to+have+an+extraction

mean [mi:n]

avare ⇒ 1 (a) méchant ⇒ 1 (b) moyen ⇒ 1 (d) miteux ⇒ 1 (f) milieu ⇒ 2 (a) moyenne ⇒ 2 (b) vouloir dire ⇒ 3 (a), 3 (b), 3 (e) signifier ⇒ 3 (c) compter ⇒ 3 (d) avoir l'intention ⇒ 3 (f) être censé ⇒ 3 (g), 3 (h)

(pt & pp meant [ment])

1 adjective

(a) (miserly) avare, mesquin;

∎ he's mean with his money il est près de ses sous;

∎ they're very mean about pay rises ils accordent les augmentations de salaire au compte-gouttes;

∎ to be mean with one's praise être avare de compliments

(b) (nasty, unkind) méchant;

∎ don't be mean to your sister! ne sois pas méchant avec ta sœur!;

∎ go on, don't be mean! allez, ne sois pas vache!;

∎ he has a mean streak il peut être méchant quand il veut;

∎ to play a mean trick on sb jouer un sale tour à qn;

∎ I feel mean about not inviting her j'ai un peu honte de ne pas l'avoir invitée;

∎ that's mean of her ce n'est pas chic de sa part;

∎ American familiar he gets mean after a few drinks il devient mauvais ou méchant après quelques verres^□ ;

∎ American familiar the sky was a mean shade of gray le ciel était d'une méchante couleur grise^□ ;

∎ American familiar mean weather sale temps m

(c) (inferior)

∎ the meanest intelligence l'esprit m le plus borné;

∎ he's no mean architect/guitarist c'est un architecte/guitariste de talent;

∎ it was no mean feat ce n'était pas un mince exploit

(d) (average) moyen

(e) familiar (excellent) super, génial;

∎ she's a mean chess player elle joue super bien aux échecs, elle touche sa bille aux échecs;

∎ he makes a mean curry il fait super bien le curry;

∎ she plays a mean guitar elle joue super bien de la guitare, elle touche sa bille à la guitare

(f) (shabby) miteux, misérable;

∎ mean slums taudis mpl misérables

(g) literary (of lower rank or class)

∎ of mean birth de basse extraction

(h) American (unwell)

∎ to feel mean ne pas se sentir dans son assiette

2 noun

(a) (middle point) milieu m, moyen terme m;

∎ the golden or happy mean le juste milieu

(b) Mathematics moyenne f

3 transitive verb

(a) (signify → of word, gesture) vouloir dire, signifier; (→ of person) vouloir dire;

∎ what is meant by…? que veut dire…?;

∎ what does this term mean? que signifie ou que veut dire ce terme?;

∎ what do you mean? qu'est-ce que tu veux dire?;

∎ how do you mean? qu'entendez-vous par là?;

∎ what do you mean by that? qu'entendez-vous par là?;

∎ what do you mean by "wrong"? qu'entendez-vous par "faux"?;

∎ what do you mean you don't like the cinema? comment ça, vous n'aimez pas le cinéma?;

∎ do you mean or you mean it's over already? tu veux dire que c'est déjà fini?;

∎ what, take them to court, you mean? tu veux dire les traîner en justice?;

∎ what, me?, I don't know what you mean! qui moi?, je ne vois pas ce que vous voulez dire!;

∎ the name means nothing to me ce nom ne me dit rien;

∎ does the name Heathcliff mean anything to you? est-ce que le nom de Heathcliff vous dit quelque chose?;

∎ that was when the word "friendship" still meant something c'était à l'époque où le mot "amitié" avait encore un sens;

∎ that doesn't mean a thing! ça ne veut (strictement) rien dire!

(b) (giving clarification, speaking sincerely)

∎ when he says early afternoon he really means around four quand il dit en début d'après-midi, il veut dire vers quatre heures;

∎ do you mean it? tu es sérieux?;

∎ do you mean him? c'est de lui que tu parles?;

∎ I didn't mean that ce n'est pas ce que je voulais dire;

∎ you don't mean it! vous voulez rire!, vous plaisantez!;

∎ I mean it je parle sérieusement;

∎ she always says what she means elle dit toujours ce qu'elle pense;

∎ I'll never speak to you again, I mean it or I mean what I say je ne t'adresserai plus jamais la parole, je suis sérieux;

∎ I want to see him now, and I mean now! je veux le voir tout de suite, et quand je dis tout de suite, c'est tout de suite!;

∎ I mean (that is to say) je veux dire;

∎ I was with Barry, I mean Harry j'étais avec Barry, je veux dire Harry;

∎ why diet? I mean, you're not exactly fat pourquoi te mettre au régime? on ne peut pas dire que tu sois grosse;

∎ I know what you mean! (I quite agree) et comment!;

∎ I mean to say… ce que je veux dire c'est…;

∎ do you mean to tell me…? est-ce que tu es en train de me dire que…?

(c) (imply, entail → of event, change) signifier;

∎ this means war/the end of our relationship c'est la guerre/la fin de notre amitié;

∎ this will mean more unemployment ça veut dire ou signifie qu'il y aura une augmentation du chômage;

∎ going to see a film means driving into town pour voir un film, nous sommes obligés de prendre la voiture et d'aller en ville;

∎ it would mean the children having to change school again cela signifierait que les enfants devraient changer d'école une fois de plus;

∎ does that mean we shouldn't wait for him? est-ce que cela veut dire ou signifie que nous ne devrions pas l'attendre?;

∎ just because you've been to university doesn't mean you know everything ce n'est pas parce que tu es allé à l'université que tu sais tout;

∎ it doesn't mean we have to stop seeing each other ça ne veut pas dire que nous devons cesser de nous voir;

∎ she's never known what it means to be loved elle n'a jamais su ce que c'est que d'être aimée

(d) (matter, be of value) compter;

∎ this watch means a lot to me je suis très attaché à cette montre;

∎ your friendship means a lot to her votre amitié compte beaucoup pour elle;

∎ doesn't your daughter's education mean anything to you? est-ce que l'éducation de ta fille ne t'intéresse pas?;

∎ you mean everything to me tu es tout pour moi;

∎ he means nothing to me il n'est rien pour moi;

∎ I can't tell you what this means to me je ne peux pas te dire ce que ça représente pour moi;

∎ $20 means a lot to me 20 dollars, c'est une grosse somme ou c'est beaucoup d'argent pour moi;

∎ my Sundays mean a lot to me le dimanche est sacré pour moi;

∎ my independence means a lot to me mon indépendance est sacrée pour moi

(e) (refer to)

∎ do you mean us? tu veux dire nous?;

∎ it was you she meant when she said that c'était à vous qu'elle pensait ou qu'elle faisait allusion quand elle a dit ça

(f) (intend)

∎ to mean to do sth avoir (bien) l'intention de faire qch, (bien) compter faire qch, vouloir faire qch;

∎ what do you mean to do? que comptez-vous faire?, qu'est-ce que vous avez l'intention de faire?;

∎ we mean to win nous avons (bien) l'intention de gagner, nous comptons (bien) gagner;

∎ formal I mean to be obeyed j'entends qu'on m'obéisse;

∎ formal I mean to see justice done je veux que justice soit faite;

∎ I meant to tell you about it j'avais l'intention de t'en parler;

∎ I meant to phone you last night je voulais ou j'avais l'intention de vous téléphoner hier soir;

∎ I never meant to go je n'ai jamais eu l'intention d'y aller;

∎ I didn't mean to hurt you je ne voulais pas te faire de mal;

∎ I only meant to help je voulais seulement me rendre utile;

∎ I mean to see him now - and I mean now! j'ai l'intention de le voir tout de suite, et quand je dis tout de suite, c'est tout de suite!;

∎ I didn't mean it! (action) je ne l'ai pas fait exprès!; (words) je n'étais pas sérieux!;

∎ you annoyed him when you said that - I meant to! il n'a pas apprécié que tu dises ça - c'était bien mon intention!;

∎ without meaning to involontairement;

∎ I mean him no harm je ne lui veux pas de mal;

∎ I meant it as a joke c'était une plaisanterie;

∎ it was meant as a compliment/an insult c'était censé être un compliment/une insulte;

∎ that remark was meant for you cette remarque s'adressait à vous;

∎ that remark wasn't meant to be overheard cette remarque n'était pas censée être entendue;

∎ the present was meant for your brother le cadeau était destiné à ton frère;

∎ they're meant for each other ils sont faits l'un pour l'autre;

∎ what's this switch meant to be for? à quoi est censé servir cet interrupteur?;

∎ it's meant to be a horse c'est censé représenter un cheval;

∎ perhaps I was meant to be a doctor peut-être que j'étais fait pour être médecin;

∎ it was meant to be c'était écrit;

∎ he means well il a de bonnes intentions;

∎ he meant well il croyait bien faire

(g) (consider, believe)

∎ it's meant to be good for arthritis il paraît que c'est bon pour l'arthrite;

∎ this painting is meant to be by Rembrandt ce tableau est censé être un Rembrandt

(h) (suppose)

∎ that box isn't meant to be in here cette boîte n'est pas censée être ici;

∎ this portrait is meant to be of the duke ce portrait est censé représenter le duc;

∎ you're meant to bow when she comes in tu dois faire la révérence quand elle entre;

∎ you weren't meant to open the presents until tomorrow tu n'étais pas censé ouvrir les cadeaux avant demain

►► Mathematics mean absolute deviation écart m moyen absolu;

Mathematics mean deviation écart m moyen;

mean distance distance f moyenne;

mean duration durée f moyenne;

mean price prix m moyen;

Computing mean time between failures moyenne f de temps entre deux pannes

SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

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After Menzies conceived his idea of breaking off coal with machines in 1761, many inventors subsequently followed his proposals through into the practice of underground working. More than one century later, Garforth became one of the principal pioneers of machine-holing combined with the longwall method of working in order to reduce production costs and increase the yield of coal. Having been appointed agent to Pope \& Pearson's Collieries, West Yorkshire, in 1879, of which company he later became Managing Director and Chairman, he gathered a great deal of experience with different methods of cutting coal. The first disc machine was exhibited in London as early as 1851, and ten years later a pick machine was invented. In 1893 he introduced an improved type of deep undercutting machine, his "diamond" disc coal-cutter, driven by compressed air, which also became popular on the European continent.

Besides the considerable economic advantages it created, the use of machinery for mining coal increased the safety of working in hard and thin seams. The improvement of safety in mining technology was always his primary concern, and as a result of his inventions and his many publications he became the leading figure in the British coal mining industry at the beginning of the twentieth century; safety lamps still carry his name. In 1885 he invented a firedamp detector, and following a severe explosion in 1886 he concentrated on coal-dust experiments. From the information he obtained of the effect of stone-dust on a coal-dust explosion he proposed the stone-dust remedy to prevent explosions of coal-dust. As a result of discussions which lasted for decades and after he had been entrusted with the job of conducting the British coal-dust experiments, in 1921 an Act made it compulsory in all mines which were not naturally wet throughout to treat all roads with incombustible dust so as to ensure that the dust always consisted of a mixture containing not more than 50 per cent combustible matter. In 1901 Garforth erected a surface gallery which represented the damaged roadways of a mine and could be filled with noxious fumes to test self-contained breathing apparata. This gallery formed the model from which all the rescue-stations existing nowadays have been developed.

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SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Educated at Truro Grammar School, he then studied under Dr Avery at Wadebridge to become a doctor of medicine. He settled as a surgeon in Wadebridge, spending his leisure time in building an organ and in the study of chemistry and mechanical science. He married Elizabeth Symons in 1814, and in 1820 moved with his wife to London. He delivered a course of lectures at the Surrey Institution on the elements of chemical science, attended by, amongst others, the young Michael Faraday. While there, Gurney made his first invention, the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. For this he received the Gold Medal of the Society of Arts. He experimented with lime and magnesia for the production of an illuminant for lighthouses with some success. He invented a musical instrument of glasses played like a piano.

In 1823 he started experiments related to steam and locomotion which necessitated taking a partner in to his medical practice, from which he resigned shortly after. His objective was to produce a steam-driven vehicle to run on common roads. His invention of the steam-jet of blast greatly improved the performance of the steam engine. In 1827 he took his steam carriage to Cyfarthfa at the request of Mr Crawshaw, and while there applied his steam-jet to the blast furnaces, greatly improving their performance in the manufacture of iron. Much of the success of George Stephenson's steam engine, the Rocket was due to Gurney's steam blast.

In July 1829 Gurney made a historic trip with his road locomotive. This was from London to Bath and back, which was accomplished at a speed of 18 mph (29 km/h) and was made at the instigation of the Quartermaster-General of the Army. So successful was the carriage that Sir Charles Dance started to run a regular service with it between Gloucester and Cheltenham. This ran for three months without accident, until Parliament introduced prohibitive taxation on all self-propelled vehicles. A House of Commons committee proposed that these should be abolished as inhibiting progress, but this was not done. Sir Goldsworthy petitioned Parliament on the harm being done to him, but nothing was done and the coming of the railways put the matter beyond consideration. He devoted his time to finding other uses for the steam-jet: it was used for extinguishing fires in coal-mines, some of which had been burning for many years; he developed a stove for the production of gas from oil and other fatty substances, intended for lighthouses; he was responsible for the heating and the lighting of both the old and the new Houses of Parliament. His evidence after a colliery explosion resulted in an Act of Parliament requiring all mines to have two shafts. He was knighted in 1863, the same year that he suffered a stroke which incapacitated him. He retired to his house at Reeds, near Bude, where he was looked after by his daughter, Anna.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Mining and extraction technology, Railways and locomotives

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The Wylam wagonway passed Newburn, and Hedley, who went to school at Wylam, must have been familiar with this wagonway from childhood. It had been built c.1748 to carry coal from Wylam Colliery to the navigable limit of the Tyne at Lemington. In 1805 Hedley was appointed viewer, or manager, of Wylam Colliery by Christopher Blackett, who had inherited the colliery and wagonway in 1800. Unlike most Tyneside wagonways, the gradient of the Wylam line was insufficient for loaded wagons to run down by gravity and they had to be hauled by horses. Blackett had a locomotive, of the type designed by Richard Trevithick, built at Gateshead as early as 1804 but did not take delivery, probably because his wooden track was not strong enough. In 1808 Blackett and Hedley relaid the wagonway with plate rails of the type promoted by Benjamin Outram, and in 1812, following successful introduction of locomotives at Middleton by John Blenkinsop, Blackett asked Hedley to investigate the feasibility of locomotives at Wylam. The expense of re-laying with rack rails was unwelcome, and Hedley experimented to find out the relationship between the weight of a locomotive and the load it could move relying on its adhesion weight alone. He used first a model test carriage, which survives at the Science Museum, London, and then used a full-sized test carriage laden with weights in varying quantities and propelled by men turning handles. Having apparently satisfied himself on this point, he had a locomotive incorporating the frames and wheels of the test carriage built. The work was done at Wylam by Thomas Waters, who was familiar with the 1804 locomotive, Timothy Hackworth, foreman smith, and Jonathan Forster, enginewright. This locomotive, with cast-iron boiler and single cylinder, was unsatisfactory: Hackworth and Forster then built another locomotive to Hedley's design, with a wrought-iron return-tube boiler, two vertical external cylinders and drive via overhead beams through pinions to the two axles. This locomotive probably came into use in the spring of 1814: it performed well and further examples of the type were built. Their axle loading, however, was too great for the track and from about 1815 each locomotive was mounted on two four-wheeled bogies, the bogie having recently been invented by William Chapman. Hedley eventually left Wylam in 1827 to devote himself to other colliery interests. He supported the construction of the Clarence Railway, opened in 1833, and sent his coal over it in trains hauled by his own locomotives. Two of his Wylam locomotives survive— Puffing Billy at the Science Museum, London, and Wylam Dilly at the Royal Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh—though how much of these is original and how much dates from the period 1827–32, when the Wylam line was re-laid with edge rails and the locomotives reverted to four wheels (with flanges), is a matter of mild controversy.

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See also: Stephenson, George

SUBJECT AREA: Horology, Mining and extraction technology

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By about 1843, Leschot, who was renowned for designing machines to produce parts of clocks on an industrialized scale, had gathered that the fine, deep lines he found on an Egyptian red porphyry plate must have been cut by diamonds. He thus resurrected a technology that had been largely forgotten over the centuries, when in 1862 his son, who was engaged in constructing a railway line in Italy, was confronted with the problems of tunnelling through hard rock. In Paris he developed a drilling machine consisting of a casing that rotated in a similar way to the American rope drilling method. The crown of the machine was mounted with eight black diamonds, and inside the casing a stream of water circulated continuously to flush out the mud.

He took out his first patent in France in 1862, and followed it with further ones in many European countries and in America. He continued to concentrate on his watchmaker's profession and left the rights to his patents to his son. It was Leschot's ingenious idea of utilizing diamonds for drilling hard rock that was later applied in different mining processes. It influenced a series of further developments in many countries, including those of Alfred Brandt and Major Beaumont in England. In particular, the fact that the hollow casing produced a complete core was of importance for the increasing amount of petroleum prospecting in Pennsylvania after Edwin Laurentine Drake's find of 1859, where M.C.Bullock sunk the first deep well (200 m) in the world by diamond drilling in 1870. The efforts of Per Anton Crælius in Sweden made diamond drilling a success worldwide.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology

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The son of a mining officer, Oeynhausen started his career in the Prussian administration of the mining industry in 1816, immediately after he had finished his studies in natural sciences and mathematics at the University of Göttingen. From 1847 until his retirement he was a most effective head of state mines inspectorates, first in Silesia (Breslau; now Wroclaw, Poland), later in Westphalia (Dortmund). During his working life he served in all the important mining districts of Prussia, and travelled to mining areas in other parts of Germany, Belgium, France and Britain. In the 1820s, after visiting Glenck's well-known saltworks near Wimpfen, he was commissioned to search for salt deposits in Prussian territory, where he discovered the thermal springs south of Minden which later became the renowned spa carrying his name.

With deeper drills, the increased weight of the rods made it difficult to disengage the drill on each stroke and made the apparatus self-destructive on impact of the drill. Oeynhausen, from 1834, used fish joints, flexible connections between the drill and the rods. Not only did they prevent destructive impact, but they also gave a jerk on the return stroke that facilitated disengagements. He never claimed to have invented the fish joints: in fact, they appeared almost simultaneously in Europe and in America at that time, and had been used since at least the seventeenth century in China, although they were unknown in the Western hemisphere.

Using fish joints meant the start of a new era in deep-drilling, allowing much deeper wells to be sunk than before. Five weeks after Oeynhausen, K.G. Kind operated with a different kind of fish joint, and in 1845 another Prussian mining officer, Karl Leopold Fabian (1782–1855), Director of the salt inspectorate at Schönebeck, Elbe, improved the fish joints by developing a special device between the rod and the drill to enable the chisel, strengthened by a sinker bar, to fall onto the bottom of the hole without hindrance with a higher effect. The free-fall system became another factor in the outstanding results of deep-drilling in Prussia in the nineteenth century.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mining and extraction technology, Ports and shipping

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Williams was articled by his father, Owen Williams of Treffos in Anglesey, to the prominent Flintshire lawyer John Lloyd, whose daughter Catherine he is believed to have married. By 1769 Williams, lessee of the mansion and estate of Llanidan, was an able lawyer with excellent connections in Anglesey. His life changed dramatically when he agreed to act on behalf of the Lewis and Hughes families of Llysdulas, who had begun a lawsuit against Sir Nicholas Bayly of Plas Newydd concerning the ownership and mineral rights of copper mines on the western side of Parys mountain. During a prolonged period of litigation, Williams managed these mines for Margaret Lewis on behalf of Edward Hughes, who was established after a judgement in Chancery in 1776 as one of two legal proprietors, the other being Nicholas Bayly. The latter then decided to lease his portion to the London banker John Dawes, who in 1778 joined Hughes and Thomas Williams when they founded the Parys Mine Company.

As the active partner in this enterprise, Williams began to establish his own smelting and fabricating works in South Wales, Lancashire and Flintshire, where coal was cheap. He soon broke the power of Associated Smelters, a combine holding the Anglesey mine owners to ransom. The low production cost of Anglesey ore gave him a great advantage over the Cornish mines and he secured very profitable contracts for the copper sheathing of naval and other vessels. After several British and French copper-bottomed ships were lost because of corrosion failure of the iron nails and bolts used to secure the sheathing, Williams introduced a process for manufacturing heavily work-hardened copper bolts and spikes which could be substituted directly for iron fixings, avoiding the corrosion difficulty. His new product was adopted by the Admiralty in 1784 and was soon used extensively in British and European dockyards.

In 1785 Williams entered into partnership with Lord Uxbridge, son and heir of Nicholas Bayly, to run the Mona Mine Company at the Eastern end of Parys Mountain. This move ended much enmity and litigation and put Williams in effective control of all Anglesey copper. In the same year, Williams, with Matthew Boulton and John Wilkinson, persuaded the Cornish miners to establish a trade cooperative, the Cornish Metal Company, to market their ores. When this began to fall in 1787, Williams took over its administration, assets and stocks and until 1792 controlled the output and sale of all British copper. He became known as the "Copper King" and the output of his many producers was sold by the Copper Offices he established in London, Liverpool and Birmingham. In 1790 he became Member of Parliament for the borough of Great Marlow, and in 1792 he and Edward Hughes established the Chester and North Wales Bank, which in 1900 was absorbed by the Lloyds group.

After 1792 the output of the Anglesey mines started to decline and Williams began to buy copper from all available sources. The price of copper rose and he was accused of abusing his monopoly. By this time, however, his health had begun to deteriorate and he retreated to Bath.

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