theme

πόλις, εως, ἡ (Hom.+. Gener. a population center in contrast to a relatively uninhabited or rural area. In the Gr-Rom. world the term gener. implied strong political associations, esp. in the sense ‘city-state’).

① population center of varying size, city, town, lit. Mt 5:14; Lk 10:8, 10. Pl. Mt 11:20; Lk 5:12; 19:17, 19. ἡ πόλις the city or the town designated in the context Mt 8:33; 21:17f; 26:18; Mk 11:19; 14:13, 16; Lk 4:29a; 7:12ab; J 4:8, 28, 30; Ac 8:9; 14:4; Rv 11:13; B 16:5; AcPl Ha 4, 18; 5, 17. Likew. αἱ πόλεις Ac 16:4. ἡ πόλις the city can also be the capital city, the main city (Mayser II/2 p. 28; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 125) Ac 8:5; cp. Mk 5:14 (s. vs. 1); Lk 8:27 (s. vs. 26). ἡ πόλις ἐκείνη Mt 10:14f; Lk 9:5; 10:12; 18:3; J 4:39; Ac 8:8; Hs 9, 12, 5b. ἡ πόλ. αὕτη Mt 10:23a; Ac 4:27; 18:10; 22:3; Hs 1:3. ἔν τινι πόλει in a certain city Lk 18:2; cp. Hs 9, 12, 5a. εἰς τήνδε τὴν πόλιν Js 4:13 (s. ὅδε 2). πᾶσα πόλις Lk 10:1. αἱ πόλεις πᾶσαι Mt 9:35; Ac 8:40; cp. Mk 6:33.—πόλις (πόλεις) beside κώμη (κῶμαι) Mt 9:35; 10:11; Lk 8:1; 13:22. W. κῶμαι and ἀγροί Mk 6:56. ἡ πόλις καὶ οἱ ἀγροί 5:14; Lk 8:34. W. τόπος 10:1. In contrast to the open plain or the desert, where no cities are found Mt 14:13; Mk 1:45; 2 Cor 11:26; to the interior of a building Ac 12:10.—Used w. the gen.: to denote the region in which it is located πόλ. τῆς Γαλιλαίας Lk 1:26; 4:31. πόλ. Ἰούδα (Ἰούδας 1c) 1:39. Cp. J 4:5; Ac 14:6; 21:39; to denote the inhabitants (Diod S 34 and 35 Fgm. 23 ἡ τῶν Γαλατῶν πόλις; Jos., Ant. 1, 200) ἡ πόλ. Δαμασκηνῶν 2 Cor 11:32. π. Σαμαριτῶν Mt 10:5; Lk 9:52 v.l. Cp. 23:51; Ac 19:35; EpilMosq 4; AcPl Ox 6, 20 (=Aa I 242, 1). αἱ πόλεις τοῦ Ἰσραήλ the cities in which the people of Israel live Mt 10:23b (Ἰσραήλ 2).—Rv 16:19b. ἡ πόλ. αὐτῶν Mt 22:7; Lk 4:29b.—2:39. Also w. the gen. sg. πόλ. Δαυίδ city of David 2:4b, 11; ἡ ἑαυτοῦ πολ. the person’s own town (=ancestral locale; but 2:39 Nazareth = their place of residence) 2:3.—J 1:44. Also ἡ ἰδία πόλ. (s. ἴδιος 1b) Mt 9:1; Lk 2:3 v.l.; Hs 1:2b (in imagery, s. 2 below). Pl. 1 Cl 55:1. The πόλεις ἴδιαι of the Christians Dg 5:2 are those inhabited by them alone; they are contrasted w. πόλεις Ἑλληνίδες Greek cities (cp. SIG 761, 15 [48/47 B.C.]; 909, 2), π. βάρβαροι Dg 5:4.—π. μεγάλαι great cities 1 Cl 6:4; AcPl Ha 2, 25f. In Rv ἡ πόλ. ἡ. μεγάλη (Tat. 19, 1; 29, 1 Rome) is almost always ‘Babylon’ (s. Βαβυλών) 16:19a; 17:18; 18:16, 18f, 21; ἡ πόλις ἡ μεγάλη, Βαβυλὼν ἡ πόλις ἡ ἰσχυρά 18:10. On the other hand ἡ πόλ. ἡ μεγάλη 11:8 is clearly Jerusalem (as SibOr 5, 154; 226). Elsewh. Jerus. is called ἡ πόλ. ἡ ἠγαπημένη 20:9 (cp. ApcSed 8:3 πρῶτον ἠγάπησας … εἰς τὰς πόλεις τὴν Ἰερουσαλήμ); ἡ ἁγία πόλ. Mt 4:5; 27:53; Rv 11:2 (ἅγιος 1aα); πόλ. τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως the city of the Great King Mt 5:35 (βασιλεύς 2b). εἰς πόλιν ἄρχουσαν ὀπύσεως in the city that sponsors fornication ApcPt Rainer 4, 1 (Ja. p. 278; s. also ὄπυσις).—The name of the town or city that goes w. πόλις stands either in the epexegetic gen. (Aeschyl. et al.; also Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 1, 8 Jac. πόλιν Σικίμων) πόλεις Σοδόμων καὶ Γομόρρας 2 Pt 2:6 or in the case in which πόλις itself is found, ἐν πόλει Ἰόππῃ Ac 11:5; πόλις Λασαία 27:8. From the construction πόλεως Θυατίρων Ac 16:14 no determination of the nom. of Θυ-can be made: either πόλις Θυατίρων or πόλις Θυάτιρα (B-D-R §167, 3). W. indecl. place names Lk 2:4a, 39. πόλις λεγομένη or καλουμένη w. the name following Mt 2:23; Lk 7:11; 9:10. Cp. J 11:54.—ἀπὸ πόλεως εἰς πόλιν (Aesop, Fab. 228 P./421 H./354 Ch./H-H. 256 μεταβαίνουσιν ἀπὸ πόλεως εἰς πόλιν) Mt 23:34. κατὰ τὴν πόλιν anywhere in the city Ac 24:12. Cp. Lk 8:39 (κατά B1a). κατὰ πόλιν from city to city IRo 9:3; pl. Lk 13:22; in every city (Appian, Bell. Civ. 1. 39 §177) Ac 15:21, 36 (κατὰ πόλιν πᾶσαν); 20:23; Tit 1:5 (Diod S 5, 78, 2 Crete has, indeed, ‘not a few’ cities). Cp. Lk 8:1, 4 (κατά B1d). αἱ ἔξω πόλεις Ac 26:11 (ἔξω 1aβ). αἱ πέριξ πόλεις 5:16 (s. πέριξ). αἱ περὶ αὐτὰς (i.e. Sodom and Gomorrah) πόλεις Jd 7. πρὸ τ. πόλεως (Jos., Bell. 1, 234, Ant. 10, 44) Ac 14:13.

② the (heavenly) city = the New Jerusalem (Bousset, Rel.³ 283ff; RKnopf, GHeinrici Festschr. 14, 213–19; McQueen, Exp. 9th ser., 2, 1924, 220–26; FDijkema, NThT 15, 1926, 25–43) Hb 11:10, 16 (cp. TestJob 18:8; TestAbr A 2 p. 78, 30 [Stone p. 4] ἀπὸ τῆς μεγάλης πόλεως ἔρχομαι [of Michael]). πόλ. θεοῦ ζῶντος 12:22 (SibOr 5, 250 θεοῦ π. of Jerus.). ἡ μέλλουσα (opp. οὐ … μένουσα πόλις) 13:14. Esp. in Rv: ἡ πόλις ἡ ἁγία Ἰερουσαλὴμ (καινή) 21:2, 10 (CBouma, GereformTT 36, ’36, 91–98). Further vss. 14–16, 18f, 21, 23; 22:14, 19; also 3:12. (Cp. Lucian’s description of the wonder-city in Ver. Hist. 2, 11f: ἡ πόλις πᾶσα χρυσῆ, τὸ τεῖχος σμαράγδινον. πύλαι … ἑπτά, πᾶσαι μονόξυλοι κινναμώμιναι … γῆ ἐλεφαντίνη … ναοὶ βηρύλλου λίθου … βωμοὶ … ἀμεθύστινοι … ποταμὸς μύρου τοῦ καλλίστου … οἶκοι ὑάλινοι … οὐδὲ νὺξ οὐδὲ ἡμέρα.) On the topic s. JMorwood, Aeneas, Augustus, and the Theme of the City: Greece and Rome new ser. 38, ’91, 212–23.—Hs 1:1, 2.

③ inhabitants of a city, city abstr. for concrete (X., Cyr. 1, 4, 25; Herodian 3, 2, 7; Jos., Ant. 5, 357) Lk 4:43; Ac 14:21; 16:20 (cp. Jos., Bell. 7, 41; DWhitehead, MusHelv 53/1, ’96, 1–11 [on identification of citizens and place cp. Thu. 2, 2, 1; X., Hell. 2, 2, 9]). πᾶσα ἡ πόλις (Diod S 18, 70, 2; Appian, Numid. 1) Mt 8:34; 21:10 (w. λέγουσα foll.); Ac 13:44; ὅλη ἡ π. (Diod S 10, 3, 2) Mk 1:33; Ac 21:30. πόλις μερισθεῖσα καθʼ ἑαυτῆς Mt 12:25. ἐθριαμβεύετο ὑπὸ τῆς πόλεως (Paul) was derided by the city AcPl Ha 4, 13 (s. θριαμβεύω 5). HConn, Lucan Perspective and the City: Missiology 13, ’85, 409–28 (Lk-Ac contains half of the 160+ occurrences of π. in the NT).—B. 1308. Schmidt, Syn. II 495–507. DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW.

πτόησις, εως, ἡ (πτοέω; also πτοίησις; Pla. et al.; LXX; of vehement emotion or excitement). In μὴ φοβούμεναι μηδεμίαν πτόησιν 1 Pt 3:6 (Pr 3:25) two aspects are possible

① act of causing someone to be intimidated, terrifying, intimidation, but more prob.

② experience of being intimidated, fear, terror (Philo, Rer. Div. Her. 251, end; cp. Od. 18, 340–42 on the theme of women frightened by a superior figure). In the case of mng. 2 πτόησιν would be acc. of the inner obj.—DELG s.v. πτοέω.

πυρόω fut. πυρώσω LXX; 1 aor. ἐπύρωσα LXX. Pass.: 1 aor. ἐπυρώθην; pf. ptc. πεπυρωμένος (Pind. et al.; ins, LXX, Philo) prim. as act. ‘burn someth. with fire’, in our lit. only pass. (Ps.-Pla., Axioch. 372a of torments in Tartarus; Philo).

① to cause to be on fire, burn

ⓐ lit., of the fiery end of the world οὐρανοὶ πυρούμενοι λυθήσονται the heavens will be set ablaze and dissolved 2 Pt 3:12. In imagery τὰ βέλη τὰ πεπυρωμένα (s. βέλος) Eph 6:16 (s. Cicero, Tusc. Disp. 5, 27, 76).

ⓑ fig. (act. Cornutus 25 p. 47, 11 πυροῦν τ. ψυχάς; pass., Horapollo 1, 22 ἡ καρδία πυροῦται) burn, be inflamed w. sympathy, readiness to aid, or indignation 2 Cor 11:29 (cp. 2 Macc 4:38; 10:35; 14:45; 3 Macc 4:2; Philo, Leg. All. 1, 84 πεπύρωται ἐν εὐχαριστίᾳ θεοῦ. So prob. also the Jewish-Gk. ins fr. Tell el Yehudieh ed. Ltzm. [ZNW 22, 1923, 282] 18, 5 πατὴρ καὶ μήτηρ οἱ πυρώμενοι=‘father and mother, who are burning w. grief’; cp. Sb 6646; 6659; Ltzm. thinks of the burning of the dead and refers to 20, 4, but there the act. is used); burn with sexual desire 1 Cor 7:9 (on the topic cp.Hos 7:4; Sir 23:17; for poetic expression of ardent desire s. Anacreontea 11, 15 Preis.: Ἔρως εὐθέως με πύρωσον; cp. Sappho Fgm. 36 and 48; a common theme in magical pap, e.g. PGM 4, 2931 βάλε πυρσὸν ἔρωτα; 36, 111; 200 πυρουμένη; PBerlin 9909, 48; cp. Plut., Mor. 138f; 752d; 753a et al.—SGordon, ET 21, 1910, 478f).

② to cause to be very hot, make red hot, cause to glow, heat thoroughly (Lucian, Alex. 21 βελόνην) of metals πεπυρωμένον σίδηρον APt 13:28. By such heating precious metals are tested and refined (Job 22:25; Ps 11:7; 65:10; Pr 10:20) Rv 1:15 (πεπυρωμένης is one of the linguistic peculiarities of Rv [s. καὶ ἔχων which follows soon thereafter]. All the variant readings [-μένῳ,-μένοι] here are simply efforts at improvement; on Aramaic connection s. Mussies 98f. FRehkopf, JJeremias Festschr. ’70, 214–19); 3:18; MPol 15:2.—Hv 4, 3, 4 makes a comparison betw. the refining influence of fire on metals and the effect that fiery trials have in removing impurities from Christians.—DELG s.v. πύρ. M-M. TW.

φιλοξενία, ας, ἡ (φιλόξενος; the idea highlighted Hom., Od. 6, 198–210, the word since Bacchylides 3, 16 Snell; Pla.; also-νικία; TestAbr A; SIG 859a, 4; PLond VI, 1917, 4; cp. Jos., Ant. 1, 250) hospitality Ro 12:13; Hm 8:10. Abraham’s hosp. 1 Cl 10:7 (TestAbr A 17 p. 98, 27 [Stone p. 44]); Lot’s 11:1. These two men are prob. thought of in Hb 13:2. Of Rahab 1 Cl 12:1. Of the Corinthian church 1:2. DRiddle, Early Christian Hospitality: JBL 57, ’38, 141–54; on the hospitality theme relating to a godly pers., s. AHollis, ed., Callimachus ‘Hecale’ ’90, 341–54, n. 1 (lit.).—DELG s.v. ξένος. M-M. TW. Spicq.

φρονέω (s. φρήν) impf. ἐφρόνουν; fut. φρονήσω; 1 aor. ἐφρόνησα; pf. 1 pl. πεφρονήκαμεν (Ath. 10, 1) (Hom.+; ins, pap, LXX; TestJob 48:2; EpArist 236; Philo, Joseph., Ar., Just., Ath.)

① to have an opinion with regard to someth., think, form/hold an opinion, judge ἐφρόνουν ὡς νήπιος I thought like a child 1 Cor 13:11 (schol. on Apollon. Rhod. 4, 868a νηπίου ὄντος καὶ νήπια φρονοῦντος). καθὼς φρονοῦσιν as their opinion is ISm 2. καλῶς καὶ ἀληθῶς φρονεῖς your judgment is right and true Hm 3:4 (εὖ φρ. Hippol., Ref. 10, 32, 4). ταῦτα φρονεῖν 9:12. ἃ φρονεῖς the views that you hold Ac 28:22 (Just., D. 80, 2 ἕτερα λέγειν παρʼ ἃ φρονῶ). πολλὰ φρονῶ ἐν θεῷ many thoughts are mine when I take God’s view of things (so Kleist) ITr 4:1. φρονεῖν τι ὑπέρ τινος think or feel in a certain way about someone Phil 1:7. ὑπέρ τινος φρ. think of someone in the sense be concerned about him 4:10a; cp. 10b. φρ. περί τινος think of or about someone (Wsd 14:30; Just., D. 3, 7; Ath. 24, 1; περὶ τοῦ θεοῦ Theoph. Ant. 1, 1 [p. 58, 15]) 2:1a. φρ. τι περί τινος think someth. concerning someone (Isocr. 3, 60; Polyaenus 5, 2, 13; Lucian, Dial. Mort. 20, 5; Jos., Ant. 12, 125, C. Ap. 2, 168; Ar. 8, 1; Just., D. 48, 1) ISm 5:2. φρ. μικρὰ περί τινος think little of someone 2 Cl 1:2 (Philo, Spec. Leg. 2, 256 φρ. περὶ μοναρχίας τὰ ἄριστα); cp. 1:1b. On ἵνα ἀδελφὸς ἰδὼν ἀδελφὴν οὐδὲν φρονῇ περὶ αὐτῆς θηλυκόν 12:5a s. θηλυκός; cp. 12:5b. θεὸν δεσπότην φρ. think of God as Master Dg 3:2 (s. φρονίμως). οὐδὲν ἄλλο φρ. think nothing different, not take a different view Gal 5:10 (Hdt. 7, 205, 3 ἄλλα φρ.; Jos., Bell. 5, 326 φρ. οὐδὲν ὑγιές). τοῦτο φρ. Phil 3:15a; τὶ ἑτέρως φρ. think of or regard someth. differently 15b; τὸ αὐτὸ φρ. think the same thing, i.e. be in agreement, live in harmony (Hdt. 1, 60, 2; Dio Chrys. 17 [34], 20; Just., D. 65, 2 τὸ αὐτὸ φρ…. ἐμοί; OGI 669, 36.—Opp.: ἀνόμοια φρ. Iren. 1, Pr. 2 [Harv. I 4, 5f]) 2 Cor 13:11; Phil 2:2a; 3:16 v.l.; 4:2; 2 Cl 17:3. τὸ αὐτὸ φρονεῖν ἐν ἀλλήλοις Ro 15:5; εἰς ἀλλήλους 12:16a. Also τὰ αὐτὰ φρ. (Hdt. 5, 72, 2; Appian, Bell. Civ. 1, 65 §295 τὰ αὐτὰ ἐφρόνουν) Hs 9, 13, 7. τὸ ἓν φρ. Phil 2:2b.— Cherish thoughts μὴ ὑπερφρονεῖν παρʼ ὸ̔ δεῖ φρονεῖν not to think more of oneself than one ought to think Ro 12:3a. Cp. 1 Cor 4:6 v.l. (cp. Diod S 27, 6, 2 τοὺς ὑπὲρ ἄνθρωπον φρονοῦντας). ὑψηλὰ φρονεῖν be proud Ro 11:20; 1 Ti 6:17 v.l.

② to give careful consideration to someth., set one’s mind on, be intent on, foll. by the acc. (Brutus, Ep. 14 τὰ σὰ φρ.)

ⓐ gener. ἀγαθὰ φρ. Hm 10, 3, 1. τὸ καλὸν φρ. Hs 5, 2, 7. τέλεια ISm 11:3. τὰ ὑψηλά Ro 12:16b (cp. 2 Macc 9:12). τὰ ἐπίγεια (Did., Gen. 50, 27; Theoph. Ant. 2, 17 [p. 142, 6]) Phil 3:19. τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς Col 3:2 (opp. τὰ ἄνω; TestJob 48:2 τὰ τῆς γῆς φρ.).

ⓑ φρ. τά τινος take someone’s side, espouse someone’s cause (Diod S 13, 48, 4 and 7 ἐφρόνουν τὰ Λακεδαιμονίων; 13, 72, 1; 14, 32, 4; 20, 35, 2 and oft.; Appian, Liby. 70 §316, Bell. Civ. 3, 85, §351; Polyaenus 8, 14, 3 τὰ Ῥωμαίων φρ., cp. HAlmqvist, Plut. u. das NT ’46, 56; Herodian 8, 6, 6; 1 Macc 10:20; Jos., Ant. 14, 450 οἱ τὰ Ἡρῴδου φρονοῦντες). τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ (opp. τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων) Mt 16:23; Mk 8:33. τὰ τῆς σαρκός (opp. τὰ τοῦ πνεύματος) Ro 8:5.

ⓒ of acknowledging the importance of someth. ὁ φρονῶν τὴν ἡμέραν κυρίῳ φρονεῖ the one who is intent on the day (i.e. a particular day rather than others) in honor of the Lord Ro 14:6. φρ. εἰς τὸ σωφρονεῖν 12:3b.

③ to develop an attitude based on careful thought, be minded/disposed τοῦτο φρονεῖτε ἐν ὑμῖν ὸ̔ καὶ ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ let the same kind of thinking dominate you as dominated Christ Jesus Phil 2:5 (Christ went so far as to devoid himself of his divine status for the benefit of humanity; the opp. of φρονεῖν μέγα, ‘to think presumptuously’, s. Reader, Polemo 216f on the theme of hybris). Or, have the same thoughts among yourselves as you have in your communion with Christ Jesus (so CDodd, The Apost. Preaching ’37, 106f).—B. 1198. DELG s.v. φρήν II. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

χολή, ῆς, ἡ (χόλος ‘gall, bile’; since Archilochus [VII B.C.], Fgm. 96; PGM 36, 284; LXX; TestSol 5:9; 13; TestJob 43:8; Test12Patr, ApcEsdr, Philo; Jos., Ant. 17, 173; Mel., P. 79, 574; loanw. in rabb. The equivalent χόλος Hom. et al. is used in both the lit. sense of ‘gall, bile’ and the fig. ‘bitter anger’.)

① lit. a substance w. an unpleasant taste, someth. bitter, gall (PSI 1180, 103 [II A.D.], bile of a hyena; the LXX uses χολή to transl. (a) מְרֵרָה=gall Job 16:13; (b) מְרֹרָה=poison Job 20:14; (c) לַעֲנָה=wormwood Pr 5:4; La 3:15; (d) רֹאשׁ=poison Dt 29:17 [of an unspecified poisonous plant]; Ps 68:22) ἔδωκαν αὐτῷ πιεῖν οἶνον μετὰ χολῆς μεμιγμένον they gave him a drink of wine mixed with bitters (so Moffatt) Mt 27:34 (fr. Ps 68:22 [?]; cp. Mk 15:23 wine laced w. myrrh).—B 7:3, 5; GPt 5:16 (s. ὄξος).—Zohary, Plants 186.

② fig. ext. of 1: the Semitic idiom χολὴ πικρίας gall of bitterness, bitter gall Ac 8:23 (πικρία 1) in ref. to Simon Magus prob.= bitter poison and refers to his predicament in a state of sin (cp. Dt 29:17 ἐν χολῇ καὶ πικρίᾳ; on the theme 1QS 2:11–17), not to an emotional condition. (Sometimes cited in this connection, but of a difft. order is Biogr. p. 153 the tragedian Philocles ἐπεκαλεῖτο Χολὴ διὰ τό πικρόν.)—PKatz conjectures ἐν χολῇ for ἐνοχλῇ (s. ἐνοχλέω) Hb 12:15 (ZNW 49, ’58, 213–23) on the basis of Dt 29:17 (cp. P⁴⁶ ἐνχ[.]λη). In such case χολή refers to an emotional condition: wrath.—B. 1134. DELG s.v. χόλος. M-M.

χράομαι (χρή) mid. dep. pres. 2 sg. χρᾶσαι (B-D-F §87), ind. and subj. 3 sg. χρῆται IRo 9:1; 1 Ti 1:8 (B-D-F §88); impf. ἐχρώμην; fut. χρήσομαι LXX; 1 aor. ἐχρησάμην; pf. κέχρημαι (Mlt-H. 200) (Hom.+) ‘use’, a common multivalent term.

① make use of, employ

ⓐ w. dat. τινί someth. (Appian, Bell. Civ. 4, 102 §427f θαλάσσῃ; Wsd 2:6; 13:18; 4 Macc 9:2; GrBar 6:12; Demetr.: 722 Fgm. 5 Jac.; Philo, Aet. M. 70; 71; Jos., Bell. 3, 341; Just., A I, 14, 2, D. 57, 2; Tat. 12, 5.—B-D-F §193, 5; Rob. 532f) βοηθείαις ἐχρῶντο Ac 27:17 (s. βοήθεια 2).—1 Cor 7:31 v.l.; 9:12, 15; 1 Ti 5:23 (οἶνος 1); 2 Cl 6:5; Dg 6:5; 12:3 (ᾗ μὴ καθαρῶς χρησάμενοι not using it in purity); ITr 6:1; IPhld 4; Hs 9, 16, 4 (of the use of a seal as PHib 72, 16 [III B.C.]). διαλέκτῳ use a language Dg 5:2. Of law (Trag., Hdt. et al.; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 125) τοῖς νόμοις live in accordance with the laws (Jos., Ant. 16, 27; Ath. 1, 1) Hs 1:3f; cp. 6. ἐάν τις αὐτῷ (=τῷ νόμῳ) νομίμως χρῆται 1 Ti 1:8. προφήταις χρῆσθαι appeal to the prophets AcPlCor 1:10. A dat. is to be supplied w. μᾶλλον χρῆσαι make the most of, take advantage of 1 Cor 7:21, either τῇ δουλείᾳ (so the Peshitta, Chrysostom, Theodoret, and many modern interpreters and translators, among the latter, 20th Century, Goodsp., NRSV; s. also HBellen, Ac 6, ’63, 177–80) or τῇ ἐλευθερίᾳ (so Erasmus, Luther, Calvin, FGodet, Lghtf., Zahn, Moffatt, RSV, NRSV mg., REB); s. μᾶλλον 2a.—If μ. χ. is construed without an implied dat., the phrase can be understood in the sense be all the more useful, work all the harder (cp. Vi. Aesopi G 17 P. on the theme of dedication to a task) i.e. as a freedperson be as industrious as a slave. (On this subj.: TZahn, Sklaverei u. Christentum in d. alten Welt [1879]: Skizzen aus dem Leben d. alten Kirche² 1898, 116–59; EvDobschütz, Sklaverei u. Christent.: RE³ XVIII 423–33; XXIV 521; JvWalter, Die Sklaverei im NT 1914; FKiefl, Die Theorien des modernen Sozialismus über den Ursprung d. Christentums, Zugleich ein Komm. zu 1 Cor 7:21, 1915, esp. p. 56–109; JWeiss, Das Urchristentum 1917, 456–60; ASteinmann, Zur Geschichte der Auslegung v. 1 Cor 7:21: ThRev 16, 1918, 341–48; AJuncker, D. Ethik des Ap. Pls II 1919, 175–81; JKoopmans, De Servitute Antiqua et Rel. Christ., diss. Amsterdam 1920, 119ff; ELohmeyer, Soz. Fragen im Urchrist. 1921; FGrosheide, Exegetica [1 Cor 7:21]: GereformTT 24, 1924, 298–302; HGreeven [s.v. πλοῦτος 1]; MEnslin, The Ethics of Paul 1930, 205–10; WWestermann, Enslaved Persons Who Are Free, AJP 59, ’38, 1–30; HGülzow, Christent. u. Sklaverei [to 300 A.D.], ’69, 177–81; SBartchy, MALLON CHRESAI, ’73=SBLDS 11, ’85; TWiedmann, Greek and Roman Slavery ’81; COsiek, Slavery in the Second Testament World: BTB 22, ’92, 174–79 [lit.]; JHarril, The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity ’95, esp. 68–128. On slavery in antiquity gener.: WWestermann, Pauly-W. Suppl. VI ’35, 894–1068, The Slave Systems of Gk. and Rom. Antiquity, ’55; WKristensen, De antieke opvatting van dienstbaarheid ’34; MPohlenz, D. hellen. Mensch ’47, 387–96; Kl. Pauly V 230–34; BHHW III 1814f; MFinley, Slavery in Classical Antiquity ’60; KBradley, The Problem of Slavery in Classical Culture: ClPh 92, ’97, 273–82 [lit.]; PGarnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine ’96.) τινὶ εἴς τι use someth. for someth. (Oenomaus in Eus., PE 5, 33, 14; Simplicius In Epict. p. 27, 52 Düb.; cp. Tat. 17, 4 πρὸς τὸ κακοποιεῖν) Hv 3, 2, 8. σὺ αὐτὸς χρᾶσαι ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν λίθων you yourself function as one from these same stones 3, 6, 7 (s. app. in Whittaker and Joly; for lit. s. Leutzsch, Hermas 418 n. 355).—W. a double dat. (Trag. et al.) σχοινίῳ χρώμενοι τῷ πνεύματι using as a rope the Holy Spirit IEph 9:1. W. double dat. of pers. (Jos., C. Ap. 1, 227; Just., D. 7, 1; Tat. 36, 1; Ath. 32, 1) of the Syrian ἐκκλησία, which ποιμένι τῷ θεῷ χρῆται resorts to God as shepherd IRo 9:1.

ⓑ w. acc. (X., Ages. 11, 11; Ps.-Aristot., Oecon. 2, 22, 1350a, 7 χρ. τὰ τέλη εἰς διοίκησιν τῆς πόλεως; Ael. Aristid. 13 p. 162 D.; SIG 1170, 27 ἄνηθον μετʼ ἐλαίου χρ.; PTebt 273, 28 ὕδωρ χρ.; Wsd 7:14 v.l.; 2 Macc 4:19.—B-D-F §152, 4; Rob. 476) τὸν κόσμον 1 Cor 7:31 (cp. Simplicius In Epict. p. 29, 30 Düb. τὸ τοῖς μὴ ἐφʼ ἡμῖν ὡς ἐφʼ ἡμῖν οὖσι κεχρῆσθαι=to use that which is not in our power as if it were in our power; s. also MDibelius, Urchristentum u. Kultur 1928).

② act, proceed (Hdt. et al.; POxy 474, 38 et al.) w. dat. of characteristic shown (Aelian, VH 2, 15; Jos., Ant. 10, 25; Just., D. 79, 2; Tat. 40, 1; Mel., HE 4, 26, 13) τῇ ἐλαφρίᾳ 2 Cor 1:17. πολλῇ παρρησίᾳ 3:12. ὑποταγῇ 1 Cl 37:5.—W. adv. (PMagd 6, 12 [III B.C.] et al.) ἀποτόμως 2 Cor 13:10.

③ treat a person in a certain way, w. dat. of pers. and an adv. (X., Mem. 1, 2, 48 φίλοις καλῶς χρ.; OGI 51, 8 [III B.C.] τοῖς τεχνίταις φιλανθρώπως χρῆται; PPetr III, 115, 8 [III B.C.] πικρῶς σοι ἐχρήσατο; POxy 745, 6; Esth 2:9; TestJob 20:3 ὡς ἐβούλετο; Jos., Ant. 2, 315, C. Ap. 1, 153 φιλανθρώπως; Just., A I, 27, 1 αἰσχρῶς) φιλανθρώπως ὁ Ἱούλιος τῷ Παύλῳ χρησάμενος; cp. Hs 5, 2, 10.—DELG s.v. χράομαι p. 1274. M-M. EDNT.

ψυχή, ῆς, ἡ (Hom.+; ‘life, soul’) It is oft. impossible to draw hard and fast lines in the use of this multivalent word. Gen. it is used in ref. to dematerialized existence or being, but, apart fr. other data, the fact that ψ. is also a dog’s name suggests that the primary component is not metaphysical, s. SLonsdale, Greece and Rome 26, ’79, 146–59. Without ψ. a being, whether human or animal, consists merely of flesh and bones and without functioning capability. Speculations and views respecting the fortunes of ψ. and its relation to the body find varied expression in our lit.

① life on earth in its animating aspect making bodily function possible

ⓐ (breath of) life, life-principle, soul, of animals (Galen, Protr. 13 p. 42, 27 John; Gen 9:4) Rv 8:9. As a rule of human beings (Gen 35:18; 3 Km 17:21; ApcEsdr 5:13 λαμβάνει τὴν ψυχὴν the fetus in its sixth month) Ac 20:10. When it leaves the body death occurs Lk 12:20 (cp. Jos., C. Ap. 1, 164; on the theme cp. Pind., I. 1, 67f). The soul is delivered up to death (the pass. in ref. to divine initiative), i.e. into a condition in which it no longer makes contact with the physical structure it inhabited 1 Cl 16:13 (Is 53:12), whereupon it leaves the realm of earth and lives on in Hades (Lucian, Dial. Mort. 17, 2; Jos., Ant. 6, 332) Ac 2:27 (Ps 15:10), 31 v.l. or some other place outside the earth Rv 6:9; 20:4; ApcPt 10:25 (GrBar 10:5 τὸ πεδίον … οὗπερ ἔρχονται αἱ ψυχαὶ τῶν δικαίων; ApcEsdr 7:3 ἀπέρχεται εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν; Himerius, Or. 8 [23]: his consecrated son [παῖς ἱερός 7] Rufinus, when he dies, leaves his σῶμα to the death-daemon, while his ψυχή goes into οὐρανός, to live w. the gods 23).—B 5:13 (s. Ps 21:21).

ⓑ the condition of being alive, earthly life, life itself (Diod S 1, 25, 6 δοῦναι τὴν ψυχήν=give life back [to the dead Horus]; 3, 26, 2; 14, 65, 2; 16, 78, 5; Jos., Ant. 18, 358 σωτηρία τῆς ψυχῆς; 14, 67; s. Reader, Polemo 354 [reff.]) ζητεῖν τὴν ψυχήν τινος Mt 2:20 (cp. Ex 4:19); Ro 11:3 (3 Km 19:10, 14). δοῦναι τὴν ψυχὴν ἑαυτοῦ (cp. Eur., Phoen. 998) Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45; John says for this τιθέναι τὴν ψυχὴν J 10:11, 15, 17, (18); 13:37f; 15:13; 1J 3:16ab; παραδιδόναι Ac 15:26; Hs 9, 28, 2. παραβολεύεσθαι τῇ ψυχῇ Phil 2:30 (s. παραβολεύομαι). To love one’s own life (JosAs 13:1 ἐγὼ ἀγαπῶ αὐτὸν ὑπὲρ τὴν ψυχήν μου) Rv 12:11; cp. B 1:4; 4:6; 19:5; D 2:7. Life as prolonged by nourishment Mt 6:25ab; Lk 12:22f. Cp. 14:26; Ac 20:24; 27:10, 22; 28:19 v.l.; Ro 16:4. S. also 2e below.

ⓒ by metonymy, that which possesses life/soul (cp. 3 below) ψυχὴ ζῶσα (s. Gen 1:24) a living creature Rv 16:3 v.l. for ζωῆς. Cp. ἐγένετο Ἀδὰμ εἰς ψυχὴν ζῶσαν 1 Cor 15:45 (Gen 2:7. S. πνεῦμα 5f). ψυχὴ ζωῆς Rv 16:3.

② seat and center of the inner human life in its many and varied aspects, soul

ⓐ of the desire for luxurious living (cp. the OT expressions Ps 106:9 [=ParJer 9:20, but in sense of d below]; Pr 25:25; Is 29:8; 32:6; Bar 2:18b; PsSol 4:17. But also X., Cyr. 8, 7, 4; ins in CB I/2, 477 no. 343, 5 the soul as the seat of enjoyment of the good things in life) of the rich man ἐρῶ τῇ ψυχῇ μου• ψυχή, ἀναπαύου, φάγε, πίε, εὐφραίνου Lk 12:19 (cp. PsSol 5:12; Aelian, VH 1, 32 εὐφραίνειν τὴν ψυχήν; X., Cyr. 6, 2, 28 ἡ ψυχὴ ἀναπαύσεται.—The address to the ψυχή as PsSol 3, 1; Cyranides p. 41, 27). Cp. Rv 18:14.

ⓑ of evil desires (PsSol 4:13; Tat. 23, 2) 2 Cl 16:2; 17:7.

ⓒ of feelings and emotions (Anacr., Fgm. 4 Diehl² [15 Page]; Diod S 8, 32, 3; JosAs 6:1; SibOr 3, 558; Just., D. 2, 4; Mel., P. 18, 124 al.) περίλυπός ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή μου (cp. Ps 41:6, 12; 42:5) Mt 26:38; Mk 14:34. ἡ ψυχή μου τετάρακται J 12:27; cp. Ac 2:43 (s. 3 below).—Lk 1:46; 2:35; J 10:24; Ac 14:2, 22; 15:24; Ro 2:9; 1 Th 2:8 (τὰς ἑαυτῶν ψυχάς our hearts full of love); Hb 12:3; 2 Pt 2:8; 1 Cl 16:12 (Is 53:11); 23:3 (scriptural quot. of unknown origin); B 3:1, 5b (s. on these two passages Is 58:3, 5, 10b); 19:3; Hm 4, 2, 2; 8:10; Hs 1:8; 7:4; D 3:9ab. ἐμεγαλύνθη ἡ ψυχή μου GJs 5:2; 19:2 (s. μεγαλύνω 1). αὔξειν τὴν ψυχὴν τοῦ Παύλου AcPl Ha 6, 10. It is also said of God in the anthropomorphic manner of expr. used by the OT ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὸ̔ν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου Mt 12:18 (cp. Is 42:1); cp. Hb 10:38 (Hab 2:4).—One is to love God ἐν ὅλῃ τῇ ψυχῇ Mt 22:37; Lk 10:27. Also ἐξ ὅλης τῆς ψυχῆς (Dt 6:5; 10:12; 11:13) Mk 12:30, 33 v.l. (for ἰσχύος); Lk 10:27 v.l. (Epict. 2, 23, 42; 3, 22, 18; 4, 1, 131; M. Ant. 12, 29; Sextus 379.—X., Mem. 3, 11, 10 ὅλῃ τῇ ψυχῇ). ἐκ ψυχῆς from the heart, gladly (Jos., Ant. 17, 177.—The usual form is ἐκ τῆς ψυχῆς: X., An. 7, 7, 43, Apol. 18 al.; Theocr. 8, 35) Eph 6:6; Col 3:23; ἐκ ψυχῆς σου B 3:5a (Is 58:10a); 19:6. μιᾷ ψυχῇ with one mind (Dio Chrys. 19 [36], 30) Phil 1:27; cp. Ac 4:32 (on the combination w. καρδία s. that word 1bη and EpArist 17); 2 Cl 12:3 (s. 1 Ch 12:39b; Diog. L. 5, 20 ἐρωτηθεὶς τί ἐστι φίλος, ἔφη• μία ψυχὴ δύο σώμασιν ἐνοικοῦσα).

ⓓ as the seat and center of life that transcends the earthly (Pla., Phd. 28, 80ab; Paus. 4, 32, 4 ἀθάνατός ἐστιν ἀνθρώπου ψ.; Just., A I, 44, 9 περὶ ἀθανασίας ψυχῆς; Ath. 27, 2 ἀθάνατος οὖσα. Opp. Tat. 13, 1, who argues the state of the ψ. before the final judgment and states that it is not immortal per se but experiences the fate of the body οὐκ ἔστιν ἀθάνατος). As such it can receive divine salvation σῴζου σὺ καὶ ἡ ψυχή σου be saved, you and your soul Agr 5 (Unknown Sayings 61–64). σῴζειν τὰς ψυχάς Js 1:21. ψυχὴν ἐκ θανάτου 5:20; cp. B 19:10; Hs 6, 1, 1 (on death of the ψ. s. Achilles Tat. 7, 5, 3 τέθνηκας θάνατον διπλοῦν, ψυχῆς κ. σώματος). σωτηρία ψυχῶν 1 Pt 1:9. περιποίησις ψυχῆς Hb 10:39. It can also be lost 2 Cl 15:1; B 20:1; Hs 9, 26, 3. Humans cannot injure it, but God can hand it over to destruction Mt 10:28ab; AcPl Ha 1, 4. ζημιωθῆναι τὴν ψυχήν (ζημιόω 1) Mt 16:26a; Mk 8:36 (FGrant, Introd. to NT Thought, ’50, 162); 2 Cl 6:2. There is nothing more precious than ψυχή in this sense Mt 16:26b; Mk 8:37. It stands in contrast to σῶμα, in so far as that is σάρξ (cp. Ar. 15, 7 οὐ κατὰ σάρκα … ἀλλὰ κατὰ ψυχήν; Tat. 15, 1 οὔτε … χωρὶς σώματος; Ath. 1, 4 τὰ σώματα καὶ τὰς ψυχάς; SIG 383, 42 [I B.C.]) Dg 6:1–9. The believer’s soul knows God 2 Cl 17:1. One Christian expresses the hope that all is well w. another’s soul 3J 2 (s. εὐοδόω). For the soul of the Christian is subject to temptations 1 Pt 2:11 and 2 Pt 2:14; longs for rest Mt 11:29 (ParJer 5:32 ὁ θεὸς … ἡ ἀνάπαυσις τῶν ψυχῶν); and must be purified 1 Pt 1:22 (cp. Jer 6:16). The soul must be entrusted to God 1 Pt 4:19; cp. 1 Cl 27:1. Christ is its ποιμὴν καὶ ἐπίσκοπος (s. ἐπίσκοπος 1) 1 Pt 2:25; its ἀρχιερεὺς καὶ προστάτης 1 Cl 61:3; its σωτήρ MPol 19:2. Apostles and congregational leaders are concerned about the souls of the believers 2 Cor 12:15; Hb 13:17. The Christian hope is called the anchor of the soul 6:19. Paul calls God as a witness against his soul; if he is lying, he will forfeit his salvation 2 Cor 1:23.—Also life of this same eternal kind κτήσεσθε τὰς ψυχὰς ὑμῶν you will gain (real) life for yourselves Lk 21:19.

ⓔ Since the soul is the center of both the earthly (1a) and the transcendent (2d) life, pers. can find themselves facing the question concerning the wish to ensure it for themselves: ὸ̔ς ἐὰν θέλῃ τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ σῶσαι, ἀπολέσει αὐτὴν• ὸ̔ς δʼ ἂν ἀπολέσει τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ ἕνεκεν ἐμοῦ, σώσει αὐτήν Mk 8:35. Cp. Mt 10:39; 16:25; Lk 9:24; 17:33; J 12:25. The contrast betw. τὴν ψυχὴν εὑρεῖν and ἀπολέσαι is found in Mt 10:39ab (s. HGrimme, BZ 23, ’35, 263f); 16:25b; σῶσαι and ἀπολέσαι vs. 25a; Mk 8:35ab; Lk 9:24ab; περιποιήσασθαι, ζῳογονῆσαι and ἀπολέσαι 17:33; φιλεῖν and ἀπολλύναι J 12:25a; μισεῖν and φυλάσσειν vs. 25b.

ⓕ On the combination of ψυχή and πνεῦμα in 1 Th 5:23; Hb 4:12 (Just., D. 6, 2; Tat. 15, 1 χρὴ … ζευγνύναι … τὴν ψυχὴν τῷ πνεύματι τῷ ἁγίῳ) s. πνεῦμα 3a, end.—A-JFestugière, L’idéal religieux des Grecs et l’Évangile ’32, 212–17.—A unique combination is … σωμάτων, καὶ ψυχὰς ἀνθρώπων, slaves and human lives Rv 18:13 (cp. Ezk 27:13; on the syntax s. Mussies 98).

ⓖ In var. Semitic languages the reflexive relationship is paraphrased with נֶפֶשׁ (Gr.-Rom. parallels in W-S. §22, 18b note 33); the corresp. use of ψυχή may be detected in certain passages in our lit., esp. in quots. fr. the OT and in places where OT modes of expr. have had considerable influence (B-D-F §283, 4; W-S. §22, 18b; Mlt. 87; 105 n. 2; Rob. 689; KHuber, Untersuchungen über d. Sprachcharakter des griech. Lev., diss. Zürich 1916, 67), e.g. Mt 11:29; 26:38; Mk 10:45; 14:34; Lk 12:19; 14:26; J 10:24; 12:27; 2 Cor 1:23; 3J 2; Rv 18:14; 1 Cl 16:11 (Is 53:10); B 3:1, 3 (Is 58:3, 5); 4:2; 17:1. Cp. also 2 Cor 12:15; Hb 13:17; GJs 2:2; 13:2; 15:3 (on these last s. ταπεινόω 2b).

③ an entity w. personhood, person ext. of 2 by metonymy (cp. 1c): πᾶσα ψυχή everyone (Epict. 1, 28, 4; Lev 7:27; 23:29 al.) Ac 2:43; 3:23 (Lev 23:29); Ro 2:9; 13:1; Jd 15; 1 Cl 64; Hs 9, 18, 5.—Pl. persons, cp. our expression ‘number of souls’ (Pla. et al.; PTebt 56, 11 [II B.C.] σῶσαι ψυχὰς πολλάς; LXX) ψυχαὶ ὡσεὶ τρισχίλιαι Ac 2:41; cp. 7:14 (Ex 1:5); 27:37; 1 Pt 3:20.—This may also be the place for ἔξεστιν ψυχὴν σῶσαι ἢ ἀποκτεῖναι; is it permissible to rescue a person ( a human life is also poss.) or must we let the person die? Mk 3:4; Lk 6:9. Cp. 9:55 [56] v.l.—EHatch, Essays in Bibl. Gk. 1889, 112–24; ERohde, Psyche^9–10 1925; JBöhme, D. Seele u. das Ich im homer. Epos 1929; EBurton, Spirit, Soul and Flesh 1918; FRüsche, Blut, Leben u. Seele 1930; MLichtenstein, D. Wort nefeš in d. Bibel 1920; WStaples, The ‘Soul’ in the OT: JSL 44, 1928, 145–76; FBarth, La notion Paulinienne de ψυχή: RTP 44, 1911, 316–36; ChGuignebert, RHPR 9, 1929, 428–50; NSnaith, Life after Death: Int 1, ’47, 309–25; essays by OCullmann, HWolfson, WJaeger, HCadbury in Immortality and Resurrection, ed. KStendahl, ’65, 9–53; GDautzenberg, Sein Leben Bewahren ’66 (gospels); R Jewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms, ’71, 334–57; also lit. cited GMachemer, HSCP 95, ’93, 121, 13.—TJahn, Zum Wortfeld ‘Seele-Geist’ in der Sprache Homers (Zetemata 83) ’81.—B. 1087. New Docs 4, 38f (trichotomy). DELG. M-M. EDNT. TW. Sv.

ἀγνόημα, ατος, τό (s. ἀγνοέω; since Gorgias [V B.C.], 11 [Helena] 19; s. FZucker, Semantica ABA 38, ’63, 51f) sin committed in ignorance/unintentionally (Diod S 1, 71, 3 ἐλάχιστα ἀ.; 13, 90, 7; OGI 116, 2; UPZ 111, 3 [163 B.C.]; PTebt 5, 3 [118 B.C.] ἀγνοήματα, ἁμαρτήματα, ἐνκλήματα, καταγνώσματα [Taubenschlag, Law² 430; APF 2, 1903, 483ff; Jur. Pap. no. 69; KLatte, ARW 20, 1921, p. 287, 1]; BGU 1185, 7; 1 Macc 13:39; Tob 3:3; Sir 23:2; JosAs 13 [p. 57, 20 Bat.] Cod. A; Eus., DemEv 4, 10.—Soph. Oed. R. is devoted to dramatic exposition of the theme of such ἄ.) Hb 9:7 (s. ἄγνοια 2 beg.; REB: ‘inadvertent sins’; NRSV: ‘sins committed unintentionally’). Forgiven by God Hs 5, 7, 3f.—DELG s.v. γιγνώσκω 225. M-M. TW.

ἀλεκτρυών, όνος, ὁ a male chicken, cock, rooster (on the formation s. DELG s.v. ἀλέξω Thème II p. 50; since Theognis 864; Cratinus 108, κοκκύζει 311; POxy 1207, 8; Michel 692, 5 [I A.D.]; SIG 1173, 16; 3 Macc 5:23; PGM 3, 693; 701) Gospel Fgm. from the Fayum (Kl. T. 8³, p. 23, 10, cp. Mk 14:26–31 and par.).—B. 174.

ἀνάγκη, ης, ἡ (Hom.+; ins, pap, LXX, En; PsSol 5:6; TestJob 12:3; TestJos 2:4; ApcSed 10:4; ApcMos 25; Philo, Joseph., Ar., Just.; Mel. Fgm. 6, 5; Ath.) never in NT in the exceptional sense of ‘fate’ (e.g. Eur., Ph. 1000).

① necessity or constraint as inherent in the nature of things, necessity, pressure of any kind, a divine dispensation, some hoped-for advantage, custom, duty, etc. (Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 17 §68 ἀ. νόμων; Musaeus 289 of love; Crates p. 54, 15 al. Malherbe; SibOr 3, 101; 296; Just., D. 44, 11) ἄνευ ζυγοῦ ἀνάγκης without the yoke of necessity B 2:6. ἀνάγκη (sc. ἐστὶν) it is necessary, inevitable, one must w. inf., or acc. and inf. (Hdt. 2, 35; SIG 888, 79; BGU 665 II, 16; Just., A I, 21, 4 al.; Ath. 17, 1 al.; Did., Gen. 104, 29) ἀ. (ἐστὶν [v.l.]) ἐλθεῖν τὰ σκάνδαλα temptations must come Mt 18:7. διὸ ἀ. (sc. ἐστὶν) therefore it is nec. (for you) to be subject Ro 13:5. θάνατον ἀ. (sc. ἐστὶν) φέρεσθαι τοῦ διαθεμένου the death of the testator must be announced Hb 9:16; cp. vs. 23. W. ἐστί and without inf. εἰ ἀ. ἐστί Hs 9, 9, 3. ἐὰν ᾖ ἀ. D 12:2—ἀ. ἔχω w. inf. (Plut., Cato Min. 24, 6; Jos., Ant. 16, 290, Vi. 171 et al.; TestJob 10:3; 12:3 al.; POxy 1061, 4 [22 B.C.]; PFlor 278 IV, 23; cp. New Docs 1, 45) I must ἰδεῖν αὐτόν Lk 14:18; ἀπολύειν 23:16 [17] v.l; γράψαι ὑμῖν Jd 3; θυσίας ἀναφέρειν Hb 7:27; αἰτεῖσθαι Hs 5, 4, 5; ἐρωτᾶν 9, 14, 4; cp. 9, 16, 2. Without inf. μὴ ἔχων ἀ. 1 Cor 7:37.—ἀ. μοι ἐπίκειται (Il. 6, 458) I am under obligation 9:16.—W. prep. ἐξ ἀνάγκης under pressure (Trag., Thu.; Epict. 2, 20, 1; Jos., Bell. 5, 568; Ath., R. 66, 17; Did., Gen. 75, 21; POxy 237 IV, 33; PIand 19, 1) 2 Cor 9:7; necessarily (logically) (Diod S 1, 80, 3; Dio Chrys. 21 [38], 31; 34; Philo, Aet. M. 21; 52) Hb 7:12; Hs 7:3. For this pleonastically δεῖ ἐξ ἀ. m 6, 2, 8; Hs 9, 9, 2. ὡς κατὰ ἀνάγκην (opp. κατὰ ἑκούσιον) as it were, by pressure Phlm 14 (cp. X., Cyr. 4, 3, 7; Artem. 5, 23; EpArist 104; 2 Macc 15:2; Jos., Ant. 3, 223; Ar.; Just., A I, 30, 1; Ath. 24, 2; PCairMasp 66, 2).

② a state of distress or trouble, distress, calamity, pressure (characteristic of later Gk.: Diod S 10, 4, 6 [mortal danger]; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 40 §167 ἐσχάτη ἀ.; LXX; Jos., Bell. 5, 571; Ant. 2, 67. So as loanw. in rabb.) of distress in the last days ἀ. μεγάλη Lk 21:23. ἡ ἐνεστῶσα ἀ. the present distress 1 Cor 7:26 (the expr. ‘present distress’ is found in Epict. 3, 26, 7; 3 Macc 1:16 v.l. and PGM 4, 526f. In Antiphon 6, 25 the present coercion is called ἡ παροῦσα ἀνάγκη.—See KBenz, TGl 10, 1918, 388ff; PTischleder, ibid. 12, 1920, 225ff). W. θλῖψις (like Job 15:24) 1 Th 3:7. Pl. pressures (Antiphon 6, 25; Herodas 5, 59; Diod S 4, 43, 5; 10, 17, 1; SIG 521, 23 [III B.C.]; Cat. Cod. Astr. VII 143, 23; VIII/3, 182, 17; 185, 27; LXX; Philo, Rer. Div. Her. 41; Jos., Ant. 16, 253; TestJos 2:4) w. θλίψεις, στενοχωρίαι et al. 2 Cor 6:4; w. διωγμοί and στενοχωρίαι 12:10 (but see 3 below). In Paul’s recitals of woe there surfaces the theme of the endangered benefactor who risks much for his public (s. AFridrichsen, Zum Stil des Paulinischen Peristasenkatalogs: SymbOsl 7, 1928, 25–29; Danker, Benefactor 363–64). ἐξ ἀναγκῶν ἐξαιρεῖσθαι rescue from calamities 1 Cl 56:8 (Job 5:19). For this ἐξ ἀναγκῶν λυτροῦσθαι τοὺς δούλους τοῦ θεοῦ Hm 8:10.

③ concr. for abstr. compulsion by forcible means, torture (ref. in AFridrichsen, ConNeot 9, ’44, 28f and L-S-J-M s.v. 3); this mng. is prob. in some passages, e.g. 2 Cor 12:10 (s. 2 above).—HSchreckenburg, Ananke, ’64.—B. 638. DELG. DDD s.v.Ananke. M-M. TW. Sv.

ἀνόμως adv. fr. ἄνομος (Eur., Thu. et al.; PMagd 6, 11; BGU 1200, 20; 2 Macc 8:17; Philo, Leg. All. 1, 35 v.l.; Jos., C. Ap. 1, 147, Ant. 15, 59) without participation in an organized legal system, lawlessly, ὅσοι ἀ. ἥμαρτον ἀ. καὶ ἀπολοῦνται those who sin without law will also be lost without law, i.e. those who sin without awareness of the Mosaic law (expressed from the vantage point of Israel’s chosen status) will also perish without reference to it: Ro 2:12 (=χωρὶς νόμου 7:9; cp. Isocr. 4, 39 ἀ. ζῆν= live without the advantage of organized law, i.e. without polity, uncivilized: expressed from the vantage point of Athenian achievement. For the term ἀ. and the theme of relative advantage s. also Jos., C. Ap. 2, 151). Synon. ἀτάκτως, q.v.

ἀντίτυπος, ον (since Anaximander pre-Socr.; Theognis 2, 1244; Aeschyl., Septem 521, also IG XIV, 1320; Esth 3:13d v.l.; Philo) of someth. that corresponds to another; esp. used metaph.

① pert. to that which corresponds to someth. else, adj. corresponding to (Polyb. 6, 31, 8 ἀντίτυπος τίθεμαί τινι I am placed opposite) someth. that has gone before (τύπος, cp. the oracular saying in Diod S 9, 36, 3 τύπος ἀντίτυπος and Ex 25:40). In a compressed statement, with rescue through water as the dominant theme ὸ̔ (i.e. ὕδωρ) καὶ ὑμᾶς ἀ. νῦν σῴζει βάπτισμα baptism correspondingly now saves you, i.e. the salvation of Noah and family via water (διʼ ὕδατος), which supported the ark, is the τύπος for the salutary function of the water of baptism 1 Pt 3:21. A Platonic perspective (s. 2, below) is not implied in the passage.—PLundberg, La Typologie Baptismale dans l’ancienne Église, ’42, 110ff; ESelwyn, The First Epistle of St Peter, ’46, 298f; BReicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism, ’46, 144f. LHurst, JTS 34, ’83, 165–68, argues for the same mng. Hb 9:24 (s. 2 below).

② subst. τὸ ἀ. copy, antitype, representation (ISyriaW 1855; pap, e.g. POxy 1470, 6; PYadin 23, 24 al.; Plotin. 2, 9, 6 [ὁ ἀ.]; Proclus on Pla., Cratyl. p. 76, 28 Pasquali; in different sense Just., D. 5, 2 ἀντιτυπίαν resistance), acc. to Platonic doctrine, w. ref. to the world of things about us, as opposed to the true heavenly originals, or ideas (the αὐθεντικόν). So χειροποίητα ἅγια, ἀ. τῶν ἀληθινῶν a sanctuary made w. hands, a (mere) copy of the true (sanctuary) Hb 9:24 (s. 1 above). The flesh is ἀντίτυπος τοῦ πνεύματος 2 Cl 14:3a; the spirit, on the other hand, is τὸ αὐθεντικόν vs. 3b.—RHanson, Allegory and Event, ’59, 67–69; CFritsch, TCVriezen Festschr. ’66, 100–107.—DELG s.v. τύπτω. M-M. TW.

ἀπερισπάστως adv. of ἀπερίσπαστος (Polyb. 2, 20, 10; 4, 18, 6; Epict. 1, 29, 59) without distraction πρὸς τὸ εὐπάρεδρον τ. κυρίῳ ἀ. that you might adhere faithfully to the Lord without distraction 1 Cor 7:35 (on the theme, s. Epict. 3, 22, 69 ἀπερίσπαστον εἶναι δεῖ τὸν Κυνικὸν ὅλον πρὸς τῇ διακονίᾳ τοῦ θεοῦ; for this reason he should keep himself free from marriage and all other earthly obligations, cp. 2 [4] Esdr 16:40–45. Diod S 40, 3, 7 Moses places the priests on a higher economic level than nonpriests, ἵνα ἀπερίσπαστοι προσεδρεύωσι ταῖς τοῦ θεοῦ τιμαῖς). DBalch, 1 Cor 7:32–35 and Stoic Debates about Marriage, Anxiety, and Distraction: JBL 102, ’83, 429–39. S. ἀμέριμνος.—M-M. Spicq.

Ἀπολλύων, ονος, ὁ (pres. ptc. of ἀπολλύω, ‘destroy’) Apollyon, the Destroyer, tr. of Ἀβαδδών (q.v., which itself is a tr. of אָבַדּוֹן) Rv 9:11. (Whether the writer of Rv implied a connection with the deity Apollo cannot be determined. Indeed, it is questionable, for Apollo was the god of purity and recognized for his civilizing influence. For ancient association of Apollo with the theme of retribution, s. Archilochus Lyr. [VII B.C.], Fgm. 30 Ἄπολλον … ὄλλυʼ ὥσπερ ὀλλύεις=Apollo …, destroy them [the guilty ones] even as you do destroy! For an etymological connection of Apollo w. the verb ἀπόλλυμι Aeschyl., Ag. 1080–82; s. EFraënkel, Aeschylus: Agammemnon ’50, III 492.)—JSolomon, ed., Apollo ’94. DDD 138–43, 456–63. TW.

ἐλάχιστος, ίστη, ον (ἐλαχύς ‘small, little’; since Hom. Hymns, Merc. 573 and Hdt.; ins, pap, LXX; Test12Patr; JosAs 1:13 codd. AHPal. 364 for χεῖρον; ApcMos 16; Just., Ath.) used as superl. of μικρός. From it a vernac. comp. ἐλαχιστότερος is formed (B-D-F §61, 2; W-S. §11, 4; Mlt. 236; M-M. s.v. ἐλαχιστότερος).

① pert. to being the lowest in status, least. In our lit. only rarely as a true superl. (Jos., Bell. 6, 198) smallest, least (PTebt 24, 67 [117 B.C.]; Josh 6:26) ὁ ἐ. τῶν ἀποστόλων the least of the apostles 1 Cor 15:9. Otherwise elative (s. B-D-F §60, 2; Mlt. 236) in this mng. and the succeeding ones, οὐδαμῶς ἐ. εἶ ἐν τ. ἡγεμόσιν Ἰούδα you are by no means least among the leaders of Judah Mt 2:6. Of pers. unimportant (SIG 888, 58; PsSol 2:26; TestJos 17:8) Mt 5:19b; 25:40, 45 (WBrandt, D. geringsten Brüder: Jahrb. d. Theol. Schule Bethel 8, ’37, 1ff; on the disguised beggar theme cp. Od. 14, 55ff and s. Od. 17, 485–87 [Old Testament, cp. 3 Km 17:8ff]; s. DFlückiger-Guggenheim, Göttliche Gäste ’84 [Gk. Mythology]; ABurnett, ClPh 65, ’70, 124–25 [lit]); comp. w. same sense as the superlative ἐμοὶ τῷ ἐλαχιστοτέρῳ to me, the very least Eph 3:8.

② pert. to being relatively the smallest in a specific class or group, very small/short (TestJud 15:6; Jos., Bell. 6, 330 ἐ. μέρος) ἐ. πηδάλιον very small rudder Js 3:4; ἐ. κοκκάριον a very small grain Hm 11:20, cp. 21; of animals the smallest 1 Cl 20:10.—Neut. as adv. in this sense (Polyaenus 8, 7, 2) ἐ. βασανίζεσθαι be tortured (punished) a very short time Hs 6, 4, 2 (restored fr. Lat. texts)=for too short a time. W. ref. to number very few (Diod S 1, 71, 3 ἐλάχιστα ἀγνοήματα=fewest mistakes [in contrast to many failures of others]) Hs 8, 5, 4 people; 9, 8, 7 stones. τὸ ἐ. ἀψίνθιον very little wormwood Hm 5, 1, 5. ἐ. τῶν ῥάβδων a very small section (w. ref. to being partially verdant or dry) of the sticks Hs 8, 1, 14f; 8, 5, 5f; 8, 10, 1 and 3.

③ pert. to being considered of very little importance, insignificant, trivial (also elative). Of commandments (relatively) insignificant Mt 5:19a (FDibelius, ZNW 11, 1910, 188–90; GDalman, Jesus 1929, 62–65 [tr. PLevertoff]). Of parts of the body 1 Cl 37:5. κριτήρια ἐ. trivial cases 1 Cor 6:2. ἐλάχιστον a very little thing Lk 12:26; (opp. τὸ πολύ) 16:10; 19:17; 2 Cl 8:5 (on ἐν ἐ. cp. Mitt-Wilck. II/2, 372 V, 23f). ἐμοὶ εἰς ἐ. ἐστιν 1 Cor 4:3 (s. εἰμί 2cβ). Adv. ἐλάχιστον ἐξαμαρτεῖν sin a little Hs 8, 10, 1.—DELG s.v. ἐλαχύς. M-M. EDNT. TW.

ἐλέγχω fut. ἐλέγξω; 1 aor. ἤλεγξα LXX, impv. ἔλεγξον, inf. ἐλέγξαι; pass. ἠλέγχθην (Hom.+)

① to scrutinize or examine carefully, bring to light, expose, set forth (Aristoph., Eccl. 485; Herodian 3, 12, 4; PHib 55, 3 [250 B.C.] τὸν ποιμένα τ. ἐλέγξοντα περὶ ὧν μοι εἶπας) J 3:20; Eph 5:11, 13 (the darkness-light theme suggests exposure, with implication of censure); Dg 2:8. τὰ κρυπτά (Artem. 1, 68) IPhld 7:1. ταῦτα ἔλεγχε declare this Tit 2:15 (but s. 3 below); τ. ἁμαρτίας τινὸς πρὸς τὸν κύριον expose someone’s sins before the Lord Hv 1, 1, 5 (Jos., Vi. 339 τὰς πονηρίας ἐ.); demonstrate, prove (POxy 237 VIII, 40; Wsd 2:11; Ath. 30, 4) τὶ someth. Dg 9:6; οὐκ ἐλέγχετε= disprove 2:9.

② to bring a pers. to the point of recognizing wrongdoing, convict, convince someone of someth., point someth. out to someone (PAmh 33, 34 [157 B.C.]; BGU 1138, 13=Mitt-Wilck. II/2, 100, 13 [19/18 B.C.]; POxy 1032, 30; PStras 41, 31; Jos., Ant. 4, 219; SibOr 5, 34; Just., A I, 4, 6 αὐτὸν … ἁμαρτάνοντα; Ath. 2, 1 ἡμᾶς … ἀδικοῦντας; Just., D. 67, 2 ὅπως μήτε … μωραίνειν ἐλέγχησθε) τινά Tit 1:9, 13; Jd 22 v.l. (COsburn, ZNW 63, ’72, 139–44 [text]); 23 v.l.; περί w. gen. introduces the thing of which one is convicted or convinced (Aristoph., Plut. 574; Jos., C. Ap. 2, 5; PLips 43, 11 μάρτυρας τοὺς ἐλέγχοντας Θαῆσιν περὶ ἀφαιρέσεως βιβλίων χρειστιακῶν) J 8:46; 16:8 (s. δικαιοσύνη 3a end); Jd 15 (En 1:9). Pass. ἐ. ὑπό τινος Ac 6:10 v.l.; 1 Cor 14:24; ὑπὸ τ. συνειδήσεως ἐλεγχόμενοι J 8:9 v.l. (cp. Philo, De Jos. 48 ὑπὸ τοῦ συνειδότος ἐλεγχόμενος, Spec. Leg. 3, 54 al.); ἀπὸ τῆς ὀσμῆς ἐλέγχεσθαι be convicted (perh. tested) by the odor IMg 10:2. ἐλεγχόμενοι ὡς παραβάται convicted as transgressors Js 2:9; ἳνα … ὁ πόνηρὸς … ἐλεγχθῇ[το] μὴ ὤν θεός AcPlCor 2:15.

③ to express strong disapproval of someone’s action, reprove, correct (Aelian, VH 13, 25; Sir 20:2; 31:31; Pr 9:7f al.; Just. D. 107, 3) 2 Ti 4:2; τινά 1 Ti 5:20; D 2:7. W. the connotation of refuting (Diod S 13, 90, 4; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5, 28, end; PGM 4, 2620; Just., A I, 64, 6 al.; Ath. 18, 1 τὰ εἴδωλα; Tat. 8, 4 τὴν μαντικήν) πᾶσαν αἵρεσιν Epil Mosq 2.—τινὰ περί τινος Lk 3:19. τινὰ ἐπί τινι B 19:4. ἔλεγξον αὐτὸν μεταξὺ σοῦ καὶ αὐτοῦ μόνου show him his fault while you are alone w. him Mt 18:15 (cp. CD 9, 6–8 and s. Lev 19:17). Perh. Tit 2:15 belongs here (s. 1 above).

④ to penalize for wrongdoing, punish, discipline (Wsd 1:8; 12:2; Job 5:17 al.) Hb 12:5 (Pr 3:11); (w. παιδεύειν, as Sir 18:13) Rv 3:19.—LLutkemeyer, CBQ 8, ’46, 221–23.—B. 1442. DELG. M-M. TW.

ἐμπορεύομαι (s. three next entries) fut. ἐμπορεύσομαι; in gener lit. both in the sense of travel and of traveling for business reasons, but in our lit. only in commercial sense

① to carry on an activity involving buying and selling, be in business intr. carry on business (since Thu. 7, 13, 2; SIG 1166, 1; Sb 9066 I, 12; Ezk 27:13; TestJob) Js 4:13.

② to engage w. someone in a business transaction, buy and sell, trade in (oft. w. acc. of thing as obj. [Philo, Vi. Cont. 89; Jos., Bell. 1, 514, Ant. 4, 134]; rarely w. acc. of pers., cp. Achilles Tat. 8, 10, 11; Athen. 13, 25, 569f Ἀσπασία [a procurer] ἐνεπορεύετο πλήθη καλῶν γυναικῶν; Pr 3:14) in a neg. sense of misrepresentation of merchandise ὑμᾶς ἐμπορεύσονται they will exploit you 2 Pt 2:3 (cp. vs. 1 τὸν ἀγοράσαντα αὐτοὺς δεσπότην; on the theme of clever use of words s. Thu. 38, 12, 10).—B. 819. DELG s.v. ἔμπορος. M-M.

ἐνδεής, ές (s. δέησις, δέομαι; Soph., Hdt. et al.; ins, pap, LXX, Philo; Jos., Ant. 17, 175 al.; Ar. 11, 1; Just.; Tat. 5, 2; Ath., R. 61, 12 al.)

① pert. to being in need of material possessions, poor, impoverished, Ac 4:34 (cp. Dt 15:4).

② pert. to being relatively deficient in someth., such as knowledge, poorly instructed Hv 3, 1, 2. Comp. ἐνδεέστερος: ἐνδεέστερον γίνεσθαί τινος become needier than someone perh. in ref. to need of knowledge of the kind that the Shepherd provides m 8:10; apparently with the same theme ἑαυτὸν ἐ. ποιεῖν τινος 11:8 (as the context indicates, one who has the spirit from above does not parade knowledge but waits for the Holy Spirit to provide insight and then speaks).—DELG s.v. 2 δέω. M-M. TW.

ἐξορύσσω 1 aor. ἐξώρυξα (s. ὀρύσσω; Hdt. et al.; PHal 1, 100 and 109 [III B.C.]; LXX, Philo, Joseph.) to extract someth. out of an area by force

ⓐ of eyes tear out (so Hdt. 8, 116; Plut., Artox. 1018 [14, 10]; Lucian, D. Deor. 1, 1; Jos., Ant. 6, 71; 1 Km 11:2; Judg 16:21 A) Gal 4:15 (the eye as a precious member: Aeschyl., Sept. 530; Moschus 4, 9; Callim., H. 3, 211; Artem. 1, 25; Heliod. 2, 16, 4 the beloved is ὀφθαλμὸς κ. ψυχὴ κ. πάντα ἐμαυτῆς; Eustath. Macremb. 6, 10 Ζεῦ Πάτερ, μή μου τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς ἐκκόψῃς. On the theme of sacrifice of eyes for others s. Lucian, Tox.; Betz, Hermeneia Gal. ad loc.).—JBligh, TU 102, ’68, 382f.

ⓑ of a roof dig through Mk 2:4, prob. in ref. to making an opening by digging through the clay of which the roof was made (ABertholet, Kulturgesch. Israels 1920, 122; CMcCown, JBL 58, ’39, 213–16; BHHW I 311), and putting the debris to one side (ἐ. of debris that has been dug out Hdt. 2, 150; 7, 23), so that it does not fall on the heads of those in the house.—S. στέγη.—M-M.