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21 body
1) орган; общество; ассоциация2) совокупность, комплекс; коллектив• -
22 body
1) орган, организация2) главная, основная часть (чего-л.)3) группа людей4) тело5) труп•- advisory bodyto be represented on a body — быть представленным в каком-л. органе
- appropriate body
- arbitral body
- autonomous body
- auxiliary body
- body of an instrument
- body of electors
- body of evidence
- body of laws
- body of power
- body of rules
- body of state authority - central state bodies
- competent bodies
- consultative body
- control body
- deliberative body
- diplomatic body
- economic body
- elected party body
- executive body
- financial body
- financially independent bodies
- governing body
- Governing Body
- government-funded body
- he is expected to be eased out of both bodies in due course
- impartial body
- intergovernmental body
- international body
- judicial body
- law-enforcement body
- law-making body
- leading body
- legislative body
- local body
- main body
- mutilated body
- national standards bodies
- negotiating body
- neutral body
- new-look body
- new-style body
- other body
- parliamentary body
- party body
- pay review body
- peace-keeping body
- planning body
- policy-making body
- policy-setting body
- public body
- representative body
- republican bodies
- scientific-economic body
- specialized body
- standing body
- statutory body
- sterile body
- student body
- subordinate body
- subsidiary body
- subversive body
- superior body
- supreme body of state power
- watchdog body -
23 body
nounenough to keep body and soul together — genug, um am Leben zu bleiben
over my dead body! — nur über meine Leiche
5) (mass)6) (main portion) Hauptteil, der7) (Motor Veh.) Karosserie, die; (Railw.) Aufbau, der8) (collection) Sammlung, diea body of facts — Tatsachenmaterial, das
* * *['bodi] 1. plural - bodies; noun1) (the whole frame of a man or animal including the bones and flesh: Athletes have to look after their bodies.) der Körper2) (a dead person: The battlefield was covered with bodies.) die Leiche3) (the main part of anything: the body of the hall.) der Hauptteil4) (a mass: a huge body of evidence.) die Masse5) (a group of persons acting as one: professional bodies.) die Körperschaft•- academic.ru/7890/bodily">bodily2. adverb- bodyguard- body language
- bodywork* * *[ˈbɒdi, AM ˈbɑ:di]nthe \body of Christ der Leib Christi\body and soul ganz und gar, mit Leib und Seeleshe put \body and soul into her work sie hatte sich völlig ihrer Arbeit verschriebenhow is a \body supposed to live in these conditions? wie soll jemand unter diesen Bedingungen leben?she's a cheerful old \body sie ist ein fröhliches Haus famadvisory \body beratendes Gremium, beratender Ausschusscontrolling \body Aufsichtsgremium ntgoverning \body Leitung flegislative \body gesetzgebendes Organstudent \body Studentenschaft f\body of opinion viele Menschen gleicher Meinungin a \body gemeinsama substantial \body of opinion opposes change es gibt eine große Gruppe, die einmütig gegen Veränderungen ist\body of evidence/information Sammlung f von Beweis-/Informationsmaterial7. (central part) Hauptteil m, Wesentliche(s) nt; of an army Kerntruppe f; of a church Hauptschiff nt; of a plane, ship Rumpf m; of a string instrument Schallkörper mthe dog's \body lay on the rubbish heap der tote Hund lag auf dem Abfallhaufenforeign \body Fremdkörper mto have a full \body wine vollmundig sein\body of water Gewässer nt14.▶ over my dead \body nur über meine Leiche▶ to keep \body and soul together Leib und Seele zusammenhaltenhis wages are barely enough to keep \body and soul together sein Lohn ist zum Leben zu wenig und zum Sterben zu viel* * *['bɒdɪ]nthe body of Christ — der Leib des Herrn
just enough to keep body and soul together — gerade genug, um Leib und Seele zusammenzuhalten
she was committed, body and soul — sie war mit Leib und Seele bei der Sache
See:→ dead3) (= main part of structure of plane, ship) Rumpf m, Körper m; (of string instrument) Korpus m, Schallkörper m; (of church, speech, army also main body) Hauptteil mthe main body of his readers/the students — das Gros seiner Leser/der Studenten
in the body of the House ( Brit Parl ) — im Plenum
5) (= group of people) Gruppe fthe student body —
a great body of followers/readers — eine große Anhängerschaft/Leserschaft
6) (= organization) Organ nt; (= committee) Gremium nt; (= corporation) Körperschaft f → corporate, politicSee:→ corporate, politic7)(= quantity)
a body of facts/evidence/data — Tatsachen-/Beweis-/Datenmateriala body of laws/legislation — ein Gesetzeskomplex m
8) (inf: person) Mensch m9) (MATH, PHYS, CHEM) Körper m10) (= substance, thickness of wine) Körper m; (of soup) Substanz f; (of paper, cloth) Festigkeit f, Stärke f11) Body m* * *A sbody and soul mit Leib und Seele;keep body and soul together Leib und Seele zusammenhalten;over my dead body nur über meine Leiche3. engS. Rumpf m, Leib m4. Rumpf m, Haupt(bestand)teil m, Mittel-, Hauptstück n, Zentrum n, z. B.a) (Schiffs-, Flugzeug) Rumpf mc) Bauch m (einer Flasche etc)d) MUS (Schall)Körper m, Resonanzkasten me) (Auto-, Wagen) Karosserie ff) Hauptgebäude nh) MIL Hauptfestung f5. MIL Truppenkörper m:body of horse Kavallerieeinheit f;the main body das Gros7. (gegliedertes) Ganzes, Gesamtheit f, System n:a) juristische Person, Körperschaft f,b) Gemeinwesen n, Gemeinde f;body of facts Tatsachenmaterial n;body of history Geschichtswerk n;a) juristische Person,b) organisierte Gesellschaft,c) Staat(skörper) m8. Körper(schaft) m(f), Gesellschaft f, Gruppe f, Organ n, Gremium n:9. fig Kern m, eigentlicher Inhalt, Substanz f, (das) Wesentliche (einer Rede etc)11. PHYS (dreidimensionaler) Körper, Masse f (Menge)12. CHEM Substanz f, Stoff m13. ANAT Körper m, Stamm m:body of the uterus Gebärmutterkörper14. GEOG etc Masse f:body of water Gewässer n;body of cold air kalte Luftmasse15. fig Körper m, Gehalt m (von Wein), Stärke f (von Papier etc), Deckfähigkeit f (von Farbe), Dichtigkeit f, Güte f (von Gewebe etc), (Klang)Fülle f16. umg Person f, Mensch m:a curious (old) body ein komischer (alter) Kauz;not a (single) body keine Menschenseele18. ELEK Isolier-, Halteteil ma) versinnbildlichenb) darstellen* * *nounenough to keep body and soul together — genug, um am Leben zu bleiben
5) (mass)6) (main portion) Hauptteil, der7) (Motor Veh.) Karosserie, die; (Railw.) Aufbau, der8) (collection) Sammlung, diea body of facts — Tatsachenmaterial, das
9) (of wine) Körper, der* * *(car) n.Karosserie -n f. n.Körper - m.Leib -er m.Leiche -n f.Leichnam -e m.Rumpf -e m. -
24 body
[ˈbɔdɪ]accountancy body орган бухгалтерского учета adjudicatory body судебный орган administrative body административный орган advisory body совещательный орган appropriate body надлежащий орган body корпорация; организация; the body politic государство; autonomous bodies органы самоуправления black body физ. абсолютно черное тело body ассоциация body воинская часть, body of cavalry кавалерийский отряд, body of troops войсковое соединение body главная, основная часть (чего-л); корпус, остов, кузов; фюзеляж (самолета); главный корабль (церкви); ствол (дерева); ствольная коробка (винтовки); стакан (снаряда); станина (станка); корсаж, лиф (тж. body of a dress) body главная часть (документа) body группа людей; body of electors избиратели body комплекс body консистенция, сравнительная плотность (жидкости); кроющая способность (краски) body корпорация; организация; the body politic государство; autonomous bodies органы самоуправления body крепость (вина) body лига body лицо body масса; большинство; a great body of facts масса фактов body общество body орган, организация, группа, коллегия body орган body основная часть body основное содержание body перегонный куб, реторта body предмет body редк. придавать форму; воплощать (обыкн. body forth) body совокупность, комплекс body совокупность body субъект права body тело; celestial (или heavenly) body небесное тело, небесное светило; to keep body and soul together поддерживать существование body труп body туловище body разг. человек; a poor body бедняк body юридическое лицо body attr.: body count подсчет убитых; to deal a body blow ошарашить body attr.: body count подсчет убитых; to deal a body blow ошарашить body of a book главная часть книги (без предисловия, примечаний и т. п.); body of the order текст приказа; the main body воен. главные силы (войск); ядро (отряда и т. п.) body воинская часть, body of cavalry кавалерийский отряд, body of troops войсковое соединение body of coding sheet вчт. поле программного бланка body of delegates делегаты body группа людей; body of electors избиратели body of electors избиратели body of laws сборник законов body of laws совокупность правовых норм body of representatives представители body of specification pat. главная часть описания изобретения body of a book главная часть книги (без предисловия, примечаний и т. п.); body of the order текст приказа; the main body воен. главные силы (войск); ядро (отряда и т. п.) body воинская часть, body of cavalry кавалерийский отряд, body of troops войсковое соединение body of undertakings комплекс предприятий body корпорация; организация; the body politic государство; autonomous bodies органы самоуправления politic: body body государственная корпорация body body муниципальная корпорация body body политическая корпорация body body политическое образование body тело; celestial (или heavenly) body небесное тело, небесное светило; to keep body and soul together поддерживать существование collegial body коллегиальный орган consultative body консультативный орган consultative body совещательный орган controlling body контрольный орган corporate body корпорация, юридическое лицо, правосубъектная организация corporate body корпорация corporate body правосубъектная организация corporate body юридическое лицо corporate: body корпоративный, общий; corporate body корпоративная организация; corporate responsibility ответственность каждого члена корпорации cycle body вчт. тело цикла body attr.: body count подсчет убитых; to deal a body blow ошарашить delegate body представительный орган dictionary body корпус словаря executive body исполнительный орган expert body группа специалистов expert body экспертный орган external audit body внешний контрольный орган governing body административный совет governing body правительственный орган governing body руководящий орган body масса; большинство; a great body of facts масса фактов implementing body орган, обеспечивающий исполнение in a body в полном составе industrial body промышленная организация initiating body организация-учредитель iteration body вчт. тело цикла joint body объединенный орган judicial body судебный орган body тело; celestial (или heavenly) body небесное тело, небесное светило; to keep body and soul together поддерживать существование legislative body законодательный орган; learned body ученое общество legislative body законодательный орган; learned body ученое общество legislative body законодательный орган loop body вчт. тело цикла macro body вчт. макротело body of a book главная часть книги (без предисловия, примечаний и т. п.); body of the order текст приказа; the main body воен. главные силы (войск); ядро (отряда и т. п.) management body орган управления official body официальный орган body разг. человек; a poor body бедняк procedure body вчт. тело процедуры professional body профессиональная организация program body вчт. тело программы public body государственный орган public body общественный орган public international body государственный международный орган regulatory body контрольный орган regulatory body распорядительный орган relevant joint body компетентный совместный орган representative body представительный орган statement body вчт. тело оператора steering body руководящий орган student body студенческий орган supervising body контрольный орган supervisory body контрольный орган supervisory body наблюдательный орган supervisory: supervisory наблюдательный, контролирующий; a supervisory body контрольный орган swap body обменный пункт task body вчт. тело задачи -
25 орган
I `орган муж.
1) физиол. organ;
коллект. apparatus внутренние органы ≈ internal анат. половые органы ≈ genitals;
privy parts органы чувств ≈ senses, organs of sense
2) (об учреждении, комиссии) body, agency;
organ органы местного самоуправления ≈ institutions of local governing органы безопасности ≈ security services подотчетные органы ≈ (кому-л.) organs accountable (to) распорядительный орган ≈ administrative organ следственные органы ≈ investigating agencies/bodies хозяйственный орган ≈ economic organization
3) (печатное издание) organ, publication II орг`ан муж.;
муз. organ язычковый орган ≈ reed organ труба органам.
1. organ;
~ы слуха organs of hearing;
~ы кровообращения circulatory organs;
2. (учреждение) body;
agency амер. ;
законодательный ~ legislative body;
компетентный ~ competent body;
координационный ~ coordinating organ;
~ управления management body;
~ы власти, руководящие ~ы the authorities;
исполнительный ~ executive body;
~ы следствия investigating bodies/agencies;
3. (печатное издание) organ, publication.м. муз. organ. -
26 body
n1. орган; товариство, асоціація2. головна, основна частина (чого-небудь)3. група людей4. зведення (законів, правил)- administrative body адміністративний/ управлінський орган- advisory body консультативний орган- appropriate body відповідний орган- auxiliary body допоміжний орган- deliberative body дорадчий орган- diplomatic body дипломатичний корпус- Dispute Settlement B. Орган врегулювання суперечок (СОТ)- elective state body виборний державний орган- executive body виконавча влада, виконавчий орган- executive-administrative body виконавчий та розпорядчий орган- expert body комісія/ комітет експертів- governing body керівний орган, адміністративна рада- higher (highest) bodies of state authority вищі органи місцевої влади- judicial body судовий орган- legislative body законодавча влада, законодавчий орган- main body основна частина чого-небудь- parent body очолюючий орган- policy-making body орган з розробки директив/ політичної лінії- public body громадський орган- standing body постійний орган- state body державний орган- statutory body затверджений законом орган- subordinate body підлеглий орган- subsidiary body допоміжний орган- subversive body підривний орган- superior body вищий орган- body accountable to smbd. орган, підзвітний кому-небудь- body of the draft convention/ treaty, etc основна частина проекту конвенції/ договору тощо- body of electors виборці- body of fundamental principles збірка основних/ засадничих законів/ правил/ принципів- body of an instrument основна частина документу- body of laws зведення законів; збірка законів; сукупність норм права- body of principles зведення принципів- body of qualities сукупність рис- body of rules зведення правил/ норм- body of state authority орган державної влади- body of the treaty основна частина договору- body of the hall частина залу, відведена для делегатів (ООН) -
27 Article 72
1. The joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the subjects of the Russian Federation includes:a) providing for the correspondence of the constitutions and laws of the Republics, the charters and other normative legal acts of the territories, regions, cities of federal importance, autonomous regions or autonomous areas to the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal laws;b) protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen; protection of the rights of national minorities; ensuring the rule of law, law and order, public security, border zone regime; c) issues of possession, use and disposal of land, subsoil, water and other natural resources; d) delimitation of state property; e) nature utilization, protection of the environment and ensuring ecological safety; specially protected natural territories, protection of historical and cultural monuments; f) general issues of upbringing, education, science, culture, physical culture and sports; g) coordination of issues of health care; protection of the family, maternity, paternity and childhood; social protection, including social security; h) carrying out measures against catastrophes, natural calamities, epidemics, elimination of their aftermath; i) establishment of common principles of taxation and dues in the Russian Federation; j) administrative, administrative procedure, labour, family, housing, land, water, and forest legislation; legislation on subsoil and environmental protection; k) personnel of the judicial and law enforcement agencies; the Bar, notaryship; l) protection of traditional living habitat and of traditional way of life of small ethnic communities; m) establishment of common principles of organization of the system of bodies of state authority and local self-government; n) coordination of international and foreign economic relations of the subjects of the Russian Federation, fulfillment of international treaties and agreements of the Russian Federation.2. Provisions of this Article shall be equally valid for the Republics, territories, regions, cities of federal importance, autonomous regions or autonomous areas.__________ <На русском языке см. [ref dict="The Constitution of Russia (Russian)"]Статья 72[/ref]> <На немецком языке см. [ref dict="The Constitution of Russia (German)"]Artikel 72[/ref]> <На французском языке см. [ref dict="The Constitution of Russia (French)"]Article 72[/ref]>The Constitution of Russia. English-Russian dictionary > Article 72
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28 voluntary control
добровольное ограничение, добровольное регулированиеа) общ. (людьми или организациями своей деятельности без вмешательства государства или общественности)б) рекл. (в рекламном бизнесе: добровольное следование определенным правилам в рекламе для избежания причинения вреда потребителям)The Directive does not exclude voluntary control of misleading advertising by self-regulatory bodies if such means of redress are provided for in addition to the court or administrative proceedings. — Директива не исключает добровольного регулирования со стороны органов саморегулирования, если эти средства корректировки предоставляются в дополнение к судебным или административным процедурам.
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29 corruptogenic
1) Общая лексика: взяткоёмкий (with or creating bribe-collecting opportunities - of legislative acts and bodies, administrative positions, etc.)2) Юридический термин: коррупциогенный -
30 corruptogenic potential
Общая лексика: взяткоёмкость (potential for creating opportunities for bribery - of legislative acts and bodies, administrative positions, etc.)Универсальный англо-русский словарь > corruptogenic potential
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31 power
n1) сила; мощь; способность2) энергия3) власть, сила4) право, полномочия5) держава•to accord powers to smb — предоставлять полномочия кому-л.
to act outside one's powers — выходить за пределы своих полномочий
to assume power — брать власть в свои руки; приходить к власти
to bolster one's challenge to political power — усиливать свои притязания на политическую власть
to cede power to smb — уступать власть кому-л.
to check a country's power — преграждать путь мощи какой-л. страны
to come to power — приходить к власти; брать власть в свои руки
to concentrate all power in one's hands — сосредоточивать всю полноту власти в своих руках
to confirm smb in power — утверждать чье-л. назначение во главе государства
to delegate powers to smb — передавать / делегировать полномочия кому-л.
to do everything in one's legitimate power — делать все в пределах своей законной власти
to entrench oneself in power — закрепляться у власти
to exclude smb from power — не допускать кого-л. к власти
to exhibit one's full powers — предъявлять свои полномочия
to furnish smb with powers — предоставлять кому-л. полномочия
to gain power — захватывать власть; приходить к власти
to go beyond one's constitutional powers — превышать свои конституционные права
to hand over power to smb — передавать власть кому-л.
to lodge a great deal of power in smb's hands — сосредоточивать большую власть в чьих-л. руках
to lose one's power over smb — утрачивать власть над кем-л.
to preserve one's present power and privilege — сохранять свою власть и привилегии
to put too much power into smb's hands — наделять кого-л. слишком большой властью
to restore smb to power — восстанавливать кого-л. у власти
to share power with smb — разделять власть с кем-л.
to take power into one's hands — брать власть в свои руки
to take over power — приходить к власти; захватывать власть
to take some power away from smb — уменьшать чью-л. власть
to tighten one's grip on power — укреплять свою власть
to transfer power to smb — передавать власть кому-л.
to undermine smb's power — подрывать чью-л. власть
- absolute powerto win power — захватывать / завоевывать власть; приходить к власти
- abuse of power - administering power
- administrative power
- advent of power
- allied powers
- alternation of power
- alternative sources of power
- appointive power
- arrogance of power
- assumption of power
- atomic powers
- authoritarian power
- autocratic power
- Axis Powers - bid for greater powers
- bodies of power
- broad powers
- buying power
- capitalist power
- centralized power
- centrally organized political power
- change of power
- colonial power
- competitive power
- conquest of political power
- constituent power
- constitutional powers
- contender for power - dangerous power
- de facto power - decline in purchasing power - departure from power
- depleted power
- derogation of the powers
- detaining power
- deterrent power
- developing nuclear power
- devolution of power to the regions
- dictatorial powers
- discretionary power
- display of power
- division of power - electric power
- emergency powers
- emerging nuclear power
- Entente powers
- enumerated powers
- equilibrium of power
- executive power
- exercise of the power
- extension in power
- extension of powers
- extensive powers
- extra powers
- extra-constitutional powers
- fall from power
- federally generated power
- foreign power
- full powers
- general powers
- great power
- greater powers
- greater reliance on nuclear power
- grip on power
- handover of power
- hold on power
- imperial power
- imperialist power
- implied powers
- in power
- increased powers
- increased pressure on smb to relinquish power
- industrial power
- inherent powers
- inland power
- invincible power
- jockeying for power
- judicial power
- judiciary power
- labor power
- large powers
- leading power
- legal power
- legislative power
- limited powers
- limitless power
- long run of power
- lust for power
- major power
- majority power
- mandatory powers
- maritime power
- market power
- military power
- misuse of power
- monopoly of power
- monopoly power
- motive power
- naval power
- non-nuclear power
- nuclear power
- occupying power
- official powers - overthrow of smb's power
- Pacific power - peaceful transfer of power
- peace-loving power
- personal power
- plenary power
- plenipotentiary power
- political power
- popular power
- power has passed out of the hands of a party
- power is ebbing
- power of attorney
- power of influence
- power of organization
- power of recognition
- power of the law
- power of the purse
- power to sign
- powers of arrest and interrogation
- powers of internment
- powers of stop and search
- powers of the presidency
- powers that be
- powers to do smth
- principle power
- purchasing power
- push for power
- real power
- real purchasing power
- redistribution of power
- reduction in purchasing power
- reduction of smb's power
- regional power
- reins of power
- removal from power
- reserved power
- resurgence of military power
- retaliatory power
- return to power
- revolutionary power
- rise of power
- road to power
- royal power - signatory power
- source of power
- space power
- special powers
- specific powers
- state power
- strengthening of the economic and defense power of the state
- strengthening of the power
- strong executive powers
- struggle for power
- succession to power
- supreme power
- surrender of powers to smb
- sweeping powers
- switch of power from... to...
- the dollar's holding power
- the main power behind the throne
- third power
- time in power
- too much power is invested in the president
- trading power
- transfer of power to smb
- transforming power
- transition of power
- treaty-making power
- tutelary power
- under existing powers
- unlimited power
- untrammeled power
- unwarranted power
- usurpation of power
- vast powers
- verification of powers
- vested with broad powers
- veto powers
- victorious powers
- war powers
- Western Powers
- wide powers
- with deciding voting power
- world power -
32 central
центральний, головний, основний- Central American Common Market
- central apparatus
- central archives
- central area of the city
- central authorities
- central authority
- central body
- central city
- central committee
- Central Criminal Court
- central government
- central government approval
- Central Intelligence Agency
- central organ
- central prison
- central security service
- central state bodies
- central state organs
- central-station alarm system
- central training prison -
33 Economy
Portugal's economy, under the influence of the European Economic Community (EEC), and later with the assistance of the European Union (EU), grew rapidly in 1985-86; through 1992, the average annual growth was 4-5 percent. While such growth rates did not last into the late 1990s, portions of Portugal's society achieved unprecedented prosperity, although poverty remained entrenched. It is important, however, to place this current growth, which includes some not altogether desirable developments, in historical perspective. On at least three occasions in this century, Portugal's economy has experienced severe dislocation and instability: during the turbulent First Republic (1911-25); during the Estado Novo, when the world Depression came into play (1930-39); and during the aftermath of the Revolution of 25 April, 1974. At other periods, and even during the Estado Novo, there were eras of relatively steady growth and development, despite the fact that Portugal's weak economy lagged behind industrialized Western Europe's economies, perhaps more than Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar wished to admit to the public or to foreigners.For a number of reasons, Portugal's backward economy underwent considerable growth and development following the beginning of the colonial wars in Africa in early 1961. Recent research findings suggest that, contrary to the "stagnation thesis" that states that the Estado Novo economy during the last 14 years of its existence experienced little or no growth, there were important changes, policy shifts, structural evolution, and impressive growth rates. In fact, the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate (1961-74) was about 7 percent. The war in Africa was one significant factor in the post-1961 economic changes. The new costs of finance and spending on the military and police actions in the African and Asian empires in 1961 and thereafter forced changes in economic policy.Starting in 1963-64, the relatively closed economy was opened up to foreign investment, and Lisbon began to use deficit financing and more borrowing at home and abroad. Increased foreign investment, residence, and technical and military assistance also had effects on economic growth and development. Salazar's government moved toward greater trade and integration with various international bodies by signing agreements with the European Free Trade Association and several international finance groups. New multinational corporations began to operate in the country, along with foreign-based banks. Meanwhile, foreign tourism increased massively from the early 1960s on, and the tourism industry experienced unprecedented expansion. By 1973-74, Portugal received more than 8 million tourists annually for the first time.Under Prime Minister Marcello Caetano, other important economic changes occurred. High annual economic growth rates continued until the world energy crisis inflation and a recession hit Portugal in 1973. Caetano's system, through new development plans, modernized aspects of the agricultural, industrial, and service sectors and linked reform in education with plans for social change. It also introduced cadres of forward-looking technocrats at various levels. The general motto of Caetano's version of the Estado Novo was "Evolution with Continuity," but he was unable to solve the key problems, which were more political and social than economic. As the boom period went "bust" in 1973-74, and growth slowed greatly, it became clear that Caetano and his governing circle had no way out of the African wars and could find no easy compromise solution to the need to democratize Portugal's restive society. The economic background of the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was a severe energy shortage caused by the world energy crisis and Arab oil boycott, as well as high general inflation, increasing debts from the African wars, and a weakening currency. While the regime prescribed greater Portuguese investment in Africa, in fact Portuguese businesses were increasingly investing outside of the escudo area in Western Europe and the United States.During the two years of political and social turmoil following the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the economy weakened. Production, income, reserves, and annual growth fell drastically during 1974-76. Amidst labor-management conflict, there was a burst of strikes, and income and productivity plummeted. Ironically, one factor that cushioned the economic impact of the revolution was the significant gold reserve supply that the Estado Novo had accumulated, principally during Salazar's years. Another factor was emigration from Portugal and the former colonies in Africa, which to a degree reduced pressures for employment. The sudden infusion of more than 600,000 refugees from Africa did increase the unemployment rate, which in 1975 was 10-15 percent. But, by 1990, the unemployment rate was down to about 5-6 percent.After 1985, Portugal's economy experienced high growth rates again, which averaged 4-5 percent through 1992. Substantial economic assistance from the EEC and individual countries such as the United States, as well as the political stability and administrative continuity that derived from majority Social Democratic Party (PSD) governments starting in mid-1987, supported new growth and development in the EEC's second poorest country. With rapid infrastruc-tural change and some unregulated development, Portugal's leaders harbored a justifiable concern that a fragile environment and ecology were under new, unacceptable pressures. Among other improvements in the standard of living since 1974 was an increase in per capita income. By 1991, the average minimum monthly wage was about 40,000 escudos, and per capita income was about $5,000 per annum. By the end of the 20th century, despite continuing poverty at several levels in Portugal, Portugal's economy had made significant progress. In the space of 15 years, Portugal had halved the large gap in living standards between itself and the remainder of the EU. For example, when Portugal joined the EU in 1986, its GDP, in terms of purchasing power-parity, was only 53 percent of the EU average. By 2000, Portugal's GDP had reached 75 percent of the EU average, a considerable achievement. Whether Portugal could narrow this gap even further in a reasonable amount of time remained a sensitive question in Lisbon. Besides structural poverty and the fact that, in 2006, the EU largesse in structural funds (loans and grants) virtually ceased, a major challenge for Portugal's economy will be to reduce the size of the public sector (about 50 percent of GDP is in the central government) to increase productivity, attract outside investment, and diversify the economy. For Portugal's economic planners, the 21st century promises to be challenging.
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