to+further+one's+education

² = occupational, professional, vocational, workmanlike.

Ex. The United States Labor Department has diligently worked on removing both age and sex reference from their official occupational titles in accordance with federal law and executive directives.

Ex. Superior cataloguing may result, since more consistency and closer adherence to standard codes are likely to emerge with cataloguers who spend all of their time cataloguing, than with a librarian who tackles cataloguing as one of various professional tasks.

Ex. Large numbers of students are choosing short vocational courses today.

Ex. If the book fulfils a useful function for the students of this subject at the appropriate level then the author should congratulate himself on having done a useful workmanlike job.

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* afiliación profesional = professional membership, professional affiliation.

* asesoramiento profesional = career(s) advice.

* asesor de salidas profesionales = career(s) adviser.

* asociación profesional = guild [gild].

* carrera profesional = professional career.

* código de ética profesional = professional code of ethics.

* compartir la experiencia profesional = pool + expertise.

* con experiencia profesional = professionally-qualified.

* consejero sobre salidas profesionales = career counsellor.

* contactos profesionales = networking, professional networking.

* con titulación profesional = professionally educated.

* con una orientación profesional = career-focused.

* crear un fondo común de experiencias profesionales = pool + expertise.

* cultura profesional = professional culture.

* de forma poco profesional = unprofessionally.

* de manera poco profesional = unprofessionally.

* desarrollo profesional del personal = staff development.

* ejército profesional = professional army.

* ejército profesional, el = regular army, the.

* enfermedad profesional = occupational disease.

* establecer contactos profesionales = networking.

* experiencia profesional = career experience, expertise, staff expertise, professional skills, professional experience.

* experiencia profesional común = pool of expertise.

* falta de ética científica profesional = scientific misconduct.

* falta de ética profesional = unethical behaviour, unethical conduct, malpractice.

* falta de ética profesional de género = sexual misconduct.

* falta de ética profesional sexual = sexual misconduct.

* formación profesional = vocational training, further education.

* futuro profesional = professional future.

* herramienta profesional = specialist tool, professional tool.

* Junta Profesional de la IFLA = IFLA's Professional Board.

* negligencia profesional = malpractice.

* no profesional = non-professional [nonprofessional].

* pérdida de las técnicas profesionales = de-skilling.

* perfil profesional = career profile.

* poco profesional = amateurish, unprofessional.

* producto profesional = specialist product.

* promoción profesional = career movement.

* salidas profesionales = employability, job opportunities.

* satisfacción profesional = professional satisfaction, job satisfaction, work satisfaction.

* solidaridad profesional = professional solidarity.

* titulación profesional = professional qualification.

* título profesional = professional qualification.

* trayectoria profesional como bibliotecario = library career.

* vida profesional = professional life.

* visita a centros profesionales = study tour.

professional.

1 professional, career man, pro.

2 career woman.

* * *

► adjetivo

1 (gen) professional

■ es futbolista profesional he's a professional footballer

► nombre masulino o femenino

1 professional

■ en este barrio viven mayormente profesionales mostly professional people live in this neighbourhood

■ trabaja el cuero de maravilla, es todo un profesional he does wonders with leather, he's a real professional

■ los profesionales de la enseñanza están en huelga the teachers are on strike

* * *

* * *

ADJ professional

SMF professional

* * *

adjetivo <fotógrafo/deportista> professional

masculino y femenino

a) ( no aficionado) professional

b) ( de las profesiones liberales) professional

* * *

adjetivo <fotógrafo/deportista> professional

masculino y femenino

a) ( no aficionado) professional

b) ( de las profesiones liberales) professional

* * *

profesional¹

¹ = practitioner, professional, pro.

Nota: Abreviatura de professional.

profesional²

² = occupational, professional, vocational, workmanlike.

* * *

‹fotógrafo/jugador› professional

influye en su vida profesional it is affecting her work o her professional life

1 (no amateur) professional

un gran profesional a true professional

un profesional del crimen a professional criminal

2 (de las profesiones liberales) professional

* * *

* * *

♦ adj

1. [de la profesión] professional

2. [eficaz] professional;

es un albañil muy profesional he's a very professional bricklayer

3. [deportista] professional

♦ nmf

1. [trabajador liberal] professional

2. [deportista] professional

3. [practicante de actividad] professional;

un profesional del crimen a professional criminal;

un profesional del pesimismo a professional pessimist

* * *

I adj professional

II m/f professional

* * *

profesional adj & nmf

: professional

♦ profesionalmente adv

* * *

profesional adj n professional

1) (of light etc.) Reflexion, die; (by surface of water etc.) Spiegelung, die

2) (reflected light, heat, or colour) Reflexion, die; (image, lit. or fig.) Spiegelbild, das

3) (meditation, consideration) Nachdenken, das ( upon über + Akk.)

4) (remark) Reflexion, die (geh.), Betrachtung, die (on über + Akk.)

* * *

noun She looked at her reflection in the water; After reflection I felt I had made the wrong decision; The book is called `Reflections of a Politician'.) das Spiegelbild, die Überlegung

* * *

1. (reflecting) Reflexion f

heat/light \reflection Hitze-/Lichtreflexion f

sound \reflection Hall m

sound \reflection effect Halleffekt m

2. (mirror image) Spiegelbild nt

3. ( fig: sign) Ausdruck m

his unhappiness is a \reflection of... seine Unzufriedenheit ist ein Zeichen für...

\reflection of a lack of breeding/education Zeichen nt für mangelnde Erziehung/Bildung

to be a fair [or accurate] \reflection of sth etw richtig widerspiegeln [o wiedergeben

4. no pl (consideration) Betrachtung f, Überlegung f (on/about über + akk)

on [or after] \reflection nach reiflicher Überlegung

5. (thought, comment) Betrachtung f

\reflections on [or about] life Betrachtungen pl über das Leben

6. (discredit)

▪ to be a \reflection on sb/sth ein Licht auf jdn/etw werfen

to cast a \reflection upon sb's abilities jds Fähigkeiten infrage stellen

it's no \reflection on your character [or personality] es geht nicht gegen Sie persönlich

* * *

1) no pl (= reflecting) Reflexion f; (by surface of lake, mirror) Spiegelung f; (fig) Widerspiegelung f

2) (= image) Spiegelbild nt, Reflexion f; (fig) Widerspiegelung f

3) no pl (= consideration) Überlegung f; (= contemplation) Reflexion f, Betrachtung f

4)

5)

6) (ANAT) Zurückbiegung f

* * *

reflection [rıˈflekʃn] s

1. PHYS Reflexion f, Reflektierung f, Zurückwerfung f, -strahlung f

2. (Wider)Spiegelung f (auch fig), Reflex m, Widerschein m:

a faint reflection of fig ein schwacher Abglanz (gen);

the result is no real reflection of his superiority SPORT das Ergebnis gibt seine Überlegenheit nicht richtig wieder

3. Spiegelbild n

4. fig Auswirkung f, Einfluss m

5. Überlegung f, Erwägung f:

a) nach einigem Nachdenken,

b) wenn ich (etc) es mir recht überlege;

cause reflection nachdenklich stimmen

6. Reflexion f:

a) Betrachtung f

b) (tiefer) Gedanke oder Ausspruch:

reflections on love Reflexionen oder Betrachtungen oder Gedanken über die Liebe

7. abfällige Bemerkung (on über akk)

8. Anwurf m, Anschuldigung f:

cast reflections (up)on in ein schlechtes Licht setzen;

be a reflection on sth ein schlechtes Licht auf eine Sache werfen

9. besonders ANAT, ZOOL

a) Zurückbiegung f

b) zurückgebogener Teil

10. PHYSIOL Reflex m

* * *

1) (of light etc.) Reflexion, die; (by surface of water etc.) Spiegelung, die

2) (reflected light, heat, or colour) Reflexion, die; (image, lit. or fig.) Spiegelbild, das

3) (meditation, consideration) Nachdenken, das ( upon über + Akk.)

4) (remark) Reflexion, die (geh.), Betrachtung, die (on über + Akk.)

* * *

Besinnung f.

Reflektion f.

Reflexion f.

Spiegelbild n.

Zurückstrahlen n.

1) determine smth. determine a man's character (smb.'s career, smb.'s future, one's course of action, smb.'s examination mark, etc.) определять характер человека и т. д., demand determines supply спрос определяет предложение; quality determines price цены определяются качеством /зависят от качества/

2) determine smth. determine the time (the position of a star, the meaning of a word, etc.) определять /устанавливать/ время и т. д.; they had to determine the exact height of the hill им нужно было точно выяснить /вычислить/ высоту холма; how can we determine the value (the price) of this book? как нам определить /установить/ ценность (цену) этой книги?

3) determine smth. determine a case (the rights and wrongs of the case, the problem, etc.) решать [судебное] дело и т. д., выносить решение по какому-л. делу или вопросу и т. д.

4) determine smb. these facts (the news, his letters, reflections, etc.) determined me эти факты и т. д. утвердили /укрепили/ меня в моем решении

1) be determined at some time his fate has not yet been determined его судьба еще не решена; be determined by smth. be determined by events (by circumstances, by the amount, etc.) зависеть от событий и т. д., быть обусловленным событиями и т. д.', his behaviour was largely (often, finally, certainly, etc.) determined by the situation на его поведение главным образом и т. д. повлияла ситуация; her answer was determined by her mood причиной такого ответа было ее настроение

2) be determined how is the speed of light (the size of the house, the height of the tree, etc.) determined? как вычисляют скорость света и т. д.?

1) мера; мероприятие

- measures to enhance stability

- measure to safeguard against circumvention

- scope and character of measures

- measures derogating from one's obligations

- legal and administrative measures for protecting environmental quality

- adoption of measures

- adopt measures against smth.

- direct measures against smth.

- take measures against smth.

- carry out measures

- implement measures

- necessitate measures

- take appropriate measures

- water down proposed measures

2) мера; показатель; мерило; критерий

•

- punitive measures

- interim measures

- non-nuclear disarmament measures

- enforcement measures

- coercive measures

- non-armament measures

- further measures

- agreed measures

- measure of economic welfare

- arms control measures

- mandatory measures

- comprehensive measures

- measure of income

- provisional measures

- non-circumvention measures

- limited interim measures

- associated measures

- legal measures

- apply harmful measures

- proper measures

- enforcement and preventive measures

- initial measures

- discriminatory measures between states

- discriminatory measures

- precautionary measures

- policy measures

- fiscal measures

- effective measures

- measure of performance of economy

- implementation of disarmament measures

- collective measures

- stringent measures

- balanced set of partial disarmament measures

- measures of enforcement

- take security measures

- remedial measures

- macroeconomic measures

- accident measures

- measures of rehabilitation

- preventive measures

- package of disarmament measures

- administrative measures

- measure of agreement

- forbid discriminatory measures between states

- intervention measure

- verification measures

- disarmament measures

- repressive measures

- stabilizing measures

- collateral measures

- multilateral integration measures

- restrictive measures

- meaningful measures

- corollary measures

- forward-looking measures

- publicity and education measures

- suitable verification measures

- deliberate concealment measures

- conciliatory measures

- anti-inflationary measures

- half-baked measures

- compulsory measures

- illegal measures

- measures of business cycle

- measures of compulsion

- carry out disarmament measures

- specific measures

- measure of consumption

- vigorous measures

- harmful measures

- ancillary measures

- partial measures

- high priority measures

- control measures

- international co-operative measures

- extreme measures

- measure of concentration

- retaliatory measures

- real measures

- procedural measures

- multilateral arms control measures

- preparatory measures for war

- confidence-building measures

- reflationary measure

- cooperative measures

- severe measures

- safety measures

- protective measures

- general promotion measures

- drastic measures

- safeguard measures

- take measures of prevention

- extraordinary measures

- economic measures

- take coercive measures

- temporary measures

- measure of efficiency

- adjustment measures

- measures of rationality

- anti-monopoly measures

- partial disarmament measures

- rash measures

- government measures

- joint measures

- measure of productivity

- short-term measures

- emergency measures

- preparatory measures

- security measures

- economic policy measures

1. to understand; 2. to see; 3. to realize; 4. to occur; 5. to dawn on/upon; 6. to become aware that; 7. to strike; 8. to hit; 9. to sink in; 10. to wake up to the fact that; 11. to click

Русский глагол понимать не указывает на то, каким образом было достигнуто понимание. В отличие от него английские эквиваленты, сохраняя общее значение, подчеркивают, каким образом что-либо было понято.

1. to understand — понимать, осмыслять (в тех случаях, когда для получения знания требуются некоторые интеллектуальные усилия): I don't quite understand what you mean. — Я не совсем понимаю, что вы имеете в виду. If you don't understand the rule, I'm willing to explain it to you again. — Если ты это правило не понимаешь, я охотно обменю тебе его еще раз. I couldn't understand his reasons. — Причины, двигающие им, мне были непонятны. Не doesn't speak English well, but he can make himself understood. — Он плохо говорит по-английски, но его понимают. I've heard of your failure and I can quite understand how you feel and what it means for you. — Я слышал о твоем провале и хорошо понимаю, что ты чувствуешь и что это значит для тебя.

2. to see— понимать, сознавать: to see a joke (the meaning, a point in discussion) — понимать шутку (смысл, суть спора) You needn't repeat it, I see what you mean. — He повторяйтесь, я понимаю, что вы имеете в виду/ Не повторяйтесь, мне ясно, что вы имеете в виду./Я понимаю, что ты хочешь сказать, не повторяй. I see the situation in a different light. — Я понимаю происходящее иначе./Я вижу ситуацию в ином свете. I don't quite see what it has to do with me. — Я не совсем понимаю, какое это имеет отношение ко мне. Не can't see a joke. — Он не понимает шуток./У него нет чувства юмора. I see what you are driving at. — Я понимаю, к чему вы клоните.

3. to realize — ясно понимать, представлять себе, осознавать ( заметить и понять что-либо ранее не замеченное или не понятое): to realize the difficulties — представлять себе все трудности/понимать все трудности; to realize one's error — осознавать свою ошибку I realize how it was done. — Я представляю себе, как это было сделано./Я понимаю, как это было сделано. I suddenly realized that the pumping noise was the sound of my own heart. — Я вдруг осознал, что шум, который я слышал, был биением моего собственного сердца. It wasn't until she was fifty miles along the road that Sheila realized that she had lost her way. — Только проехав пятьдесят миль по дороге, Шейла поняла, что она заблудилась. «Is there a problem between you two?» said Jane not realizing how right she was. — «Что, у вас проблема?» — спросила Джейн, не осознавая, насколько была права. Only Erik realized the seriousness of Tom's illness. — Серьезность болезни Тома понимал только Эрик. We wandered without realizing it, to the red light area. — Мы забрели в запретную зону, не отдавая себе отчета в этом. Не didn't seem to realize that he would soon leave home for ever. — Он Казалось до конца не понимал, что уезжает из дома навсегда./Он видимо до конца не понимал, что покидает дом навсегда.

4. to occur — приходить на ум, приходить в голову, доходить: It suddenly occured to me (hat maybe she was right. — Мне вдруг пришло в голову, что возможно она и нрава. It never occured to him that people could deliberality do harm to others purely out of malice. — Он и подумать не мог, что некоторые люди могли намеренно вредить другим просто из зловредности. Strangely enough, the most obvious explanation didn't occur to Jack until the next day. — Очень странно, но только на следующий день до Джека дошло, что он не подумал о самом простом объяснении.

5. to dawn on/upon — понимать, осенять, осознавать (то, что должно было бы быть им понято ранее): It dawned on me that it was true. — Меня вдруг осенило, что это правда. /Мне вдруг пришло в голову, что это правда. Eventually it dawned on me that we were walking in completely the wrong direction. — В конце концов я начал понимать, что мы шли не по той дороге/в неправильном направлении./В конце концов до меня стало доходить, что мы шли по совершенно иной дороге/в неправильном направлении. It began to dawn on him that the task might not be so light as they had thought. — До него начало доходить, что задача была совсем не такой простой, как им казалась./Он начал осознавать, что задача была совсем не такой простой, как им казалась. The truth dawned on me a few days later. — Только несколько'дней спустя я понял всю правду.

8. to hit — вдруг прийти в голову, дойти, доходить (быть шокированным тем, что неожиданно человек понимает истинный смысл чеголибо, того, как это важно): I watched the stranger walked past and it hit me that I knew the fellow. — Я видел, как незнакомец прошел мимо, и меня вдруг осенило, что я знаю этого парня. Suddenly it hit me, he was trying to ask me to marry him. — Я вдруг поняла, что он так пытался сделать мне предложение./Я вдруг поняла, что он таким образом пытался сделать мне предложение. The full impact of what he had said hit me a few hours later. — Смысл его слов Я поняла полностью только через несколько часов./Смысл его слов дошел до меня полностью только через несколько часов.

9. to sink in — понимать медленно, понимать полностью, внять чему-либо, медленно доходить до сознания ( постепенно начать понимать полный смысл чего-либо): I know I've lost champion's title, but it just hasn't sunk in yet! — Я знаю, что потерял звание чемпиона, но я еще этого до конца не прочувствовал./Я знаю, что потерял звание чемпиона, но я еше этою до конца не попил. The foolishness of what I had done was beginning io sink in. — Глупость того, что я сделал, постепенно начала доходить до моего сознания. She paused to let the full irony of her words sink in. — Она сделала паузу, дав время, чтобы ирония того, что она сказала, была полностью понята.

10. to wake up to the fact that — вполне осознавать, что; полностью осознавать, что; очнуться (начинать полностью понимать что-либо, особенно, если вы стараетесь об этом не думать, потому что это неприятно): How long will it be before people wake up to the fact that anyone can catch that illness. — Сколько надо времени, чтобы улюдей открылись глаза на то, что любой может подхватить эту болезнь./Сколько надо времени, чтобы люди наконец поняли, что любой может подхватить эту болезнь./ Сколько надо времени, чтобы люди наконец осознали, что любой может подхватить эту болезнь. The speaker warned that we must wake up to the fact that we are in a tough competitive market. — Оратор сказал, что мы должны наконец понять, что живем в условиях жесткой рыночной конкуренции.

11. to click — вдруг понимать (как правило, в безличной конструкции с it): Then it clicked, the man at the station must have been her brother! — И тогда меня осенило, что мужчина, который был на вокзале, должно быть ее брат./И тогда до меня вдруг дошло, что мужчина, который был на вокзале, должно быть ее брат. I found the whole affair quite baffling but then suddenly it clicked. — Мне вначале вся эта история казалась очень странной, но вдруг меня осенило, и вес стало ясно.

SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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Barlow had little formal academic education, but by his own efforts rectified this deficiency. His contributions to various periodicals ensured that he became recognized as a man of considerable scientific understanding. In 1801, through competitive examination, he became Assistant Mathematics Master at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and some years later was promoted to Professor. He resigned from this post in 1847, but retained full salary in recognition of his many public services.

He is remembered for several notable achievements, and for some experiments designed to overcome problems such as the deviation of compasses in iron ships. Here, he proposed the use of small iron plates designed to overcome other attractions: these were used by both the British and Russian navies. Optical experiments commenced around 1827 and in later years he carried out tests to optimize the size and shape of many parts used in the railways that were spreading throughout Britain and elsewhere at that time.

In 1814 he published mathematical tables of squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots and reciprocals of all integers from 1 to 10,000. This volume was of great value in ship design and other engineering processes where heavy numerical effort is required; it was reprinted many times, the last being in 1965 when it had been all but superseded by the calculator and the computer. In the preface to the original edition, Barlow wrote, "the only motive which prompted me to engage in this unprofitable task was the utility that I conceived might result from my labour… if I have succeeded in facilitating abstruse arithmetical calculations, then I have obtained the object in view."

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SUBJECT AREA: Canals

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Born in a remote area and with no material advantages, Brindley followed casual rural labouring occupations until 1733, when he became apprenticed to Abraham Bennett of Macclesfield, a wheelwright and millwright. Though lacking basic education in reading and writing, he demonstrated his ability, partly through his photographic memory, to solve practical problems. This established his reputation, and after Bennett's death in 1742 he set up his own business at Leek as a millwright. His skill led to an invitation to solve the problem of mine drainage at Wet Earth Colliery, Clifton, near Manchester. He tunnelled 600 ft (183 m) through rock to provide a leat for driving a water-powered pump.

Following work done on a pump on Earl Gower's estate at Trentham, Brindley's name was suggested as the engineer for the proposed canal for which the Duke of Bridge water (Francis Egerton) had obtained an Act in 1759. The Earl and the Duke were brothers-in-law, and the agents for the two estates were, in turn, the Gilbert brothers. The canal, later known as the Bridgewater Canal, was to be constructed to carry coal from the Duke's mines at Worsley into Manchester. Brindley advised on the details of its construction and recommended that it be carried across the river Irwell at Barton by means of an aqueduct. His proposals were accepted, and under his supervision the canal was constructed on a single level and opened in 1761. Brindley had also surveyed for Earl Gower a canal from the Potteries to Liverpool to carry pottery for export, and the signal success of the Bridgewater Canal ensured that the Trent and Mersey Canal would also be built. These undertakings were the start of Brindley's career as a canal engineer, and it was largely from his concepts that the canal system of the Midlands developed, following the natural contours rather than making cuttings and constructing large embankments. His canals are thus winding navigations unlike the later straight waterways, which were much easier to traverse. He also adopted the 7 ft (2.13 m) wide lock as a ruling dimension for all engineering features. For cheapness, he formed his canal tunnels without a towpath, which led to the notorious practice of legging the boats through the tunnels.

Brindley surveyed a large number of projects and such was his reputation that virtually every proposal was submitted to him for his opinion. Included among these projects were the Staffordshire and Worcestershire, the Rochdale, the Birmingham network, the Droitwich, the Coventry and the Oxford canals. Although he was nominally in charge of each contract, much of the work was carried out by his assistants while he rushed from one undertaking to another to ensure that his orders were being carried out. He was nearly 50 when he married Anne Henshall, whose brother was also a canal engineer. His fees and salaries had made him very wealthy. He died in 1772 from a chill sustained when carrying out a survey of the Caldon Canal.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Although known as Clement in his professional life, his baptism at Asby and his death were registered under the name of Joseph Clemmet. He worked as a slater until the age of 23, but his interest in mechanics led him to spend much of his spare time in the local blacksmith's shop. By studying books on mechanics borrowed from his cousin, a watchmaker, he taught himself and with the aid of the village blacksmith made his own lathe. By 1805 he was able to give up the slating trade and find employment as a mechanic in a small factory at Kirkby Stephen. From there he moved to Carlisle for two years, and then to Glasgow where, while working as a turner, he took lessons in drawing; he had a natural talent and soon became an expert draughtsman. From about 1809 he was employed by Leys, Mason \& Co. of Aberdeen designing and making power looms. For this work he built a screw-cutting lathe and continued his self-education. At the end of 1813, having saved about £100, he made his way to London, where he soon found employment as a mechanic and draughtsman. Within a few months he was engaged by Joseph Bramah, and after a trial period a formal agreement dated 1 April 1814 was made by which Clement was to be Chief Draughtsman and Superintendent of Bramah's Pimlico works for five years. However, Bramah died in December 1814 and after his sons took over the business it was agreed that Clement should leave before the expiry of the five-year period. He soon found employment as Chief Draughtsman with Henry Maudslay \& Co. By 1817 Clement had saved about £500, which enabled him to establish his own business at Prospect Place, Newington Butts, as a mechanical draughtsman and manufacturer of high-class machinery. For this purpose he built lathes for his own use and invented various improvements in their detailed design. In 1827 he designed and built a facing lathe which incorporated an ingenious system of infinitely variable belt gearing. He had also built his own planing machine by 1820 and another, much larger one in 1825. In 1828 Clement began making fluted taps and dies and standardized the screw threads, thus anticipating on a small scale the national standards later established by Sir Joseph Whitworth. Because of his reputation for first-class workmanship, Clement was in the 1820s engaged by Charles Babbage to carry out the construction of his first Difference Engine.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics, Recording, Telecommunications

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He received no formal education, but was brought up by his father, a distinguished teacher and philosopher. He dabbled in diverse subjects (modern and ancient languages, mathematics, drawing) in 1856–60 when he became an instructor at the institute of the Deaf-Mute at Paris. He became a prolific inventor and poet and took part in artistic life in Paris. In the 1867 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Cros contributed a facsimile telegraph; he deposited with the Académie des Sciences a sealed text on photography which was not opened until 1876. In the meantime he published a small text on a general solution of the problem of colour photography which appeared almost simultaneously with a similar publication by Louis Ducos du Hauron and which gave rise to bitter discussions over priority. He deposited a sealed paper on 18 April 1877 concerning his concept of apparatus for recording and reproduction of sound which he called the paléophone. When it was opened on 3 December 1877 it was not known that T.A. Edison was already active in this field: Cros is considered the conceptual founder of reproducible sound, whereas Edison was the first "to reduce to practice", which is one of the US criteria for patentability.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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As a young man Georges Demenÿ was a pioneer of physical education in France, and this led him to contact the physiologist Professor Marey in 1880. Marey had made a special study of animal movement, and Demenÿ hoped to work with him on research into physiological problems related to gymnastics. He joined Marey the following year, and when in 1882 the Physiological Station was set up near Paris to develop sequence photography for the study of movement. Demenÿ was made Head of the laboratory. He worked with the multiple-image fixed-plate cameras, and was chiefly responsible for the analysis of the records, having considerable mathematical and graphical ability. He also appeared as the subject in a number of the sequences. When in 1888 Marey began the development of a film camera, Demenÿ was involved in its design and operation. He became interested in the possibility of using animated sequence photographs as an aid to teaching of the deaf. He made close-up records of himself speaking short phrases, "Je vous aime" and "Vive la France" for example, which were published in such journals as Paris Photographe and La Nature in 1891 and 1892. To present these in motion, he devised the Phonoscope, which he patented on 3 March 1892. The series of photographs were mounted around the circumference of a disc and viewed through a counter-rotating slotted disc. The moving images could be viewed directly, or projected onto a screen. La Nature reported tests he had made in which deaf lip readers could interpret accurately what was being said. On 20 December 1892 Demenÿ formed a company, Société Générale du Phonoscope, to exploit his invention, hoping that "speaking portraits" might replace family-album pictures. This commercial activity led to a rift between Marey and Demenÿ in July 1893. Deprived of access to the film cameras, Demenÿ developed designs of his own, patenting new camera models in France on 10 October 1893 and 27 July 1894. The design covered by the latter had been included in English and German patents filed in December 1893, and was to be of some significance in the early development of cinematography. It was for an intermittent movement of the film, which used an eccentrically mounted blade or roller that, as it rotated, bore on the film, pulling down the length of one frame. As the blade moved away, the film loop so formed was taken up by the rotation of the take-up reel. This "beater" movement was employed extensively in the early years of cinematography, being effective yet inexpensive. It was first employed in the Chronophotographe apparatus marketed by Gaumont, to whom Demenÿ had licensed the patent rights, from the autumn of 1896. Demenÿ's work provided a link between the scientific purposes of sequence photography— chronophotography—and the introduction of commercial cinematography.

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SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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From 1844 until 1962, the Clyde shipyard of William Denny and Brothers, Dumbarton, produced over 1,500 ships, trained innumerable students of all nationalities in shipbuilding and marine engineering, and for the seventy-plus years of their existence were accepted worldwide as the leaders in the application of science to ship design and construction. Until the closure of the yard members of the Denny family were among the partners and later directors of the firm: they included men as distinguished as Dr Peter Denny (1821(?)–95), Sir Archibald Denny (1860–1936) and Sir Maurice Denny (1886– 1955), the main collaborator in the design of the Denny-Brown ship stabilizer.

One of the most influential of this shipbuilding family was William Denny, now referred to as William 3! His early education was at Dumbarton, then on Jersey and finally at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, before he commenced an apprenticeship at his father's shipyard. From the outset he not only showed great aptitude for learning and hard work but also displayed an ability to create good relationships with all he came into contact with. At the early age of 21 he was admitted a partner of the shipbuilding business of William Denny and Brothers, and some years later also of the associated engineering firm of Denny \& Co. His deep-felt interest in what is now known as industrial relations led him in 1871 to set up a piecework system of payment in the shipyard. In this he was helped by the Yard Manager, Richard Ramage, who later was to found the Leith shipyard, which produced the world's most elegant steam yachts. This research was published later as a pamphlet called The Worth of Wages, an unusual and forward-looking action for the 1860s, when Denny maintained that an absentee employer should earn as much contempt and disapproval as an absentee landlord! In 1880 he initiated an awards scheme for all company employees, with grants and awards for inventions and production improvements. William Denny was not slow to impose new methods and to research naval architecture, a special interest being progressive ship trials with a view to predicting effective horsepower. In time this led to his proposal to the partners to build a ship model testing tank beside the Dumbarton shipyard; this scheme was completed in 1883 and was to the third in the world (after the Admiralty tank at Torquay, managed by William Froude and the Royal Netherlands Navy facility at Amsterdam, under B.J. Tideman. In 1876 the Denny Shipyard started work with mild-quality shipbuilding steel on hulls for the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company, and in 1879 the world's first two ships of any size using this weight-saving material were produced: they were the Rotomahana for the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand and the Buenos Ayrean for the Allan Line of Glasgow. On the naval-architecture side he was involved in Denny's proposals for standard cross curves of stability for all ships, which had far-reaching effects and are now accepted worldwide. He served on the committee working on improvements to the Load Line regulations and many other similar public bodies. After a severe bout of typhoid and an almost unacceptable burden of work, he left the United Kingdom for South America in June 1886 to attend to business with La Platense Flotilla Company, an associate company of William Denny and Brothers. In March the following year, while in Buenos Aires, he died by his own hand, a death that caused great and genuine sadness in the West of Scotland and elsewhere.

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SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering

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Henry Dyer was educated at Andersen's College and Glasgow University. He was apprenticed to the Glasgow marine engineer Alexander Kirk, and in 1870 he became an early holder of a Whitworth Scholarship. He was recruited at the age of 24 to establish the Tokyo Engineers' College in 1873. He had been recommended to Matheson, the Scottish businessman who was acting for the Japanese government, by W.J.M. Rankine of Glasgow University, who regarded Dyer as one of his most outstanding students. Dyer secured the services of a team of able young British engineers and scientists to staff the college, which opened in 1873 with 56 students and became the Imperial College of Engineering. Together they gave the first generation of Japanese engineers a firm grounding in engineering theory and practice. Dyer served as Principal and Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. He left Tokyo in 1882 and returned to Britain. The remainder of his career was rather an anticlimax, although he became an active supporter of the technical education movement and was involved in the development of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, of which he was a Life Governor.

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SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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Elgar enjoyed a fascinating professional life, during which he achieved distinction in the military, merchant, academic and political aspects of his profession. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed as a shipwright to the Royal Dockyard at Portsmouth but when he was in his late teens he was selected as one of the Admiralty students to further his education at the Royal School of Naval Architecture at South Kensington, London. On completion of the course he was appointed to Birkenhead, where the ill-fated HMS Captain was being built, and then to Portsmouth Dockyard. In 1870 the Captain was lost at sea and Francis Elgar was called on to prepare much of the evidence for the Court Martial. This began his life-long interest in ship stability and in ways of presenting this information in an easily understood form to ship operators.

In 1883 he accepted the John Elder Chair of Naval Architecture at Glasgow University, an appointment which formalized the already well-established teaching of this branch of engineering at Glasgow. However, after only three years he returned to public service in the newly created post of Director of Royal Dockyards, a post that he held for a mere six years but which brought about great advances in the speed of warship construction, with associated reductions in cost. In 1892 he was made Naval Architect and Director of the Fairfield Shipbuilding Company in Glasgow, remaining there until he retired in 1907. The following year he accepted the post of Chairman of the Birkenhead shipyard of Cammell Laird \& Co.; this was a recent amalgamation of two companies, and he retained this position until his death. Throughout his life, Elgar acted on many consultative bodies and committees, including the 1884 Ship Load Line Enquiry. His work enabled him to keep abreast of all current thinking in ship design and construction.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Sir Alfred Ewing was one of the leading engineering academics of his generation. He was the son of a minister in the Free Church of Scotland, and was educated at Dundee High School and Edinburgh University, where he studied engineering under Professor Fleeming Jenkin. On Jenkin's nomination, Ewing was recruited as Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Tokyo, where he spent five years from 1878 to 1883. While in Tokyo, he devised an instrument for measuring and recording earthquakes. Ewing returned to his home town of Dundee in 1883, as the first Professor of Engineering at the University College recently established there. After seven years building up the department in Dundee, he moved to Cambridge where he succeeded James Stuart as Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics. In thirteen creative years at Cambridge, he established the Engineering Tripos (1892) and founded the first engineering laboratories at the University (1894). From 1903 to 1917 Ewing served the Admiralty as Director of Naval Education, in which role he took a leading part in the revolution in British naval traditions which equipped the Royal Navy to fight the First World War. In that war, Ewing made an important contribution to the intelligence operation of deciphering enemy wireless messages. In 1916 he returned to Edinburgh as Principal and Vice-Chancellor, and following the war he presided over a period of rapid expansion at the University. He retired in 1929.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Isaac Holden's father, who had the same name, had been a farmer and lead miner at Alston in Cumbria before moving to work in a coal-mine near Glasgow. After a short period at Kilbarchan grammar school, the younger Isaac was engaged first as a drawboy to two weavers and then, after the family had moved to Johnstone, Scotland, worked in a cotton-spinning mill while attending night school to improve his education. He was able to learn Latin and bookkeeping, but when he was about 15 he was apprenticed to an uncle as a shawl-weaver. This proved to be too much for his strength so he returned to scholastic studies and became Assistant to an able teacher, John Kennedy, who lectured on physics, chemistry and history, which he also taught to his colleague. The elder Isaac died in 1826 and the younger had to provide for his mother and younger brother, but in 1828, at the age of 21, he moved to a teaching post in Leeds. He filled similar positions in Huddersfield and Reading, where in October 1829 he invented and demonstrated the lucifer match but did not seek to exploit it. In 1830 he returned because of ill health to his mother in Scotland, where he began to teach again. However, he was recommended as a bookkeeper to William Townend, member of the firm of Townend Brothers, Cullingworth, near Bingley, Yorkshire. Holden moved there in November 1830 and was soon involved in running the mill, eventually becoming a partner.

In 1833 Holden urged Messrs Townend to introduce seven wool-combing machines of Collier's designs, but they were found to be very imperfect and brought only trouble and loss. In 1836 Holden began experimenting on the machines until they showed reasonable success. He decided to concentrate entirely on developing the combing machine and in 1846 moved to Bradford to form an alliance with Samuel Lister. A joint patent in 1847 covered improvements to the Collier combing machine. The "square motion" imitated the action of the hand-comber more closely and was patented in 1856. Five more patents followed in 1857 and others from 1858 to 1862. Holden recommended that the machines should be introduced into France, where they would be more valuable for the merino trade. This venture was begun in 1848 in the joint partnership of Lister \& Holden, with equal shares of profits. Holden established a mill at Saint-Denis, first with Donisthorpe machines and then with his own "square motion" type. Other mills were founded at Rheims and at Croix, near Roubaix. In 1858 Lister decided to retire from the French concerns and sold his share to Holden. Soon after this, Holden decided to remodel all their machinery for washing and carding the gill machines as well as perfecting the square comb. Four years of excessive application followed, during which time £20,000 was spent in experiments in a small mill at Bradford. The result fully justified the expenditure and the Alston Works was built in Bradford.

Holden was a Liberal and from 1865 to 1868 he represented Knaresborough in Parliament. Later he became the Member of Parliament for the Northern Division of the Riding, Yorkshire, and then for the town of Keighley after the constituencies had been altered. He was liberal in his support of religious, charitable and political objectives. His house at Oakworth, near Keighley, must have been one of the earliest to have been lit by electricity.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Laithwaite's education at Kirkham Grammar School and Regent Street Polytechnic, London, was followed by service in the Royal Air Force. After entering Manchester University in 1946 and graduating in 1949, he joined the university staff and became Secretary to the Inaugural Conference of the Ferranti Mark I computer. In 1964 he moved to Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, and became Professor of Heavy Electrical Engineering. From 1967 to 1976 he also held the post of External Professor of Applied Electricity at the Royal Institution. Research into the use of linear induction motors as shuttle drives in weaving looms was followed by investigations into their application to conveyors in industrial processes and as high-speed propulsion units for railway vehicles. With considerable involvement in a tracked hovercraft project in the 1960s and 1970s, he proposed the concept of transverse flux and the magnetic river high-speed linear induction machine. Linear motors and electromagnetic levitation have been applied to high-speed propulsion in the United States, France and Japan.

Laithwaite has written five books and over one hundred papers on the subjects of linear motors and electromagnetic levitation. Two series of Christmas lectures were presented by him at the Royal Institution.

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SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

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Lawes's education at Eton and Oxford did little to inform his early taste for chemistry, which he developed largely on his own. By the age of 20 he had fitted up the best bedroom in his house as a fully equipped chemical laboratory. His first interest was in the making of drugs; it was said that he knew the Pharmacopoeia, by heart. He did, however, receive some instruction from Anthony Todd Thomson of University College, London. His father having died in 1822, Lawes entered into possession of the Rothamsted estate when he came of age in 1834. He began experiments with plants with uses as drugs, but following an observation by a neighbouring farmer of the effect of bones on the growth of certain crops Lawes turned to experiments with bones dissolved in sulphuric acid on his turnip crop. The results were so promising that he took out a patent in 1842 for converting mineral and fossil phosphates into a powerful manure by the action of sulphuric acid. The manufacture of these superphosphates became a major industry of tremendous benefit to agriculture. Lawes himself set up a factory at Deptford in 1842 and a larger one in 1857 at Barking Creek, both near London. The profits from these and other chemical manufacturing concerns earned Lawes profits which funded his experimental work at Rothamsted. In 1843, Lawes set up the world's first agricultural experiment station. Later in the same year he was joined by Joseph Henry Gilbert, and together they carried out a considerable number of experiments of great benefit to agriculture, many of the results of which were published in the leading scientific journals of the day, including the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. In all, 132 papers were published, most of them jointly with Gilbert. A main theme of the work on plants was the effect of various chemical fertilizers on the growth of different crops, compared with the effects of farm manure and of no treatment at all. On animal rearing, they studied particularly the economical feeding of animals.

The work at Rothamsted soon brought Lawes into prominence; he joined the Royal Agricultural Society in 1846 and became a member of its governing body two years later, a position he retained for over fifty years. Numerous distinctions followed and Rothamsted became a place of pilgrimage for people from many parts of the world who were concerned with the application of science to agriculture. Rothamsted's jubilee in 1893 was marked by a public commemoration headed by the Prince of Wales.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Mercer began work at the age of 9 as a bobbinwinder and then a hand-loom weaver. He had no formal education in chemistry but taught himself and revealed remarkable ability in both theoretical and applied aspects of the subject. He became the acknowledged "father of textile chemistry" and the Royal Society elected him Fellow in 1850. His name is remembered in connection with the lustrous "mercerized" cotton which, although not developed commercially until 1890, arose from his discovery, c. 1844, of the effect of caustic soda on cotton linters. He also discovered that cotton could be dissolved in a solution of copper oxide in ammonia, a phenomenon later exploited in the manufacture of artificial silk. As a youth, Mercer experimented at home with dyeing processes and soon acquired sufficient skill to set up as an independent dyer. Most of his working life was, however, spent with the calico-printing firm of Oakenshaw Print Works in which he eventually became a partner, and it was there that most of his experimental work was done. The association was a very appropriate one, for it was a member of this firm's staff who first recognized Mercer's potential talent and took the trouble in his spare time to teach him reading, writing and arithmetic. Mercer developed manganese-bronze colours and researched into catalysis and the ferrocyanides. Among his innovations was the chlorination of wool in order to make it print as easily as cotton. It was many years later that it was realized that this treatment also conferred valuable shrink-resisting qualities. Becoming interested in photochemistry, he devised processes for photographic printing on fabric. Queen Victoria was presented with a handkerchief printed in this way when she visited the Great Exhibition of 1851, of which Mercer was a juror. A photograph of Mercer himself on cloth is preserved in the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. He presented papers to the British Association and was a member of the Chemical Society.

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SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping

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Mitchell's early education commenced at Ledingham's Academy, Correction Wynd, Aberdeen, and from there he became a premium apprentice at the Footdee Engineering Works of Wm Simpson \& Co. Despite being employed for around twelve hours each day, Mitchell matriculated at Marischal College (now merged with King's College to form the University of Aberdeen). He did not graduate, although in 1840 he won the chemistry prize. On the completion of his apprenticeship, like Andrew Leslie (founder of Hawthorn Leslie) and other young Aberdonians he moved to Tyneside, where most of his working life was spent. From 1842 until 1844 he worked as a draughtsman for his friend Coutts, who had a shipyard at Low Walker, before moving on to the drawing offices of Maudslay Sons and Field of London, then one of the leading shipbuilding and engineering establishments in the UK. While in London he studied languages, acquiring a skill that was to stand him in good stead in later years. In 1852 he returned to the North East and set up his own iron-ship building yard at Low Walker near Newcastle. Two years later he married Anne Swan, the sister of the two young men who were to found the company now known as Swan Hunter Ltd. The Mitchell yard grew in size and reputation and by the 1850s he was building for the Russian Navy and Merchant Marine as well as advising the Russians on their shipyards in St Petersburg. In 1867 the first informal business arrangement was concluded with Armstrongs for the supply of armaments for ships; this led to increased co-operation and ultimately in 1882 to the merger of the two shipyards as Sir W.G.Armstrong Mitchell \& Co. At the time of the merger, Mitchell had launched 450 ships in twenty-nine years. In 1886 the new company built the SS Gluckauf, the world's first bulk oil tanker. After ill health in 1865 Mitchell reduced his workload and lived for a while in Surbiton, London, but returned to Tyneside to a new house at Jesmond. In his later years he was a generous benefactor to many good causes in Tyneside and Aberdeen, to the Church and to the University of Aberdeen.

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