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1 Ecole des Mines
Ecole des Mines -
2 Ecole des Mines
Dictionnaire Français-Anglais. Agriculture Biologique > Ecole des Mines
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3 école des Mines
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4 Ecole Nationale des Mines
сущ.общ. Нациoнaльнaя тех. горная школаФранцузско-русский универсальный словарь > Ecole Nationale des Mines
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5 Ecole Nationale des Mines
eng. E.N.M.Dictionnaire russe-français universel > Ecole Nationale des Mines
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6 école
école [ekɔl]1. feminine nouna. ( = établissement) school• envoyer or mettre un enfant à l'école to send a child to school• grande école prestigious higher education institute with competitive entrance examination → GRANDES ÉCOLESb. ( = enseignement) schooling ; ( = système scolaire) school systemc. ( = mouvement artistique, de pensée) school2. compounds► école des Beaux-Arts ≈ art college• faire l'école buissonnière to play truant (Brit) or hooky (US) ► École centrale prestigious college of engineering► École normale ≈ teacher training college → GRANDES ÉCOLES━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━Nursery school ( l'école maternelle) is publicly funded in France and, though not compulsory, is attended by most children between the ages of three and six. Statutory education begins with primary (grade) school (« l'école primaire ») and is attended by children between the ages of six and 10 or 11.━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━The École nationale d'administration or ÉNA, in Strasbourg (formerly in Paris), is a competitive-entrance college training top civil servants. Because so many ministers and high-ranking decision-makers are « énarques » (ex-students of ÉNA), the school has often been criticized for exercising too much influence, and French political life is perceived by some as being monopolized by the so-called « énarchie ». → CONCOURS* * *The French school system has three tiers: l'école maternelle (from the age of two); l'école primaire comprising cours préparatoire (CP), cours élémentaire 1 et 2 ( CE1, CE2), cours moyen 1 et 2 ( CM1, CM2); and l'école secondaire ( collège and lycée). School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16* * *ekɔl nf1) school2)* * *école nf1 Scol ( établissement) school; être à l'école to be at GB ou in US school; aller à l'école to go to school; le directeur a réuni toute l'école the headteacher assembled the whole school; école de garçons/filles boys'/girls' school; enfants des écoles schoolchildren; la grande/petite école primary/nursery school;2 ( enseignement) school; l'école est finie school is over; avoir école to have school; mettre un enfant à l'école to send a child to school; dès l'école from the very first days at school; quitter l'école à 16 ans to leave school at 16;3 ( système) education system; réformer l'école to reform the education system;4 Univ (grande) école higher education institution with competitive entrance examination; une école d'ingénieurs a Grande École of Engineering; une école de commerce a business school;5 ( source de formation) training (de in); la lexicographie est une école de patience lexicography is a training in patience; être à bonne école to be in good hands; être de la vieille école to be of the old school; l'école de la vie the university of life;6 ( mouvement) school; école flamande/romantique Flemish/Romantic school; école de pensée school of thought; faire école to gain a following.école communale local school; école de conduite driving school; école de danse dancing school; école élémentaire primary school; école de gestion Univ business school, school of business and management GB; école hôtelière hotel management school; école d'infirmières nursing college; école de journalisme school of journalism; école de langues language school; école libre ( système) independent education; ( établissement) independent school; école maternelle nursery school; école militaire military academy; école de musique music school; école normale, EN primary teacher training college; école obligatoire compulsory schooling; école parallèle progressive school GB, alternative school; école de pilotage flying school; école de police police college GB, police academy US; école primaire primary school; école privée private school; école professionnelle training college; école publique ( établissement) state school GB, public school US; ( système) state education GB, public education US; école de secrétariat secretarial college; École centrale des arts et manufactures, Centrale○ Grande École of Engineering; École des chartes, les Chartes○ School of Palaeography and Archival Studies; École des Mines, les Mines○ Grande École of Mining Studies; École nationale d'administration, ENA Grande École of Public Management; École nationale des ponts et chaussées, les Ponts et chaussées○, les Ponts○ Grande École of Civil Engineering; École nationale supérieure des arts et métiers, les Arts et métiers○, les Arts○, ENSAM Grande École of Engineering; École normale supérieure, ENS Grande École preparing teachers for higher education.École The French school system has three tiers: l'école maternelle (from the age of two); l'école primaire comprising cours préparatoire (CP), cours élémentaire 1 et 2 ( CE1, CE2), cours moyen 1 et 2 ( CM1, CM2); and l'école secondaire ( collège and lycée). School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16.[ekɔl] nom féminin1. [établissement] school2. [cours] school3. [système]4. [collège supérieur]École (centrale) des arts et manufactures, École centrale prestigious engineering schoolÉcole nationale d'administration → link=ENA ENA5. [lieu spécialisé] school6. [pédagogie]7. [disciples] school8. (figuré)The separation of Church and State, which reflects the republican ideal and became law in 1905, is an important aspect of French culture. Since that date State education has been independent of the Church, and explicitly excludes religious instruction and religious ceremony. -
7 école
f1. (établissement) шко́ла; учи́лище (professionnelle, technique); те́хникум (secondaire industrielle); институ́т (supérieure); уче́бное заведе́ние (établissement scolaire); ку́рсы ◄-'ов► pl. (cours); акаде́мия;école mixte — шко́ла совме́стного обуче́ния; école maternelle — де́тский сад RS; подготови́тельные гру́ппы <кла́ссы> для дошко́льников; école primaire (communale) — нача́льная шко́ла; école secondaire (du soir) — сре́дняя (вече́рняя) шко́ла; école professionnelle — реме́сленное <профессиона́льно-техни́ческое RS> учи́лище; école privée (libre) — ча́стная шко́ла; école de danse — шко́ла та́нцев; école supérieure d'électricité — электротехни́ческий институ́т; école de dactylographie — ку́рсы маши́нописи; les grandes écoles RF — Вы́сшие шко́лы; école normale — педагоги́ческое учи́лище, педучи́лище abrév; école Normale Supérieure — Вы́сшая Педагоги́ческая (Норма́льная) шко́ла RF; école Polytechnique — Вы́сшая Политехни́ческая шко́ла RF; école des mines — Го́рный институ́т; école Navale — вы́сшее вое́нно-морско́е учи́лище; école Supérieure de Guerre — вое́нная акаде́мия; école des Beaux-Arts — худо́жественное учи́лище; mettre un enfant à l'école — отдава́ть/отда́ть ребёнка в шко́лу; il est en âge d'aller à l'école — он дости́г шко́льного во́зраста, ∑ ему́ уже́ пора́ ходи́ть в шко́лу; un camarade d'école — шко́льный това́рищ; соучени́к ║ les écoles ont congé le 11 novembre ∑ — оди́ннадцатого ноября́ в шко́лах нет заня́тий; la rentrée des écoles — нача́ло уче́бного го́да; un maître d'école — шко́льный учи́тель; ● faire l'école buissonnière — прогу́ливать/прогуля́ть уро́ки <заня́тия>, отлы́нивать ipf. seult. от уро́ков <от заня́тий>école de filles (de garçons) — же́нская (мужска́я) шко́ла;
2. (enseignement) учёба, уче́ние littér.; заня́тия;faire l'école — рабо́тать ipf. в шко́ле; учи́тельствовать ipf. vx.; учи́ть ipf. дете́й; manquer l'école — пропуска́ть/пропусти́ть заня́тия; не ходи́ть/не пойти́ в шко́лу; tenir école de — преподава́ть ipf.l'école commence dans 8 jours — учёба начина́ется <заня́тия начну́тся> че́рез неде́лю;
3. (équitation) шко́ла верхово́й езды́; джигито́вка (exercices d'équitation);des exercices de haute école — упражне́ния < приёмы> вы́сшей шко́лы верхово́й езды́
4. (source d'enseignement, ce qui instruit, forme) шко́ла; вы́учка; о́пыт (expérience);il est à dure école — он прохо́дит суро́вую шко́лу <вы́учку>; l'école de la vie — шко́ла жи́зниil est à bonne école — он в хоро́ших < в надёжных> рука́х, ∑ ему́ есть у кого́ [по]учи́ться;
5. (artistes) шко́ла, направле́ние;un chef d'école — глава́ шко́лы <направле́ния>; faire écolel'école de Barbizon — Барбизо́нская шко́ла [жи́вописи];
1) осно́вывать/основа́ть <создава́ть/созда́ть> шко́лу2) fig. находи́ть/найти́ после́дователей; служи́ть/по= приме́ром <образцо́м (qch.)) -
8 Rateau, Auguste Camille-Edmond
[br]b. 13 October 1863 Royan, Franced. 13 January 1930 Neuilly-sur-Seine, France[br]French constructor of turbines, inventor of the turbo compressor and a centrifugal fan for mine ventilation.[br]A don of the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole Supérieure des Mines in Paris, Rateau joined the French Corps des Mines in 1887. Between 1888 and 1898 he taught applied mechanics and electro technics at the Ecole des Mines in St-Etienne. Trying to apply the results of his research to practise, he became into contact with commercial firms, before he was appointed Professor of Industrial Electricity at the Ecole Supérieure des Mines in Paris in 1902. He held this position until 1910, although he founded the Société Anonyme Rateau in Paris in 1903 which by the time of his death had subsidiaries in most of the industrial centres of Europe. By the middle of the nineteenth century, when the increasing problems of ventilation in coal mines had become evident and in many countries had led to several unsatisfactory mechanical constructions, Rateau concentrated on this problem soon after he began working in St-Etienne. The result of his research was the design of a centrifugal fan in 1887 with which he established the principles of mechanical ventilation on a general basis that led to future developments and helped, together with the ventilator invented by Capell in England, to pave the way for the use of electricity in mine ventilation.Rateau continued the study of fluid mechanics and the applications of rotating engines, and after he had published widely on this subject he began to construct many steam turbines, centrifugal compressors and centrifugal pumps. The multicellular Rateau turbine of 1901 became the prototype for many others constructors. During the First World War, when he was very active in the French armaments industry, he developed the invention of the automatic supercharger for aircraft engines and later diesel engines.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAcadémie des Sciences, Prix Fourneyron 1899, Prix Poncelet 1911, Member 1918.Bibliography1892, Considérations sur les turbo-machines et en particulier sur les ventilateurs, St- Etienne.1900, Traité des turbo-machines, Paris.1907, Ventilateurs centrifuges à haute pression, Paris.1908. Développement des turbines à vapeur d'échappement, Paris. 1917, Notice sur les travaux scientifiques et techniques, Paris.Further ReadingH.H.Suplee, 1930, obituary, Mechanical Engineering 52:570–1.L.Leprince-Ringuet (ed.), 1951, Les inventeurs célèbres, Geneva: 151–2 (a comprehensive description of his life and the importance of his turbines).WKBiographical history of technology > Rateau, Auguste Camille-Edmond
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9 mine
I fвыражение лица, мина; вид, наружность, внешностьde petite mine — невзрачный, незначительный с видуde bonne mine — привлекательный, приятный на видavoir une mine de déterré( de papier mâché) — ужасно выглядетьne pas payer de mine — быть неказистым на вид; быть непривлекательнымil a la mine allongée( longue, de dix pieds de long) — у него вытянулось лицо (от неожиданности, огорчения и т. п.)reprendre sa mine — принять свой обычный видfaire bonne mine à qn — оказать кому-либо хороший приём, быть приветливым с кем-либоfaire mauvaise mine, faire grise mine à qn — оказать кому-либо дурной приём, быть неприветливым с кем-либоfaire triste mine — иметь жалкий вид, повесить носfaire bonne mine à mauvais jeu — делать хорошую мину при плохой игреfaire mine de + infin — сделать вид, что...; притворятьсяavoir la mine de... — казатьсяfaire des mines — кривляться; кокетничать; строить рожиjuger sur la mine — судить по внешностиII fmine de cuivre — медный рудник••mine d'érudition — кладезь премудрости, знанийmine de platine — естественный сплав платины и металлов платиновой группы3)crayon à mine dure [tendre] — твёрдый [мягкий] карандаш4) plles Mines — управление государственными рудниками5) перен. неисчерпаемый источник6) воен., мор. мина7) шпур; взрывная скважина; уст. подкоп; минная галерея8) фугас; заряд взрывчатого веществаcoup de mine — взрыв; подрывchambre de mine — минный погребtrou de mine — лунка для укладки мины; воронка от миныéventer la mine — обнаружить заговор, тайные намерения, тайный замыселIII f ист.мина (мера сыпучих тел, равная 78 л или половине сетье)IV f ист. -
10 miné
%=1 f (aspect extérieur) вид, вне́шность, нару́жность, вне́шний о́блик; лицо́ ◄pl. ли-► (visage); выраже́ние лица́ (expression); физионо́мия fam.;il a bonne minéavoir... miné — вы́глядеть ipf.;
1) он хорошо́ вы́глядит2) iron. ну и вид же у негр!;il a meilleure miné ∑ — вид у него́ лу́чше; он лу́чше вы́глядит; tu en as une miné ! — ну и вид у тебя́!; une miné renfrognée — хму́р|ый вид, -ое лицо́; une miné patibulaire — физионо́мия ви́сельника <престу́пника>; une miné de déterré — ужа́сно вы́глядеть ipf.; кра́ше в гроб кладу́т; miné d'enterrement — похоро́нное выраже́ние лица́; il va en faire une miné! — ну и удиви́тся же он!; faire grise miné à qn. — неприве́тливо встреча́ть/встре́тить кого́-л.; ду́ться на кого́-л.; il a fait miné de partir — он сде́лал вид, что ухо́дит; он собра́лся бы́ло уходи́ть [, но]; il ne paye pas de miné — он на вид невзра́чный, ∑ у него́ совсе́м непредстави́тельный вид; miné de rien fam. — как ни в чём не быва́ло; on aura bonne miné iron. — ну и вид у нас бу́дет!, хорошо́ мы бу́дем вы́глядеть!; il ne faut pas juger les gens sur la miné — по вне́шности о лю́дях не су́дят; faire bonne miné à tout le monde — всех ла́сково <приве́тливо> встреча́ть ipf.; faire des minés — жема́ниться ipf., лома́ться ipf., коке́тничать ipf.il a mauvaise miné — он пло́хо вы́глядит;
MINE %=2 f (d'extraction) ша́хта (charbon); рудни́к ◄-а'► (métaux); при́иск (métaux précieux, pierre précieuse); копь f (surtout pl.) ( charbon et sel) vx.;une miné de fer (de cuivre) — желе́зный (ме́дный) рудни́к; une miné d'or — золото́й при́иск; une miné à ciel ouvert — откры́тый карье́р; exploiter une miné — разраба́тывать/разрабо́тать ша́хту; le travail de la miné — подзе́мные рабо́ты; un ingénieur des minés — го́рный инжене́р; l'école des minés — го́рный институ́т; un puits de miné — ша́хта: une galerie de miné — штрек, што́льня; le carreau de la miné — рудни́чное <ша́хтное> по́леune miné de charbon — у́гольная ша́хта;
║ fig.:une miné d'érudition — большо́й эруди́т; c'est une véritable miné d'or — э́то настоя́щее золото́е дноune miné de renseignements — неисчерпа́емый исто́чник информа́ции;
MINE %=3 f гри́фель;une miné de plomb — графи́тla miné d'un crayon — каранда́шный гри́фель;
MINE %=4 f1. (explosif) ми́на;un trou de miné — шпур, взрывна́я сква́жина; une miné antichar (magnétique, sous-marine) — противота́нковая (магни́тная, подво́дная) ми́на; poser (mouiller) des minés — ста́вить/по= ми́ны; sauter sur une miné — подрыва́ться/подо́рваться на ми́не; un champ de minés — ми́нное по́ле; un mouilleur de minés — ми́нный загради́тельune barre à miné [— ручно́й] уда́рный бур;
2. (excavation) подко́п;passer une miné sous... — вести́ ipf. подко́п под (+ A)
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11 Phillips, Edouard
SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering[br]b. 21 May 1821 Paris, Franced. 14 December 1889 Pouligny-Saint-Martin, France[br]French engineer and mathematician who achieved isochronous oscillations of a balance by deriving the correct shape for the balance spring.[br]Phillips was educated in Paris, at the Ecole Polytechnic and the Ecole des Mines. In 1849 he was awarded a doctorate in mathematical sciences by the University of Paris. He had a varied career in industry, academic and government institutions, rising to be Inspector- General of Mines in 1882.It was well known that the balance of a watch or chronometer fitted with a simple spiral or helical spring was not isochronous, i.e. the period of the oscillation was not entirely independent of the amplitude. Watch-and chronometer-makers, notably Breguet and Arnold, had devised empirical solutions to the problem by altering the curvature of the end of the balance spring. In 1858 Phillips was encouraged to tackle the problem mathematically, and two years later he published a complete solution for the helical balance spring and a partial solution for the more complex spiral spring. Eleven years later he was able to achieve a complete solution for the spiral spring by altering the curvature of both ends of the spring. Phillips published a series of typical curves that the watch-or chronometer-maker could use to shape the ends of the balance spring.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsAcadémie des Sciences 1868. Chairman, Jury on Mechanics, Universal Exhibition 1889.Bibliography1861, "Mémoire sur l'application de la Théorie du Spiral Réglant", Annales des Mines 20:1–107.1878, Comptes Rendus 86:26–31.An English translation (by J.D.Weaver) of both the above papers was published by the Antiquarian Horological Society in 1978 (Monograph No. 15).Further ReadingJ.D.Weaver, 1989, "Edouard Phillips: a centenary appreciation", Horological Journal 132: 205–6 (a good short account).F.J.Britten, 1978, Britten's Watch and Clock Maker's Handbook, 16th edn, rev. R Good (a description of the practical applications of the balance spring).DV -
12 mine
nf.1. tashqi qiyofa, ko‘rinish, yuz, chehra, avzo, turq, aft, bashara, avzo; d'après sa mine, il va mieux rangidan, uning sog‘ligi yaxshi; avoir bonne, mauvaise mine ko‘rinishi yaxshi, yomon bo‘lmoq; mine renfrognée, soucieuse xo‘mraygan, bezovta yuz; faire grise mine à qqn. birovni aftini burishtirib kutib olmoq; c'est un passionné, sous sa mine tranquille u tashqi bosiqlik ostidagi ehtirosli odam; juger des gens sur (d'après) la mine odamlarning tashqi qiyofasiga qarab baho bermoq; ça ne paie pas de mine buning avzoyi buzuq; faire mine de o‘zini … qilib ko‘rsatmoq; -ga solmoq; elle a fait mine de partir, mais elle est finalement restée u o‘zini jo‘nab ketyotganday qilib ko‘rsatdi, lekin oxir-oqibatda qoldi; mine de rien hech narsa bilmaganday, hech narsadan xabari yo‘qday; tâche de le faire parler, mine de rien hech narsadan xabari yo‘qday, uni gapirtirishga harakat qil2. pl. qosh-ko‘zini suzish; aft-basharasini tirishtirish, burishtirish; faire des mines qosh-ko‘zini suzmoq.nf. qalam o‘zagi; mine de plomb grafit; crayon à mine dure, tendre qattiq, yumshoq qalam.nf.1. kon; mine de fer, mine de houille temir, toshko‘mir koni; mine à ciel ouvert ochiq kon2. fig. kon, bitmas-tuganmas boylik3. les mines kon qidiruv muassasasi; l'École des Mines Kon qidiruv instituti; il est ingénieur des mines u tog‘ muhandisi.nf. mina; tankka qarshi mina; champ de mines mina maydoni; détecteur de mines mina qidiruvchi; poser une mine mina qo‘ymoq; le camion a sauté sur une mine yuk mashinasi minada portlab ketdi. -
13 mine
mine [mien]〈v.〉1 uiterlijk ⇒ voorkomen, gezicht♦voorbeelden:mine de proscrit • boeventronieavoir la mine longue, allongée • een lang gezicht trekkenavoir bonne, mauvaise mine • er goed, slecht uitzienfaire bonne, grise, mauvaise mine à qn. • iemand vriendelijk, onvriendelijk, slecht ontvangenavoir triste mine • er belabberd uitzienfaire triste mine • sip kijken, een lang gezicht trekkenfaire triste mine à qn. • iemand koeltjes ontvangenfaire des mines • zich aanstellenEcole des Mines • Hogere School voor MijnbouwIngénieur des Mines • mijnbouwkundig ingenieur4 crayon à mine dure, tendre • hard, zacht potloodmine flottante, dérivante • drijvende mijnmouiller des mines • mijnen leggenfaire la mine • mokken, pruilenfaire mine de • doen alsof, aanstalten maken omça ne paie pas de mine • dat ziet er onooglijk uitil ne paie pas de mine • hij oogt niet, heeft zijn uiterlijk niet mee〈 informeel〉 mine de rien • zonder iets te laten merken, alsof er niets aan de hand is1. f1) voorkomen, gezicht2) mijn3) potloodstift2. f plgelaatsuitdrukkingen, gebaren -
14 Chaudron, Joseph
SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology[br]b. 29 November 1822 Gosselies, Belgiumd. 16 January 1905 Auderghem, Belgium[br]Belgian mining engineer, pioneer in boring shafts.[br]In 1842, as a graduate of the Ecole des Mines in Liège, he became a member of the Belgian Corps Royal des Mines, which he left ten years later as Chief Engineer. By that time he had become decisively influential in the Société Anglo-Belge des Mines du Rhin, founded in 1848. After it became the Gelsenkirchen-based Bergwerkgesellschaft Dahlbusch in 1873, he became President of its Board of Directors and remained in this position until his death. Thanks to his outstanding technical and financial abilities, the company developed into one of the largest in the Ruhr coal district.When K.G. Kind practised his shaft-boring for the company in the early 1850s but did not overcome the difficulty of making the bottom of the bore-hole watertight, Chaudron joined forces with him to solve the problem and constructed a rotary heading which was made watertight with a box stuffed with moss; rings of iron tubing were placed on this as the sinking progressed, effectively blocking off the aquiferous strata as a result of the hydrostatic pressure which helped support the weight of the tubing until it was secured permanently. The Kind-Chaudron system of boring shafts in the full section marked an important advance upon existing methods, and was completely applied for the first time at a coalmine near Mons, Belgium, in 1854–6. In Brussels Chaudron and Kind founded the Société de Fonçage par le Procédé Kind et Chaudron in 1854, and Chaudron was granted a patent the next year. Foreign patents followed and the Kind-Chaudron system was the one most frequently applied in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Altogether, under Chaudron's control, there were more than eighty shafts sunk in wet strata in Germany, Belgium, France and England.[br]Bibliography1853–4, "Notice sur le procédé inventé par l'ingénieur Kind, pour l"établissement des puits de mines', Annales des travaux publics de Belgique 12:327–38.1862, "Über die nach dem Kindschen Erdbohrverfahren in Belgien ausgefùhrten Schachtbohrarbeiten", Berg-und Hüttenmännische Zeitschrift 21:402−7, 419−21, 444−7.1867, "Notice sur les travaux exécutés en France, en Belgique et en Westphalie de 1862– 1867", Annales des travaux publics de Belgique 25: 136–45.1872, "Remplacement d'un cuvelage en bois par un cuvelage en fonte", Annales destravaux publics de Belgique 30:77–91.Further ReadingD.Hoffmann, 1962, Acht Jahrzehnte Gefrierverfahren nachPötsch, Essen, pp. 12–18 (evaluates the Kind-Chaudron system as a new era).W.Kesten, 1952, Geschichte der Bergwerksgesellschaft Dahlbusch, Essen (gives a delineation of the mining company's flourishing as well as the technical measures under his influence).T.Tecklenburg, 1914, Handbuch der Tiefbohrkunde, 2nd edn, Vol VI, Berlin, pp. 39–58 (provides a detailed description of Chaudron's tubing).WK -
15 Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi
SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines[br]b. 1 June 1796 Paris, Franced. 24 August 1831 Paris, France[br]French laid the foundations for modern thermodynamics through his book Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu when he stated that the efficiency of an engine depended on the working substance and the temperature drop between the incoming and outgoing steam.[br]Sadi was the eldest son of Lazare Carnot, who was prominent as one of Napoleon's military and civil advisers. Sadi was born in the Palais du Petit Luxembourg and grew up during the Napoleonic wars. He was tutored by his father until in 1812, at the minimum age of 16, he entered the Ecole Polytechnique to study stress analysis, mechanics, descriptive geometry and chemistry. He organized the students to fight against the allies at Vincennes in 1814. He left the Polytechnique that October and went to the Ecole du Génie at Metz as a student second lieutenant. While there, he wrote several scientific papers, but on the Restoration in 1815 he was regarded with suspicion because of the support his father had given Napoleon. In 1816, on completion of his studies, Sadi became a second lieutenant in the Metz engineering regiment and spent his time in garrison duty, drawing up plans of fortifications. He seized the chance to escape from this dull routine in 1819 through an appointment to the army general staff corps in Paris, where he took leave of absence on half pay and began further courses of study at the Sorbonne, Collège de France, Ecole des Mines and the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He was inter-ested in industrial development, political economy, tax reform and the fine arts.It was not until 1821 that he began to concentrate on the steam-engine, and he soon proposed his early form of the Carnot cycle. He sought to find a general solution to cover all types of steam-engine, and reduced their operation to three basic stages: an isothermal expansion as the steam entered the cylinder; an adiabatic expansion; and an isothermal compression in the condenser. In 1824 he published his Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, which was well received at the time but quickly forgotten. In it he accepted the caloric theory of heat but pointed out the impossibility of perpetual motion. His main contribution to a correct understanding of a heat engine, however, lay in his suggestion that power can be produced only where there exists a temperature difference due "not to an actual consumption of caloric but to its transportation from a warm body to a cold body". He used the analogy of a water-wheel with the water falling around its circumference. He proposed the true Carnot cycle with the addition of a final adiabatic compression in which motive power was con sumed to heat the gas to its original incoming temperature and so closed the cycle. He realized the importance of beginning with the temperature of the fire and not the steam in the boiler. These ideas were not taken up in the study of thermodynartiics until after Sadi's death when B.P.E.Clapeyron discovered his book in 1834.In 1824 Sadi was recalled to military service as a staff captain, but he resigned in 1828 to devote his time to physics and economics. He continued his work on steam-engines and began to develop a kinetic theory of heat. In 1831 he was investigating the physical properties of gases and vapours, especially the relationship between temperature and pressure. In June 1832 he contracted scarlet fever, which was followed by "brain fever". He made a partial recovery, but that August he fell victim to a cholera epidemic to which he quickly succumbed.[br]Bibliography1824, Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu; pub. 1960, trans. R.H.Thurston, New York: Dover Publications; pub. 1978, trans. Robert Fox, Paris (full biographical accounts are provided in the introductions of the translated editions).Further ReadingDictionary of Scientific Biography, 1971, Vol. III, New York: C.Scribner's Sons. T.I.Williams (ed.), 1969, A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, London: A. \& C.Black.Chambers Concise Dictionary of Scientists, 1989, Cambridge.D.S.L.Cardwell, 1971, from Watt to Clausius. The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age, London: Heinemann (discusses Carnot's theories of heat).RLHBiographical history of technology > Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi
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16 Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre
SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy[br]b. 31 December 1888 Thizy, Rhône, Franced. 15 August 1960 Fontenoy-aux-Roses, France[br]French metallurgist, inventor of the alloys Elinvar and Platinite and of the method of strengthening nickel-chromium alloys by a precipitate ofNi3Al which provided the basis of all later super-alloy development.[br]Soon after graduating from the Ecole des Mines at St-Etienne in 1910, Chevenard joined the Société de Commentry Fourchambault et Decazeville at their steelworks at Imphy, where he remained for the whole of his career. Imphy had for some years specialized in the production of nickel steels. From this venture emerged the first austenitic nickel-chromium steel, containing 6 per cent chromium and 22–4 per cent nickel and produced commercially in 1895. Most of the alloys required by Guillaume in his search for the low-expansion alloy Invar were made at Imphy. At the Imphy Research Laboratory, established in 1911, Chevenard conducted research into the development of specialized nickel-based alloys. His first success followed from an observation that some of the ferro-nickels were free from the low-temperature brittleness exhibited by conventional steels. To satisfy the technical requirements of Georges Claude, the French cryogenic pioneer, Chevenard was then able in 1912 to develop an alloy containing 55–60 per cent nickel, 1–3 per cent manganese and 0.2–0.4 per cent carbon. This was ductile down to −190°C, at which temperature carbon steel was very brittle.By 1916 Elinvar, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy with an elastic modulus that did not vary appreciably with changes in ambient temperature, had been identified. This found extensive use in horology and instrument manufacture, and even for the production of high-quality tuning forks. Another very popular alloy was Platinite, which had the same coefficient of thermal expansion as platinum and soda glass. It was used in considerable quantities by incandescent-lamp manufacturers for lead-in wires. Other materials developed by Chevenard at this stage to satisfy the requirements of the electrical industry included resistance alloys, base-metal thermocouple combinations, magnetically soft high-permeability alloys, and nickel-aluminium permanent magnet steels of very high coercivity which greatly improved the power and reliability of car magnetos. Thermostatic bimetals of all varieties soon became an important branch of manufacture at Imphy.During the remainder of his career at Imphy, Chevenard brilliantly elaborated the work on nickel-chromium-tungsten alloys to make stronger pressure vessels for the Haber and other chemical processes. Another famous alloy that he developed, ATV, contained 35 per cent nickel and 11 per cent chromium and was free from the problem of stress-induced cracking in steam that had hitherto inhibited the development of high-power steam turbines. Between 1912 and 1917, Chevenard recognized the harmful effects of traces of carbon on this type of alloy, and in the immediate postwar years he found efficient methods of scavenging the residual carbon by controlled additions of reactive metals. This led to the development of a range of stabilized austenitic stainless steels which were free from the problems of intercrystalline corrosion and weld decay that then caused so much difficulty to the manufacturers of chemical plant.Chevenard soon concluded that only the nickel-chromium system could provide a satisfactory basis for the subsequent development of high-temperature alloys. The first published reference to the strengthening of such materials by additions of aluminium and/or titanium occurs in his UK patent of 1929. This strengthening approach was adopted in the later wartime development in Britain of the Nimonic series of alloys, all of which depended for their high-temperature strength upon the precipitated compound Ni3Al.In 1936 he was studying the effect of what is now known as "thermal fatigue", which contributes to the eventual failure of both gas and steam turbines. He then published details of equipment for assessing the susceptibility of nickel-chromium alloys to this type of breakdown by a process of repeated quenching. Around this time he began to make systematic use of the thermo-gravimetrie balance for high-temperature oxidation studies.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Société de Physique. Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur.Bibliography1929, Analyse dilatométrique des matériaux, with a preface be C.E.Guillaume, Paris: Dunod (still regarded as the definitive work on this subject).The Dictionary of Scientific Biography lists around thirty of his more important publications between 1914 and 1943.Further Reading"Chevenard, a great French metallurgist", 1960, Acier Fins (Spec.) 36:92–100.L.Valluz, 1961, "Notice sur les travaux de Pierre Chevenard, 1888–1960", Paris: Institut de France, Académie des Sciences.ASDBiographical history of technology > Chevenard, Pierre Antoine Jean Sylvestre
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17 высшая горная школа
adjgener. école des Mines -
18 горное училище
adjgener. école des Mines -
19 горный институт
adjgener. école des Mines -
20 admettre
vt.1. (accueillir) принима́ть*/приня́ть*;admettre qn. parmi ses amis — приня́ть кого́-л. в число́ свои́х друзе́й; mon fils est admis dans la classe supérieure — мой сын переведён в сле́дующий классadmettre qn. dans un parti — приня́ть кого́-л. в па́ртию;
║ (examens) ∑ принима́ть;il a été admis à l'Ecole des Mines — он был при́нят в Го́рный институ́т; le jury n'a admis que 10 candidats — коми́ссия приняла́ то́лько де́сять кандида́тов, ∑ то́лько де́сять кандида́тов сда́ли экза́меныil est admis au baccalauréat — он сдал экза́мены на сте́пень бакала́вра RF;
2. (laisser entrer) впуска́ть/впусти́ть ◄-'стит►, разреша́ть/разреши́ть войти́; допуска́ть/допусти́ть ◄-'стит►;les chiens ne sont pas admis dans les magasins ∑ — с соба́ками не разреша́ется входи́ть в магази́ны
3. (reconnaître pour vrai, valable) принима́ть, признава́ть ◄-зна́ю, -ёт►/призна́ть [справедли́вым]; допуска́ть, соглаша́ться/согласи́ться (с +);admettre les excuses de qn. — приня́ть чьи-л. извине́ния; admettre certains faits — призна́ть определённые фа́кты; j'admets que j'ai tort — я допуска́ю <признаю́>, что я непра́в; admettons [que]... — допу́стим <предполо́жим>, [что]...; admettons! fais-le — ну <ла́дно>, де́лай; vous admettrez que... — согласи́тесь, что...; il est généralement admis que... — общепри́нято, что... (usage); — общепри́знано, общеизве́стно, что... (connu)j'admets vos raisons — я принима́ю ва́ши до́воды, я соглаша́юсь с ва́шими до́водами;
4. (comporter) допуска́ть;ton qui n'admet pas de réplique — не допуска́ющий возраже́ний тонcette règle n'admet aucune exception — его́ пра́вило не допуска́ет никако́го исключе́ния, у э́того пра́вила нет исключе́ний;
■ pp. et adj.- admis
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