see

  • 71 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

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    A n
    1 Accts, Fin ( money held at bank) compte m (at, with à) ; to open/close an account ouvrir/fermer un compte ; in my/his account sur mon/son compte ; I'd like to know the balance on my account j'aimerais savoir combien j'ai sur mon compte ;
    2 Comm ( credit arrangement) compte m ; to have an account at a shop avoir un compte dans un magasin ; an account with the baker un compte chez le boulanger ; to charge sth to ou put sth on sb's account mettre qch sur le compte de qn ; on account ( as part payment) d'acompte ; £100 on account and the rest in May 100 livres sterling d'acompte et le reste en mai ; to settle an account ( in shop) régler un compte ; ( in hotel) régler une note ; to settle accounts fig régler un compte ;
    3 Accts, Advertg ( client) budget m (de publicité) ; the Renault account le budget Renault ;
    4 ( financial record) compte m ;
    5 ( bill) facture f ; electricity account facture d'électricité ;
    6 GB ( on stock exchange) the account le terme m ;
    7 ( consideration) to take sth into account, to take account of sth tenir compte de qch ; to fail to take sth into account omettre de tenir compte de qch ; this aspect has not been taken into account on n'a pas tenu compte de cet aspect, cet aspect n'est pas entré en ligne de compte ;
    8 ( description) compte rendu m ; to give an account of sth faire un compte rendu de qch ; for his account of what happened pour sa version de ce qui s'est passé ; by all accounts, from all accounts au dire de tous ; by his own account tel qu'il le dit lui-même ;
    9 to call ou bring sb to account ( bring to book) demander des comptes à qn ; she was called ou brought to account for these complaints/for failing to finish the job on lui a demandé des comptes pour ces plaintes/pour ne pas avoir fini le travail ;
    10 ( impression) to give a good account of oneself faire bonne impression (in dans) ; they gave a good account of themselves in the match ils ont fait bonne impression dans le match ;
    11 ( indicating reason) on account of sth/sb à cause de qch/qn ; on this ou that account pour cette raison ; on no account sous aucun prétexte ; on no account must you open the door n'ouvrez la porte sous aucun prétexte! ; on my/his account à cause de moi/lui ; don't change the date on my account! ne change pas la date à cause de moi! ;
    12 (advantage, benefit) on my/his account exprès pour moi/lui ; don't come on my account! ne viens pas exprès pour moi! ; she was worried on her own account elle s'inquiétait pour son (propre) sort ; to act on one's own account agir de sa propre initiative ; to set up business on one's own account s'installer or se mettre à son compte ; to put ou turn sth to (good) account mettre qch à profit ;
    13 ( importance) to be of little account/some account avoir peu d'importance/une certaine importance (to sb pour qn) ; it's of no account to them whether he's alive or dead peu leur importe qu'il soit vivant ou mort.
    1 Accts ( records) comptabilité f ¢, comptes mpl ; to keep the accounts tenir la comptabilité or les comptes ; the party accounts la comptabilité du parti ; the accounts show a profit les comptes font apparaître un bénéfice ;
    2 ( department) (service m) comptabilité f.
    C accounts modif [staff] comptable ; [department] comptabilité inv.
    D vtr sout ( regard as) he was accounted a genius on le considérait comme un génie.
    ▶ account for [sth/sb]
    1 ( explain) expliquer [events, fact, behaviour] ; justifier [expense] (to sb auprès de qn) ; retrouver [missing people, vehicle] ;
    2 (represent, make up) représenter [proportion, percentage] ; exports account for 10% of their trade les exportations représentent 10% de leurs affaires ;
    3 (destroy, kill) détruire [vehicle, plane] ; abattre [animal] ; mettre [qn] hors d'état de nuire [soldier, attacker] ;
    4 Journ, Sport mettre [qn] hors-jeu.

    Big English-French dictionary > account

  • 73 address

    address [ə'dres]
    (a) Administration (envelope, letter, package) adresser, mettre l'adresse sur;
    ∎ the letter is addressed to you cette lettre vous est adressée;
    ∎ it's incorrectly addressed l'adresse est incorrecte
    (b) (direct) adresser;
    ∎ address all complaints to the manager adressez vos doléances au directeur;
    ∎ his remarks were addressed to you ses remarques vous étaient adressées
    (c) (speak to) s'adresser à; (write to) écrire à;
    ∎ she stood up and addressed the audience elle s'est levée et a pris la parole devant l'assistance;
    ∎ a judge should be addressed as "your honour" on devrait s'adresser à un juge en disant "votre honneur";
    ∎ to address the chair s'adresser au président
    (d) (deal with → subject, theme) traiter, examiner; (→ issue, problem) aborder;
    ∎ to address oneself to a problem aborder un problème;
    ∎ to address oneself to a task s'attaquer ou se mettre à une tâche
    (e) (take position facing) faire face à
    (f) Computing adresser, accéder à
    (g) Golf (ball) viser
    2 noun
    (a) (of building, person, letter) adresse f;
    ∎ a Glasgow address une adresse à Glasgow;
    ∎ what is your address? quelle est ton adresse?;
    ∎ we've changed our address nous avons changé d'adresse;
    ∎ have you notified him of any change of address? lui avez-vous fait part d'éventuels changements d'adresse?;
    ∎ they left no (forwarding) address ils n'ont pas laissé d'adresse;
    ∎ not known at this address (on returned letter) inconnu à cette adresse
    (b) (speech) discours m, allocution f
    (c) Computing adresse f
    ∎ form of address titre m;
    ∎ what's the correct form of address for a bishop? comment doit-on s'adresser à un évêque?
    (e) formal or archaic (skill) habileté f, doigté m;
    ∎ she showed considerable address in her handling of the situation elle fit preuve d'une grande habileté dans la façon dont elle traita l'affaire
    ∎ addresses galanteries fpl;
    ∎ to pay one's addresses to sb faire la cour à qn
    ►► (gen) & Computing address book carnet m d'adresses;
    Computing address bus bus m d'adresse;
    Computing address file fichier m d'adresses;
    address label étiquette f d'adresse

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > address

  • 74 silence

    silence ['saɪləns]
    1 noun
    silence m;
    ∎ silence (sign) défense de parler;
    ∎ an embarrassed/a shocked silence un silence gêné/scandalisé;
    ∎ an explosion shattered the silence of the night une explosion déchira le silence de la nuit;
    ∎ there was a sudden silence soudain, il y a eu un silence;
    ∎ a silence fell between them un silence s'installa entre eux;
    ∎ to suffer in silence souffrir en silence;
    ∎ to pass sth over in silence passer qch sous silence;
    ∎ his silence on the issue/about his past intrigues me le silence qu'il garde à ce sujet/sur son passé m'intrigue;
    ∎ there's been complete silence from head office le siège est resté totalement silencieux;
    ∎ what's my silence worth to you? combien êtes-vous disposé à payer pour acheter mon silence?;
    ∎ to observe a minute's silence observer une minute de silence;
    ∎ proverb silence is golden le silence est d'or
    (a) (person) réduire au silence, faire taire; (sound) étouffer; (guns) faire taire;
    ∎ she silenced the child with a look d'un regard elle fit taire l'enfant;
    ∎ dissidents cannot be silenced forever on ne peut pas réduire les dissidents au silence ou faire taire les dissidents très longtemps
    (b) (stifle → opposition) réduire au silence; (→ conscience, rumours, complaints) faire taire
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Silence of the Lambs' Harris, Demme 'Le Silence des agneaux'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > silence

  • 75 there

    there [ðeə(r), unstressed ðə(r)]
    là ⇒ 1 (a)-(d) y ⇒ 1 (a) il y a ⇒ 2
    ∎ they aren't there ils ne sont pas là, ils n'y sont pas;
    ∎ we never go there nous n'y allons jamais;
    ∎ we're there! nous voilà arrivés!;
    ∎ who's there? qui est là?;
    ∎ is Margot there? est-ce que Margot est là?;
    ∎ see that woman there? that's Marlene tu vois cette femme là-bas? c'est Marlene;
    ∎ so there we were/I was donc, on était/j'étais là;
    ∎ she got there in the end (reached a place) elle a fini par arriver; (completed a task) elle a fini par y arriver;
    ∎ put it there mets-le là; (shake my hand) serre-moi la main;
    ∎ it's there on the desk c'est là sur le bureau;
    ∎ she just sat/stood there elle était assise/debout là;
    ∎ move along there, please! circulez, s'il vous plaît;
    ∎ we go to Paris and from there to Rome nous allons à Paris et de là à Rome;
    ∎ here and there çà et là;
    ∎ there it is le voilà;
    ∎ it's around there somewhere c'est quelque part par là;
    ∎ back there là-bas;
    ∎ in there là-dedans;
    ∎ on there là-dessus;
    ∎ over there là-bas;
    ∎ under there là-dessous;
    ∎ that car there cette voiture-là;
    ∎ those cars there ces voitures-là;
    ∎ your friend there votre ami;
    ∎ familiar figurative I've been there je suis passé par là, j'ai connu ça;
    ∎ familiar I've been there before non merci, j'ai déjà donné;
    ∎ familiar been there, done that (got the T-shirt) non merci, j'ai déjà donné
    ∎ it's there if you need it c'est là si tu en as besoin;
    ∎ she's always been there for me elle a toujours été là quand j'avais besoin d'elle
    ∎ I couldn't believe he was really there je n'arrivais pas à croire qu'il était vraiment là;
    ∎ the central problem is still there le principal problème est toujours là
    ∎ we disagree there, there we disagree nous ne sommes pas d'accord là-dessus;
    ∎ there's or there lies the difficulty voilà le problème, le problème est là;
    ∎ there you're wrong là vous vous trompez;
    ∎ you're right there là vous avez raison;
    ∎ let's leave it there restons-en là;
    ∎ we'll have to stop there for today nous nous arrêterons là pour aujourd'hui;
    ∎ could I just stop you there? puis-je vous interrompre ici?;
    ∎ as for the food, I've no complaints there pour ce qui est de la nourriture, là je n'ai pas à me plaindre;
    ∎ familiar you've got me there! là, je ne sais pas quoi vous répondre ou dire!□
    ∎ hello or hi there! salut!;
    ∎ hey there! hep, vous là-bas!;
    ∎ there they are! les voilà!;
    ∎ there they come les voilà (qui arrivent);
    ∎ there you go again! ça y est, vous recommencez!;
    ∎ there she goes, complaining again! voilà qu'elle recommence à se plaindre!;
    ∎ there's the bell, I must be going tiens ça sonne, je dois partir;
    ∎ ironic there's gratitude for you c'est beau la reconnaissance!;
    ∎ now finish your homework, there's a good boy maintenant sois un grand garçon et finis tes devoirs
    ∎ he's not all or not quite there (stupid) il n'a pas toute sa tête; (senile) il n'a plus toute sa tête
    ∎ there was/were il y avait;
    ∎ there will be il y aura;
    ∎ there is or there's a book on the table il y a un livre sur la table;
    ∎ there are some books on the table il y a des livres sur la table;
    ∎ there isn't any il n'y en a pas;
    ∎ there's a bus coming il y a un bus qui arrive;
    ∎ well, there's that girl I was telling you about before… il y a bien cette fille dont je t'ai déjà parlé…;
    ∎ what happens if there's a change of plan? qu'est-ce qui se passe si on change d'idée?;
    ∎ there must have been a mistake il a dû y avoir une erreur;
    ∎ there was once a king il était ou il y avait une fois un roi;
    ∎ there was singing and dancing on a chanté et dansé;
    ∎ there were some pieces missing il manquait des pièces;
    ∎ there weren't any more, were there? il n'en restait pas, si?;
    ∎ there's one slice left il reste une tranche;
    ∎ there are or familiar there's two slices left il reste deux tranches;
    ∎ there's nothing we can do to help them on ne peut rien faire pour les aider;
    ∎ there's no stopping her rien ne peut l'arrêter;
    ∎ there's no knowing what he'll do next il est impossible de prévoir ce qu'il fera ensuite;
    ∎ there was no denying it c'était indéniable;
    ∎ there now follows a party political broadcast = formule annonçant la diffusion télévisée des messages électoraux des différents partis;
    ∎ there comes a time when you have to slow down il arrive un moment où il faut ralentir le rythme;
    ∎ there still remain several points to be resolved il reste encore plusieurs problèmes à résoudre;
    ∎ there arose a murmur of disapproval un murmure de désapprobation s'éleva
    ∎ there now, don't cry! allons ou là! ne pleure pas!;
    ∎ there, that wasn't so bad, was it? voilà, ça n'était pas si terrible que ça, si?;
    ∎ there, there! allez!
    ∎ there (now), what did I say? voilà, qu'est-ce que je t'avais dit?;
    ∎ there, now you've made me lose count! et voilà, tu m'as fait perdre le compte!
    ∎ there (now), that's done! là! voilà qui est fait!
    ∎ but, there, it's not surprising mais enfin, ce n'est pas surprenant
    voilà!
    après tout;
    ∎ but there again, no one really knows mais après tout, personne ne sait vraiment
    ∎ we did the trip there and back in three hours nous avons fait l'aller retour en trois heures;
    ∎ it will take you about an hour/cost you about £50 there and back l'aller retour vous prendra à peu près une heure/vous coûtera environ 50 livres
    sur-le-champ;
    ∎ I decided there and then to have no more to do with him j'ai tout de suite décidé de ne plus avoir affaire à lui
    ∎ it wasn't the ideal solution, but there you are or go ce n'était pas l'idéal, mais enfin ou mais qu'est-ce que vous voulez
    ∎ just press the button and there you are or go! vous n'avez qu'à appuyer sur le bouton et ça y est!
    (c) (I told you so) voilà, ça y est
    (d) (here you are) tenez, voilà

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > there

  • 76 Bowser, Sylvanus F.

    [br]
    fl. 1880s
    [br]
    American mechanic and inventor of the first fuel-dispensing pump.
    [br]
    Bowser lived and worked in Fort Wayne, Texas. In 1885 he was approached by a local storekeeper, Jake Gumper, who had been receiving complaints from some of his customers. Gumper's store stocked both kerosene (lamp oil) and butter, and the two were stored alongside each other; the kerosene cask leaked and tainted the butter. Gumper consulted Bowser, but neither of them considered the obvious idea of moving the two containers further apart; instead, working in an adjacent barn, Bowser set about devising a means of dispensing kerosene in given quantities.
    He delivered his invention to Gumper on 5 September 1885. It was a circular tank with a cylinder soldered inside and an outlet pipe attached to the top. A hand-operated piston controlled two marble valves and wooden plungers which were fitted inside the cylinder. When the wooden handle was raised, a gallon of kerosene flowed from the tank into the cylinder, and when the handle was lowered the liquid was discharged.
    He formed S.F.Bowser \& Co. of Fort Wayne to exploit his invention, and twenty years later the company was producing pumps for motor spirit. In 1925 the Bowser Red Sentry, which registered quantity on a clock dial, was introduced. The first automatic "Bowser" in Britain was put into operation in a Manchester garage in 1921.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    P.Robertson, 1974, The Shell Book of Firsts, London: Ebury Press \& Michael Joseph.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Bowser, Sylvanus F.

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